1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
War rape
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Wartime sexual violence may also include gang rape and rape with objects. It is distinguished from sexual assaults and rape committed amongst troops in military service and it also covers the situation where girls and women are forced into prostitution or sexual slavery by an occupying power. During war and armed conflict, rape is used as a means of psychological warfare in order to humiliate the enemy. Rape can also be recognized as genocide and/or ethnic cleansing when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, There are other international legal instruments to prosecute perpetrators but this has occurred as late as the 1990s. The terms rape, sexual assault and sexual violence are used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition of war rape. Lawlessness during wars and civil conflicts can create a culture of impunity towards human rights abuses of civilians, among some armies, looting of civilian areas is considered a way for soldiers to supplement their often meager income, which can be unstable if soldiers are not paid on time. Some militias that cannot afford to pay their troops promote pillaging as a compensation for victory. Dara Kay Cohen argues that some groups use gang rape to bond soldiers and create a sense of cohesion within units. Amnesty International argues that in modern conflicts rape is used deliberately as a military strategy, gayatri Chakravorty Spivak characterizes group rape perpetrated by the conquerors as a metonymic celebration of territorial acquisition. Some refugees and internally displaced people experience human trafficking for sexual or labour due to the breakdown of economies. In some conflicts, rape is used as a means of extracting information to force women, susan Brownmiller was the first historian to attempt an overview of rape in war with documentation and theory. Brownmillers thesis is that War provides men with the perfect backdrop to give vent to their contempt for women. Kelly Dawn Askin observes that increasingly, the victims of war are civilians, an estimated forty-five million plus civilians died during World War II. Male and female civilians may be subject to torture, but many studies show that war rape is more frequently perpetrated on women than men. This may be due to the reluctance of men to forward with accusations of being raped, and also an institutional bias amongst NGOs. However rape against women is also underrerported, perpetrators of sexual violence against women and children commonly include not only enemy civilians and troops but also allied and national civilians and even comrades in arms. The victims of war rape are usually civilians, a category first recognized in the 19th century, although war rape of women is documented throughout history, laws protecting civilians in armed conflict have tended not to recognize sexual assault on women
3.
Mass murder
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Mass murder is the act of murdering a number of people, typically simultaneously or over a relatively short period of time and in close geographic proximity. The FBI defines mass murder as murdering four or more persons during an event with no cooling-off period between the murders, a mass murder typically occurs in a single location where one or more people kill several others. Many acts of mass murder end with the perpetrator dying by suicide or suicide by cop, a mass murder may be committed by individuals or organizations whereas a spree killing is committed by one or two individuals. Mass murder is the hypernym of genocide, which requires additional criteria, some of these mass murders have been found to be genocides and others to be crimes against humanity, but often such crimes have led to few or no convictions of any type. The concept of state-sponsored mass murder covers a range of potential killings and it is defined as the intentional and indiscriminate murder of a large number of people by government agents. Examples are shooting of unarmed protesters, lobbing of grenades into prison cells, actions in which the state caused the death of large numbers of people, which political scientist R. J. Many terrorist groups in recent times have used the tactic of killing many victims to fulfill their political aims, certain cults, especially religious cults, have committed a number of mass killings and mass murder-suicides. Mass murderers may fall into any of a number of categories, including killers of family, of coworkers, of students, a notable motivation for mass murder is revenge, but other motivations are possible, including the need for attention or fame. Average response time by law enforcement to a shooting is typically much longer than the time the shooter is engaged in killing. In many instances, immediate action by victims, bystanders, or law enforcement officers has saved lives, commentators have pointed out that there are a wide variety of ways that homicides with more than several victims might be classified. Such incidents can be, and have been even in recent decades, classified many different ways including as a shooting, as a school shooting, as mass murder. As a crime involving a rifle, as a case of a mentally ill person committing acts of violence. How such rarely occurring incidents of homicide are classified tends to change significantly with time and it was understood that the key feature of cases was a high body count. Place, Did the killings occur in a location, or in a variety of places. Method, How were the victims killed, in the late decades of the 20th century and early years of the 2000s, the most popular classifications moved to include method, time and place. Crimes against humanity List of mass murderers List of rampage killers Mass grave Massacre School shooting Suicide attack Terrorism War crime What makes a Mass Killer. Mass Murder, A Small Persons Way to Immortality Mass shootings interactive map Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence The real causes of mass murder by James Alan Fox
4.
502nd Infantry Regiment (United States)
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Template, Use American 202 English The 502nd Infantry Regiment, previously titled the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment, is an airborne infantry regiment of the United States Army. S. The regiment saw action in the European Theater of World War II and was deactivated in 1945. It was removed from parachute status with the rest of the 101st Airborne Division in 1969, and since 1974, currently, its 1st and 2nd battalions are active. Both battalions are assigned to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, the conceptual history of the American airborne started with thinkers ranging from Benjamin Franklin through World War I Army Air Corps General Billy Mitchell. The Soviet Union had used combat parachute assaults in Finland in the Winter War, but the real beginning was the German invasion of Crete in May 1940. This isolated rocky island in the Mediterranean was British held and heavily fortified, so rather than attempt a beach landing, the terrain heavily favored the defenders, and the German Fallschirmjäger units took losses so heavy that Adolf Hitler never approved another large scale parachute operation again. That didn’t matter to Allied war planners, what mattered was that a key piece of terrain had been taken entirely by airborne assets. This was a development that America couldn’t match yet. Within thirty days, the original 48-man Parachute Test Platoon was formed at Fort Benning, four parachute infantry battalions were planned to follow. On 1 July 1941, the 502nd Parachute Infantry Battalion was activated at Fort Benning under the command of Major George P. Howell, he’d been the former executive officer of the 501st Parachute Infantry Battalion. This new unit was composed of two skeleton companies sliced off from the 501st. The Deuce lacked everything from parachutes to small arms and this kept the 502nd understrength until more men could be recruited at Fort Jackson, South Carolina and Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Plans for the two battalions had to be put on hold because there were no more men or equipment on hand at Benning. In order to qualify, one had to make five jumps, with one night jump, the Army Air Force supplied the Battalion with three C-39 type airplanes per week. The planes came from different air transport and cargo commands, each group that came to Fort Benning had a different identifying patch that was worn on the left breast of the flying suit. MAJ William M. Miley, Commander of the 501st PIB, decided that the 501st should have a patch to identify it, CPT William P. Yarborough was given the assignment. He drew up a patch which was approved and is still the patch of the 501st, when the 502nd PIB was activated 1 July 1941, MAJ George P. Howell, 502nd Commander, gave me the task or assignment of coming up with a distinctive patch. I designated the one that is now worn and cherished by the 502nd Regiment and our operations sergeant, an artist, did the finishing work on it
5.
101st Airborne Division
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The 101st Airborne Division is an elite modular specialized light infantry division of the United States Army trained for air assault operations. It is the most potent and tactically mobile of the U. S. Armys divisions and these particular operations are conducted by highly mobile teams and they are quite often executed behind enemy lines. Its unique battlefield mobility and high level of training have kept the Division in the vanguard of Americas land combat forces in recent conflicts, more recently, the 101st Airborne has been performing foreign internal defense and counter-terrorism operations within Iraq and Afghanistan. The 101st Airborne Division has a nearly century-long history, during the Vietnam War, the 101st Airborne Division fought in several major campaigns and battles including the Battle of Hamburger Hill in May 1969. In mid-1968 it was reorganized and redesignated as an airmobile division and these titles reflect the divisions shift from airplanes as the primary method of delivering troops into combat, to the use of helicopters. Many current members of the 101st are graduates of the U. S. Army Air Assault School, Division headquarters is at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. In recent years, the division has served in Iraq and Afghanistan, the division is one of the most highly decorated units in the United States Army and has been featured prominently in military fiction. The 101st is currently the only air assault division, capable, in a single lift, of a 4. It is supported by more than 280 helicopters and this includes three battalions of Apache attack helicopters. At times, additional air assets are assigned to the 101st Airborne during deployment, the 101st Airborne also comprises intelligence support, maintenance and operations elements, support personnel, and artillery specialists. Assisting the 101st Airborne Division is an array of support elements, equipment. The 101st is considered a versatile, very flexible. The 101st has the capability to move long distances, the 101st can put soldiers down on top of mountains, ridge lines, and behind the enemy forces and can sling-load in artillery pieces for indirect fire. It is considered a unit of choice and it has the ability to secure sites, airfields. The 101st Division headquarters was organized 2 November 1918 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, World War I ended 9 days later, and was demobilized on 11 December 1918. In 1921, the headquarters was reconstituted in the Organized Reserves. It was at time that the Screaming Eagle became associated with the division. As part of the reorganization of the 101st as a division in the Army of the United States
6.
Gang rape
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Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur throughout the world, systematic information and statistics on the extent of the problem, however is limited. One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance, the two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault. Gang rape is sometimes referred to as rape, party rape. Gang rapes often involve three or more men as perpetrators, gang rapes are more violent, the sexual and non-sexual injuries to the victim are often far more severe. The gang members typically dehumanize their target victim before and during the rape, porter and Alison have analyzed 739 gang rape cases from US and UK, and found over 20% of the gang rape victims died from injuries from the gang rape. A2013 study based on 25 year crime data from US and Europe, less than one in three gang rapes are reported, while less than 1 in 20 attempted but failed gang rapes are reported. Most cases were not reported to law enforcement, and just 23% of single or multiple perpetrator rapes that were reported by the victims ended in prison sentence. Everywhere there is a tendency to blame the victim, however, gang rapes are almost always premeditated in their intent, target victim, social proof, certain events such as civil wars, hate propaganda, and ethnic conflicts increase the incidence rate of gang rapes. According to one study, over 70% of the victims were raped by rapists of same race. Most covered and debated gang rapes tend to be those involving victim, gang rape can be interpreted as an example of a group criminal spin. Accordingly, a group of individuals may perform a behavior that proceeds in a criminal direction far beyond the initial intention of its participants. It is considered a group criminal spin because the most gang members perform this act only during a group interaction, in the same way, a group interaction may display an I must motive, thus social forces within the group directs it towards raping. This is an incomplete list of countries, where government and/or media have acknowledged the problem of gang rape. A2013 Lancet study reports 1. 9% of all men in Bangladesh have committed multiple perpetrator rape of a woman who was not a partner. 35% of those who have committed gang rapes against women have committed additional rapes where the victim was a man. The motives of rape included a combination of reasons, gang rape, or estupro coletivo, is prevalent in Brazil
7.
Iraqis
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For The Iraqis political party, refer to The Iraqis The Iraqi people are the citizens of the modern country of Iraq. Arabs have had a presence in Mesopotamia since the Sasanian Empire. Arabic was spoken by the majority in the Kingdom of Araba in the first and second centuries, Arabs were common in Mesopotamia at the time of the Seleucid Empire. The first Arab kingdom outside of Arabia was established in Iraqs Al-Hirah in the third century, Kurds who are Iraqi citizens live in the Zagros Mountains of northeast Iraq to the east of the upper Tigris. Arabic and Kurdish are Iraqs national languages, in ancient and medieval times Mesopotamia was the political and cultural centre of many great empires, such as the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, and Babylonia. The ancient Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer is the oldest known civilization in the world, Iraq remained an important centre of civilization for millennia, up until the Abbasid Caliphate, which was the most advanced empire of the medieval world. One study found that Haplogroup J-M172 originated in northern Iraq, Iraqi mitochondrial DNA haplogroup distribution is similar to that of Iran, Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, whereas it substantially differs from that observed in Yemen. Iraqi Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup distribution is similar to that of Kuwait, Lebanon, Turkey, no significant differences in Y-DNA variation were observed among Iraqi Arabs, Assyrians, or Kurds in the study because of very small sample sizes for Kurds and Assyrians. Modern genetic studies indicate that Iraqi Arabs and Iraqi Kurds are distantly related, the Assyrian Christian population is fairly related to other Iraqis, and also to Jordanians, yet due to religious endogamy have a distinct genetic profile that distinguishes their population. The Assyrians are a homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq they are Christians and are bona fide descendants of their namesakes. Most North-West and Central Iraqis who today speak Arabic are originally of Assyrian roots, studies have reported that most Irish and Britons have ancestry to Neolithic farmers who left modern day Iraq, Jordan and Syria 10,000 years ago. Genetic researchers say they have found compelling evidence that, on average, in another study, scientists analysed DNA from the 8, 000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in Germany. They compared the signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in todays Turkey. Iraqis have historically been a multilingual, multiethnic people, conversant in several languages, Iraqi identity transcends ethnic and language boundaries, and is more associated with geography, the Tigris–Euphrates alluvial plain and its environs. The shared identity and culture of Iraqi people is most commonly seen in the Iraqi cuisine, nowadays, the demonym Iraqi includes all ethnic minorities in the country, such as the Assyrians, Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen. Iraqis trace their ancestry back to the ancient people of the land, and are proud of their ancient Mesopotamian roots and legacy, Iraqs national languages are Arabic and the Kurdish languages. Arabic is spoken as a first language by around 79 percent of Iraqi people, the two main regional dialects of Arabic spoken by the Iraqi people are Mesopotamian Arabic and North Mesopotamian Arabic. The two main dialects of Kurdish spoken by Kurdish Iraqis are Central Kurdish and Northern Kurdish, in addition to Arabic, most Assyrians and Mandaeans speak Neo-Aramaic languages
8.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
9.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
10.
Security checkpoint
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Civilian checkpoints have been employed within conflict-ridden areas all over the world to monitor and control the movement of people and materials in order to prevent violence. Though practices and enforcement vary, checkpoints have been used in, colombia, by military and paramilitary forces. Palestinian territories, by the Israeli Defence Force, mexico, by military and police forces. Since the terrorist bombings in Pakistan, they are seen across all over Pakistan specially on entrance. Checkpoints provide many advantages, including the ability to control how people enter so that security personnel can screen entrants to identify known troublemakers, checkpoints typically lead to hardship for the affected civilians, though these effects range from inconvenience to mortal danger. Bir Zeit University, for example, has conducted several studies highlighting the effects of checkpoints in the Palestinian territories
11.
Triangle of Death (Iraq)
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The major terrain feature of the Triangle of Death is the Euphrates River, which borders the Triangle to the southwest. The terrain is mostly farm land, but is sliced by many irrigation ditches and these farms are usually small, being maintained by the families that own the land. The weather is generally consistent with the rest of Iraq, with the exception of increased humidity due to the proximity to the Euphrates River. Musayyib is home to the Musayyib Power Plant, a frequent target of insurgent attacks due to its infrastructure importance, the power plant would be capable of supplying between one quarter and one third of Iraqs electricity demands if it were fully operational. As of October 2006, it was at roughly 33% of its maximum potential output. Because of the fire attacks on the facility, and the kidnapping of American soldiers to the area. Attacks diminished due to increased security in 2007 and with an increase in the security situation of Babil Province in 2008. After the fall of the Hussein Regime, the population suffered from unemployment. One city in the Northern Babil Governorate, al Hillah, has been a frequent target of insurgent attacks, as of January 2006, al Hillah has seen the single most deadly suicide bombing in the Iraq War when on 28 February 2005125 Iraqis were killed. Other suicide attacks on 30 May 2005,30 May 2006, on 16 July 2005, Musayyib saw one of the most savage attacks of the war, when a suicide bomber driving a fuel truck detonated himself and the fuel truck killing at least 98 Iraqis. The Triangle of Death has also used as the staging area for attacks in Baghdad. The Triangle of Death saw several deadly sectarian attacks during the 2007 Ashura celebrations, even though most insurgent attacks in the Triangle of Death are against Iraqi civilian and Iraqi government forces, U. S. forces have also been the target of a variety of attacks. On June 16,2006, one American soldier was killed and their remains were found four days later, on the side of a canal road near Patrol Base Swamp in Shakaria. The bodies were discovered by SFC Jason Beaton, of 3rd Platoon, B Company, 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment. The report from the U. S. Army Graves Registration team indicated that the bodies had been dismembered, mutilated, burned and beheaded, the ambush left five soldiers dead and three missing. Numerous units have been stationed in the Triangle of Death since 2003, another contributing factor to the decline in violence was the implementation of concerned citizen groups in the region conducting their own patrols of several tribal areas. The towns and villages of the Triangle of Death are under the control of the Iraqi Government following many battles to control over the area of which Operation Ashura is the most significant. Iraqi leader of police unit dies in blast
12.
Affidavit
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An affidavit is a written sworn statement of fact voluntarily made by an affiant or deponent under an oath or affirmation administered by a person authorized to do so by law. Such statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the signature by a taker of oaths. The name is Medieval Latin for he/she has declared upon oath and it is done with the help of court, with a stamp paper. Affidavits may be written in the first or third person, depending on who drafted the document, in some cases, an introductory clause, called a preamble, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight. In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, affidavit is treated as evidence within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of an order of the Court. Affidavits are made in a way as to England and Wales. A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths, the person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not sign the affidavit. In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an affidavit as evidence is unusual with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witnesss recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence, affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn, some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent, the acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court is not a given, thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues
13.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
14.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
15.
Sergeant
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Sergeant is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. Its origin is the Latin serviens, one who serves, through the French term sergent, the term sergeant refers to a non-commissioned officer placed above the rank of a corporal and a police officer immediately below a lieutenant. In most armies the rank of sergeant corresponds to command of a squad, in Commonwealth armies, it is a more senior rank, corresponding roughly to a platoon second-in-command. In the United States Army, sergeant is a junior rank corresponding to a four-soldier fireteam leader. More senior non-commissioned ranks are often variations on sergeant, for example staff sergeant, many countries use sergeant rank, whether in English or using a cognate with the same origin in another language. The equivalent rank in Arab armies is raqeeb, meaning overseer or watcher, in medieval European usage, a sergeant was simply any attendant or officer with a protective duty. Any medieval knight or military order of knighthood might have sergeants-at-arms, the etymology of the term is from Anglo-French sergant, serjant servant, valet, court official, soldier, from Middle Latin servientem servant, vassal, soldier. Later, a sergeant was a man of what would now be thought of as the middle class. Sergeants could fight either as heavy to light cavalry, or as well trained professional infantry, most notable medieval mercenaries fell into the sergeant class, such as Flemish crossbowmen and spearmen, who were seen as reliable quality troops. The sergeant class was deemed to be half of a knight in military value. A specific kind of military sergeant was the serjeant-at-arms, one of a body of armed men retained by English lords, the title is now given to an officer in modern legislative bodies who is charged with keeping order during meetings and, if necessary, forcibly removing disruptive members. The responsibilities of a sergeant differ from army to army, there are usually several ranks of sergeant, each corresponding to greater experience and responsibility for the daily lives of the soldiers of larger units. Sergeant is a rank in both the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force, the ranks are equivalent to each other and the Royal Australian Navy rank of petty officer. The Australian Army rank of sergeant is now redundant and is no longer awarded, due to being outside the rank equivalencies. Chief petty officers and flight sergeants are not required to call a warrant officer class two sir in accordance with Australian Defence Force Regulations 1952. The rank of sergeant exists in all Australian police forces and is more senior than a constable or senior constable, New South Wales Police Force, for example, has the additional rank of incremental sergeant. This is a progression, following appointment as a sergeant for seven years. An incremental sergeant rank is less senior than a senior sergeant but is more senior than a sergeant, upon appointment as a sergeant or senior sergeant, the sergeant is given a warrant of appointment under the commissioners hand and seal
16.
Iraqi Army
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The Iraqi Army, officially the Iraqi Ground Forces, is the ground force component of the Iraqi military, having been active in various incarnations throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The Iraqi Army in its form was first created by the United Kingdom during the inter-war period of de facto British control of Mandatory Iraq. Following the invasion of Iraq by U. S. forces in 2003, because of the Iraqi insurgency that began shortly after the invasion, the Iraqi Army was later designed to initially be a counter-insurgency force. With the withdrawal of U. S. troops in 2011, the threat of war with newly forming Republic of Turkey, which claimed the Ottoman vilayet of Mosul as part of their country, led the British to form the Iraqi Army on 6 January 1921. The Mussa Al-Kadhum Brigade consisted of officers, whose barracks were located in Kadhimyah. The United Kingdom provided support and training to the Iraqi Army, Iraqi Army Day celebrates the soldiers that fight for Iraq. From 1533 to 1918, Iraq was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, after 1917, the United Kingdom took control of the country. The first Iraqi military forces established by the British were the Iraq Levies, in August 1921, the British installed Hashemite King Faisal I as the client ruler of the British Mandate of Iraq. Faisal had been forced out as the King of Syria by the French, likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices in Iraq. The British and the Iraqis formalized the relationship between the two nations with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1922, with Faisals ascension to the throne, the Iraqi Army became the Royal Iraqi Army. In 1922, the army totalled 3,618 men and this was well below the 6,000 men requested by the Iraqi monarchy and even less than the British set limit of 4,500. Unattractive salaries hindered early recruiting efforts, at this time, the United Kingdom maintained the right to levy local forces like the British-officered Iraq Levies which were under direct British control. With a strength of 4,984 men, the Iraq Levies outnumbered the army with its British set limit of 4,500 men. In 1924, the RIrA grew to 5,772 men and and it was to stay at 7,500 men until 1933. The force now had six battalions, three cavalry regiments, two mountain regiments, and one field battery. In 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq was granted official independence, the pro-British faction was represented by politicians such as Nuri as-Said who did not oppose a continued British presence. The anti-British faction was represented by such as Rashid Ali al-Gaylani who demanded that remaining British influence in the country be removed. From 1936 to 1941, five coups by the RIrA occurred during each year led by the officers of the Army against the government to pressure the government to concede to Army demands
17.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
18.
Thomas Lowell Tucker
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On 16 June 2006, a U. S. checkpoint near Baghdad was attacked. One of the three American soldiers manning the checkpoint was killed, and the two others, Menchaca and Tucker, were abducted and those two were recovered three days later, according to an Iraqi spokesman “killed in a very brutal way and tortured”. S. brigade. The three soldiers were ambushed resulting in Babineau being killed in action, and Menchaca and Tucker being captured. The other platoon members nearby heard small arms fire at 7,49 p. m. and arrived at the checkpoint 25 minutes later, finding Babineau dead and Menchaca and Tucker missing. Somewhere between the 16th and 19th of June—the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker were tied to the back of a pickup truck and dragged through the village of Yusufiyah. During the night on Monday,19 June, American soldiers spotted the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker. The bodies were discovered by SFC Jason Beaton, 3rd Platoon, B Co, aware of roadside bombs, they waited until daylight the morning of 20 June to go and retrieve Menchaca and Tucker. An Iraqi General said Tuesday 20 June, Menchaca and Tucker had been “killed in a brutal way. U. S. S. for DNA testing to identify them. On 10 July 2006, the Mujahedeen Shura Council issued a 4,39 minute video showing the corpses of Menchaca. The video begins with a message stating that video is presented as ”revenge for our sister who was dishonored by a soldier of the same brigade”. U. S. officials said on 11 July 2006, the released MSC video “demonstrates the barbaric and brutal nature of the terrorists, Lt. Gen. James D. Thurman, Commander of Multi-National Division-Baghdad in Iraq in 2006, ordered a military investigation into the whole affair. The investigating officer, Lt. Col. T. Daugherty recommended letters of reprimand as penalty for two officers, a lieutenant and a captain. General Thurman however decided to a penalty, removal of those two officers from their commands. In addition, administrative actions were taken against several other officers, in October 2008, an Iraqi court convicted and sentenced to death Ibrahim Karim Muhammed Salih al-Qaraghuli for the abduction, torture, and killing of Menchaca and Tucker. Expert testimony linked al-Qaraghulis fingerprints to bloody prints found on the used to drag the bodies of Tucker. Two additional suspects were acquitted by the court for lack of evidence, the court partially relied on statements of six witnesses who all had refused to show up in court. American officials stated that DNA evidence was recovered that tied a second defendant to the killings and that evidence however was not addressed by the court due to their refusal to use an American DNA expert and the lack of an available Iraqi expert
19.
Kristian Menchaca
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On 16 June 2006, a U. S. checkpoint near Baghdad was attacked. One of the three American soldiers manning the checkpoint was killed, and the two others, Menchaca and Tucker, were abducted and those two were recovered three days later, according to an Iraqi spokesman “killed in a very brutal way and tortured”. S. brigade. The three soldiers were ambushed resulting in Babineau being killed in action, and Menchaca and Tucker being captured. The other platoon members nearby heard small arms fire at 7,49 p. m. and arrived at the checkpoint 25 minutes later, finding Babineau dead and Menchaca and Tucker missing. Somewhere between the 16th and 19th of June—the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker were tied to the back of a pickup truck and dragged through the village of Yusufiyah. During the night on Monday,19 June, American soldiers spotted the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker. The bodies were discovered by SFC Jason Beaton, 3rd Platoon, B Co, aware of roadside bombs, they waited until daylight the morning of 20 June to go and retrieve Menchaca and Tucker. An Iraqi General said Tuesday 20 June, Menchaca and Tucker had been “killed in a brutal way. U. S. S. for DNA testing to identify them. On 10 July 2006, the Mujahedeen Shura Council issued a 4,39 minute video showing the corpses of Menchaca. The video begins with a message stating that video is presented as ”revenge for our sister who was dishonored by a soldier of the same brigade”. U. S. officials said on 11 July 2006, the released MSC video “demonstrates the barbaric and brutal nature of the terrorists, Lt. Gen. James D. Thurman, Commander of Multi-National Division-Baghdad in Iraq in 2006, ordered a military investigation into the whole affair. The investigating officer, Lt. Col. T. Daugherty recommended letters of reprimand as penalty for two officers, a lieutenant and a captain. General Thurman however decided to a penalty, removal of those two officers from their commands. In addition, administrative actions were taken against several other officers, in October 2008, an Iraqi court convicted and sentenced to death Ibrahim Karim Muhammed Salih al-Qaraghuli for the abduction, torture, and killing of Menchaca and Tucker. Expert testimony linked al-Qaraghulis fingerprints to bloody prints found on the used to drag the bodies of Tucker. Two additional suspects were acquitted by the court for lack of evidence, the court partially relied on statements of six witnesses who all had refused to show up in court. American officials stated that DNA evidence was recovered that tied a second defendant to the killings and that evidence however was not addressed by the court due to their refusal to use an American DNA expert and the lack of an available Iraqi expert
20.
Torture
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Torture is the act of deliberately inflicting physical or psychological pain on an organism in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or compel some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act, in other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible. Although torture is sanctioned by some states, it is prohibited under international law, although widely illegal and reviled there is an ongoing debate as to what exactly is and is not legally defined to be torture. It is a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Torture is also prohibited for the signatories of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, despite these findings and international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which is currently in force since June 26,1987, provides a broad definition of torture. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to and this definition includes torture as part of domestic violence or ritualistic abuse, as well as in criminal activities. The Rome Statute is the treaty set up the International Criminal Court. The treaty was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. The Rome Statute provides a simplest definition of torture regarding the prosecution of war criminals by the International Criminal Court, since 1973, Amnesty International has adopted the simplest, broadest definition of torture. Title 18 of the United States Code contains the definition of torture in 18 U. S. C, §2340, which is only applicable to persons committing or attempting to commit torture outside of the United States. The Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 provides remedies to individuals who are victims of torture by persons acting in a capacity of any foreign nation. The definition is similar to the U. S. Code §2340, Torture grew into an ornate discipline, where calibrated violence served two functions, to investigate and produce confessions and to attack the body as a form of punishment. Entire populaces of towns would show up to witness an execution by torture in the public square and those who had been spared torture were commonly locked barefooted into the stocks, where children took delight in rubbing feces into their hair and mouths. The Age of Enlightenment in the world further developed the idea of universal human rights. The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 marks the recognition at least nominally of a ban of torture by all UN member states
21.
June 2006 abduction of U.S. soldiers in Iraq
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On 16 June 2006, a U. S. checkpoint near Baghdad was attacked. One of the three American soldiers manning the checkpoint was killed, and the two others, Menchaca and Tucker, were abducted and those two were recovered three days later, according to an Iraqi spokesman “killed in a very brutal way and tortured”. S. brigade. The three soldiers were ambushed resulting in Babineau being killed in action, and Menchaca and Tucker being captured. The other platoon members nearby heard small arms fire at 7,49 p. m. and arrived at the checkpoint 25 minutes later, finding Babineau dead and Menchaca and Tucker missing. Somewhere between the 16th and 19th of June—the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker were tied to the back of a pickup truck and dragged through the village of Yusufiyah. During the night on Monday,19 June, American soldiers spotted the bodies of Menchaca and Tucker. The bodies were discovered by SFC Jason Beaton, 3rd Platoon, B Co, aware of roadside bombs, they waited until daylight the morning of 20 June to go and retrieve Menchaca and Tucker. An Iraqi General said Tuesday 20 June, Menchaca and Tucker had been “killed in a brutal way. U. S. S. for DNA testing to identify them. On 10 July 2006, the Mujahedeen Shura Council issued a 4,39 minute video showing the corpses of Menchaca. The video begins with a message stating that video is presented as ”revenge for our sister who was dishonored by a soldier of the same brigade”. U. S. officials said on 11 July 2006, the released MSC video “demonstrates the barbaric and brutal nature of the terrorists, Lt. Gen. James D. Thurman, Commander of Multi-National Division-Baghdad in Iraq in 2006, ordered a military investigation into the whole affair. The investigating officer, Lt. Col. T. Daugherty recommended letters of reprimand as penalty for two officers, a lieutenant and a captain. General Thurman however decided to a penalty, removal of those two officers from their commands. In addition, administrative actions were taken against several other officers, in October 2008, an Iraqi court convicted and sentenced to death Ibrahim Karim Muhammed Salih al-Qaraghuli for the abduction, torture, and killing of Menchaca and Tucker. Expert testimony linked al-Qaraghulis fingerprints to bloody prints found on the used to drag the bodies of Tucker. Two additional suspects were acquitted by the court for lack of evidence, the court partially relied on statements of six witnesses who all had refused to show up in court. American officials stated that DNA evidence was recovered that tied a second defendant to the killings and that evidence however was not addressed by the court due to their refusal to use an American DNA expert and the lack of an available Iraqi expert
22.
Mujahideen Shura Council (Iraq)
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In mid-October 2006, a statement was released, stating that the Mujahideen Shura Council had been disbanded, and was replaced by the Islamic State of Iraq. On January 152006, in a statement posted to the jihadist website Hanin Net and it was formed to resist efforts by the American and Iraqi authorities to win over Sunni supporters of the insurgency. Determining a clear position toward developments and incidents so that people can see things clearly and it united AQI with five other insurgent groups opposed to U. S. and coalition and Iraqi forces. Other sources called the council Mujahideen Shura Council in Iraq or Mujaheddin Consultative Council, on or before April 25,2006, a videotape of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was released bearing the organizations logo. Little is known about the structure of the Council, in large part due to the shadowy nature of the organization itself. Al Qaeda in Iraq was the most powerful and visible group, elements of the Shura Councils organization from the top to the bottom remain fluid due both to the nature of its aims and methods as well as its loose confederation. It was speculated that the group was dominated by al Qaeda in Iraq, MSC, including AQI, on 12 October 2006 announced their “Mutayibeen Coalition” consisting of MSC, three smaller insurgent groups, and six ‘loyal’ Anbar Sunni tribes counting 300,000 members. Abu Omar al-Baghdadi was being announced as the self-proclaimed states Emir, a Mujahideen Shura Council leader said, God willing we will set the law of Sharia here and we will fight the Americans. In reality, the group was not known to any territory in Iraq yet. Following the announcement, scores of gunmen took part in parades in Ramadi. In November, a statement was issued by Abu Ayyub al-Masri, leader of Mujahideen Shura Council, announcing the disbanding of the MSC, in favor of the ISI
23.
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
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ISIL gained global prominence in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. This group has been designated a terrorist organisation by the United Nations, ISIL is widely known for its videos of beheadings of both soldiers and civilians, including journalists and aid workers, and its destruction of cultural heritage sites. The United Nations holds ISIL responsible for human rights abuses and war crimes, ISIL originated as Jamaat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in 1999, which pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda and participated in the Iraqi insurgency following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by Western forces. The group proclaimed itself a caliphate and began referring to itself as Islamic State or IS in June 2014. As a caliphate, it claims religious, political, and military authority over all Muslims worldwide and its adoption of the name Islamic State and its idea of a caliphate have been widely criticised, with the United Nations, various governments, and mainstream Muslim groups rejecting its statehood. As of 2015, ISIL is estimated to have a budget of more than USD$1 billion. In April 2013, having expanded into Syria, the group adopted the name ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah fī l-ʿIrāq wa-sh-Shām, while the use of either one or the other acronym has been the subject of debate, the distinction between the two and its relevance has been considered not so great. Of greater relevance is the name Daesh, which is an acronym of ISILs Arabic name al-Dawlah al-Islamīyah fī al-ʻIrāq wa-al-Shām. This name has been used by ISILs Arabic-speaking detractors, although – and to a certain extent because – it is considered derogatory, as it resembles the Arabic words Daes. Within areas under its control, ISIL considers use of the name Daesh punishable by flogging or cutting out the tongue, in late June 2014, the group renamed itself ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah, declaring itself a worldwide caliphate. The name Islamic State and the claim to be a caliphate have been widely rejected, with the UN, various governments. Frances Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius said This is a terrorist group, I do not recommend using the term Islamic State because it blurs the lines between Islam, Muslims, and Islamists. The Arabs call it Daesh and I will be calling them the Daesh cutthroats, the group is very sensitive about its name. They will cut your tongue out even if you call them ISIS – you have to say Islamic State, the Islamic State is mocked on social media websites such as Twitter and YouTube, with the use of hashtags, mock recruiting ads, fake news articles and YouTube videos. ISIL is a theocracy, proto-state and a Salafi or Wahhabi group and it follows an extremist interpretation of Islam, promotes religious violence, and regards Muslims who do not agree with its interpretations as infidels or apostates. According to some observers, ISIL emerged from the ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and it adheres to global jihadist principles and follows the hard-line ideology of al-Qaeda and many other modern-day jihadist groups. However, other sources trace the roots to Wahhabism. For their guiding principles, the leaders of the Islamic State, are open and clear about their almost exclusive commitment to the Wahhabi movement of Sunni Islam
24.
The Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
25.
Targeted killing
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Targeted killing is a form of assassination based on the presumption of criminal guilt. By definition, targeted or named killings do not occur in any other than a declared state of war. Some analysts believe it to be a euphemism for the assassination of an individual by a state organization or institution outside a judicial procedure or a battlefield. Targeted killings were employed extensively by death squads in El Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Targeted killings have also been used in Somalia, Rwanda, and in the Balkans during the Yugoslav Wars. The United States government also carries out targeted killings, such as the killing of Anwar al-Awlaki, Targeted killings have also been used by narcotics traffickers. Use of targeted killings by Israeli conventional military forces became commonplace after the Second Intifada, though initially opposed by the Bush Administration, targeted killings have become a frequent tactic of the United States government in the War on Terror. Under the Obama administration use of targeted killings has expanded, most frequently through use of combat drones operating in Afghanistan, Pakistan or Yemen, the legality of targeted killing is disputed. They argue that drones are more humane and more accurate than manned vehicles, the report relied upon figures provided by the Roman Catholic Church and included allegations of torture and summary executions. Americas Watch and other groups reported targeted killing of civilians by the Nicaraguan Sandinista government in the following year during its campaign against the Contras. Politically motivated targeted killings of trade unionists and activists were also recorded in Costa Rica Haiti, referring to killings by drug cartels in Washington, D. C. mayor Marion Barry infamously stated, Washington should not be called the murder capital of the world. We are the capital of the world. Barry went on to explain that targeted killings by D. C. s cartels were comparable to those during the days of Al Capone, similarly, drug-related mob hits in Moscow were euphemistically described as targeted killings by the Cox News Service and Atlanta Journal-Constitution in the 1990s. During fighting in the Somali Civil War, Sean Devereux described torture and killing by warlords in Kismayo as targeted killings, also in Africa, Reuters described targeted killings of political opponents by Hutu army and militias in Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide. The American State Department reported the politically targeted killings were a prelude to general massacres in Rwanda, chechen sources said that the letter was coated with a fast-acting nerve agent, possibly sarin or a derivative. Yandarbiyev was seriously wounded and died in hospital and his 13-year-old son Daud was seriously injured. The day after the attack, Qatari authorities arrested three Russians in a Russian embassy villa, there were some speculations that Fetisov had been released in exchange for Qatari wrestlers detained in Moscow. On 30 June 2004, both Russians were sentenced to imprisonment, passing the sentence, the judge stated that they had acted on orders from the Russian leadership. But on 23 December 2004, Qatar agreed to extradite the prisoners to Russia, the agents however received a heroes welcome on returning to Moscow in January 2005 but disappeared from public view shortly afterwards
26.
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
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Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, born Ahmad Fadeel al-Nazal al-Khalayleh, was a militant Islamist from Jordan who ran a paramilitary training camp in Afghanistan. He was sometimes known as Shaykh of the slaughterers and he formed al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in the 1990s, and led it until his death in June 2006. Zarqawi took responsibility, on audio and video recordings, for numerous acts of violence in Iraq including suicide bombings. Zarqawi opposed the presence of U. S. and Western military forces in the Islamic world, in late 2004 he joined al-Qaeda, and pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden. In September 2005, he declared war on Shiites in Iraq. He dispatched numerous suicide bombers throughout Iraq to attack American soldiers and he is also thought to be responsible for the 2005 bombing of three hotels in Amman, Jordan. One United States Air Force F-16C jet dropped two 500-pound guided bombs on the safehouse, Ahmad Fadeel al-Nazal al-Khalayleh, is believed to have been al-Zarqawis real name. Abu Musab literally translates to Musabs father, born in the name Ahmed al-Khalayleh to an impoverished Palestinian-Jordanian family in 1966 and he was raised in Zarqa, an industrial town located 17 miles north of Amman. Zarqawi is reported as having been a school dropout and a petty criminal in his youth, including, allegedly. In the late 1980s, Zarqawi went to Afghanistan to join the Mujahideen who were fighting the invading Soviet troops, arriving there in 1989, the Soviets were already leaving. Instead of fighting, he became a reporter for an Islamist newsletter and he returned to Jordan, and sometime in 1989–1992 he helped start the local militant group Jund al-Sham. He was arrested in Jordan after guns and explosives were found in his home, in prison, he attempted to draft his cell mates into joining him to overthrow the rulers of Jordan, a former prison mate told Time magazine in 2004. According to Jordanian officials and acquaintances, Zarqawi developed a reputation as a cellblock enforcer, in 1999, Zarqawi was released from prison in a general amnesty by Jordans King Abdullah. Within months after his release, according to Jordanian officials, Zarqawi tried to resurrect his Jund al-Sham, then, also according to Jordanian officials, he was involved in the millennium plot—a bid to bomb the Radisson SAS Hotel in Amman before New Years Day 2000. The plot was discovered, and Zarqawi fled to Pakistan and he asked them for assistance and money to set up his own training camp in Herat. With some small seed money of $200,000 from Osama bin Laden, globalSecurity. org called it a camp near Herat, reportedly specialised in manufacturing poisons. In early September 2001, Zarqawi was in Iran around the time of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the USA. He fled to Iran in December 2001 or January 5,2002, the U. S. government contended that Zarqawi received medical treatment in Baghdad, Iraq, from March until May 2002
27.
Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn
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Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn (TQJBR, also referred to as Al-Qaeda in Iraq or Al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia, was an Iraqi Sunni Islamic Jihadist organization affiliated with al-Qaeda. The group was founded by the Jordanian militant Abu Musab al-Zarqawi in 1999 under the name Jamaat al-Tawhid wal-Jihad, after it pledged allegiance to Osama bin Ladens al-Qaeda network in October 2004, its official name became Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn. On 7 June 2006, the leader of AQI, al-Zarqawi, the groups leadership was then assumed by the Egyptian militant Abu Ayyub al-Masri, also known as Abu Hamza al-Muhajir. In a letter to al-Zarqawi in July 2005, Al-Qaedas Ayman al-Zawahiri outlined a four-stage plan beginning with taking control of Iraq, step 1, expulsion of US forces from Iraq. Step 2, establishing in Iraq an Islamic authority—a caliphate, step 3, the jihad wave should be extended to the secular countries neighbouring Iraq. Step 4, the clash with Israel, at the end of October 2004, Al-Qaeda in Iraq kidnapped Japanese citizen Shosei Koda. In an online video, AQI gave Japan 48 hours to withdraw its troops from Iraq, otherwise Kodas fate would be the same as that of his predecessors, Berg and Bigley and other infidels. While Japan refused to comply with this demand, Koda was beheaded, AQI claimed responsibility for the car bomb attacks on 19 December 2004 in the Shiite holy cities Najaf and nearby Karbala, killing 60 people. According to internal documents seized in 2008, AQI began in 2005 systematically killing Iraqi tribesmen, attacks in 2005 claimed by AQI include,30 January, AQI launched attacks on voters during the Iraqi legislative election in January. In 100 armed attacks,44 people were killed, although some attacks may have carried out by other groups. Abu Musab al-Zarqawi said, We have declared a war on this evil principle of democracy. 28 February, in the city of Hillah, a car bomb struck a crowd of police and Iraqi National Guard recruits. 2 April, the group launched a suicide and conventional attack on Abu Ghraib prison in April. 7 May, in Baghdad, two cars were used against an American security company convoy. 22 people are killed, including two Americans,6 July, AQI claimed responsibility for the kidnapping and execution of Egypts ambassador to Iraq, Ihab el-Sherif. 15–17 July, a series of suicide attacks, including the Musayyib marketplace bombing. AQI claimed that the bombings were part of a campaign to control of Baghdad. 19 August, In the Jordanian city of Aqaba, a rocket attack kills a Jordanian soldier
28.
1920 Revolution Brigade
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The 1920 Revolution Brigades is a Sunni militia group in Iraq, which includes former members of the disbanded Iraqi army. The group has used improvised explosive devices, and armed attacks against U. S occupation forces, the group comprises the military wing of the Islamic Resistance Movement. The group is named in reference to the 1920 Iraqi revolt against the British, as of 2014, the group was actively involved in the MCIR insurgent network, particularly in Fallujah. A US military spokesman states that the concerned local nationals group is now aligned with U. S, the group maintains that the Iraqi Hamas organization, which consisted of members who left the Brigades before the Diyala operation, were the ones involved in the operation. The 1920 Revolution Brigades describes its aim as to establish a liberated and it has been active in the area west of Baghdad, in the regions of Abu Ghraib, Khan Dari and Fallujah and in the governorates of Ninwi, Diyali and al-Anbar. They are the wing of the Islamic Resistance Movement. The logo of the group is a map of Iraq, with a Quran on top of it, in the middle there is a mirrored symbol of an AK-47, with an Iraqi flag attached to it. Between the gun and the flag, a small print says Islamic Resistance movement, and below, the Brigade first emerged in a 16 July statement in which it claimed that U. S. forces were sustaining higher casualties than were being reported. Since then, it resurfaced periodically, including in graffiti in such insurgent strongholds as Fallujah and this group appears to concentrate on guerilla activity, rather than terrorism, and is sensitive to the opinions of the established Sunni Muslim clergy in Iraq. High-profile operations include the kidnapping of American citizen Dean Sadek in November 2004 and it has also shot down several American helicopters in the Fallujah region. Little is known about the groups leadership, on 2 January 2005, the Ministry of Defence reported that Iraqi security forces arrested Hatim al-Zawbai, whom they identified as a commander of the 1920 Revolution Brigades. In a statement issued on 13 February 2006, the group vowed to carry on jihad until the liberation, on March 2007 some of its members broke off from the 1920 Revolution Brigades to form Hamas of Iraq. In a statement issued on 18 March 2007, the 1920 Revolution Brigades stated that it had dissolved into two new brigades, Islamic Conquest and Islamic Jihad, Islamic Conquest became Hamas of Iraq and is the name chosen for its military wing. Islamic Jihad took over the name Twentieth Revolution Brigades, promising to uphold its jihadi inheritance, the 1920 Revolution Brigade has used bombings, kidnappings, and armed attacks against U. S forces but does not target non-Muslims or Shiites, staying out of the sectarian war. As a result, it has developed a rift with The Jihad Base Organization in Mesopotamia. The 1920 Revolution Brigade turned down an offer to pledge allegiance to an insurgent coalition group, on 27 March 2007, the leader of the 1920 Revolution Bridage, Harith Dhahir Khamis al-Dari was killed in an ISI ambush. S forces. The group has since replied that, “We say to … the occupation and to your followers, in October 2007, The Guardian reported that the 1920 Revolution Brigades would not join an alliance of six other Iraqi insurgent groups. The six groups listed a 14-point political program, including a call for continued action against US forces, a spokesman for the brigades said it did not join because it did not want to fight with those Sunni tribal groups working with the US against al-Qaida
29.
Boeing AH-64 Apache
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The Boeing AH-64 Apache is an American four-blade, twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear arrangement and a tandem cockpit for a two-man crew. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night vision systems and it is armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun carried between the main landing gear, under the aircrafts forward fuselage. It has four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons, typically carrying a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, the AH-64 has a large amount of systems redundancy to improve combat survivability. The Apache originally started as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Armys Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra, the prototype YAH-64 was first flown on 30 September 1975. The U. S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, after purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U. S. Army service in April 1986, the first production AH-64D Apache Longbow, an upgraded Apache variant, was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used the Apache in its conflicts in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip, British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in wars in Afghanistan. Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in 1972, in favor of projects like the U. S, the Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth flying, to this end, the U. S. Army issued a Request For Proposals for an Advanced Attack Helicopter on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the Big Five. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, in July 1973, the U. S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division. This began the phase 1 of the competition, each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975, after evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor, weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U. S. Army for Operational Test II, the Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at 1,690 shp. The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its helicopters, in 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984, the helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997
30.
Baghdad
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Baghdad is the capital of the Republic of Iraq. The population of Baghdad, as of 2016, is approximately 8,765,000 making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab world, and the second largest city in Western Asia. Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century, within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. This, in addition to housing several key institutions, garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the Centre of Learning. Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with a population of 1,200,000 people. The city was destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state in 1938, in contemporary times, the city has often faced severe infrastructural damage, most recently due to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the subsequent Iraq War that lasted until December 2011. In recent years, the city has been subjected to insurgency attacks. As of 2012, Baghdad was listed as one of the least hospitable places in the world to live, the site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia. By the 8th century AD, several villages had developed there, including a Persian hamlet called Baghdad, the name is of Indo-European origin and a Middle Persian compound of Bagh god and dād given by, translating to Bestowed by God or Gods gift. In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Slavic bog god, a similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt, known in English by its Hellenistic form Mithridates, meaning gift of Mithra. There are a number of locations in the wider region whose names are compounds of the word bagh, including Baghlan. The name of the town Baghdati in Georgia shares the same etymological origins, when the Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name Madinat al-Salaam or City of Peace. This was the name on coins, weights, and other official usage. By the 11th century, Baghdad became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis, after the fall of the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital whence they could rule. They chose a site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, on 30 July 762, the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city, mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward. The citys growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors, it had control over strategic and trading routes along the Tigris, the abundance of water in a dry climate
31.
Islamic Army in Iraq
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Following the withdrawal of American forces from Iraq in late 2011, the IAI demobilized and turned towards political activism, setting up the Sunni Popular Movement. The group is active in the Diyala and Saladin Provinces. The precise details about the emergence of the IAI are unclear, when the IAI first formed, it used kidnapping as a means of pursuing its goals. The group also threatened to target the January 2005 elections, although it didnt carry out any such attack, unlike most resistance movement organizations today, the IAI does not have Salafist tendencies, its primary focus and goal being the expulsion of foreign troops from Iraq. A November 2004 Washington Post interview with the leader, Ishmael Jubouri. The Terrorism Monitor put out by The Jamestown Foundation confirms some of what Jubouri was claiming, in a November 2006 al-Jazeera interview, spokesman Ibrahim al-Shamary expanded on who the IAI considers foreign troops, There are two occupations in Iraq. Iran on one side through the militias which they control and through involvement with the national guard and the intelligence services. And then there is the American occupation which destroys the Iraqi people, the group has released several joint statements with other groups such as Islamic Resistance Movement and the Islamic Front for the Iraqi Resistance, which are known to be of an ikhwan background. In one of joint statements, six groups called for Iraqis to participate in the referendum on the October 2005 constitution by voting against it. When rumours spread in Iraq of the demolition of the al-Aqsa Mosque, in April 2005. This group was to support Palestine in the struggle against Israel. The current status of the al-Aqsa Support Division is unknown, leading people to believe that the statement was merely rhetoric, the group was responsible for the abduction of the following persons who were released unharmed, Fereidoun Jahani, Iranian Consul. Georges Malbrunot and Christian Chesnot, French journalists, marwan Ibrahim al-Kassar and Mohammed Jawdat Hussein, Lebanese electrical workers. Angelo Dela Cruz, Filipino truck driver, rosidah Anom and Rafikan Binti Amin, female Indonesian nationals. The IAI is believed responsible for the execution of the foreigners, Enzo Baldoni. Raja Azad, engineer, and Sajad Naeem, his driver, ronald Schulz, American contract electrician, killed around December 8,2005. On 22 April 2005, the IAI released a video of their members killing a Bulgarian civilian contractor and he was helped to his feet and then shot with 27 rounds of ammunition. The group also claims to have shot down a commercial airliner in Iraq, in 2006, videos were released of their snipers killing coalition forces
32.
Green Zone
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The Green Zone is the most common name for the International Zone of Baghdad. Its official name beginning under the Iraqi Interim Government is the International Zone, the contrasting Red Zone refers to parts of Baghdad immediately outside the perimeter, but was also loosely applied to all unsecured areas outside the off-site military posts. Both terms originated as military designations, the Green Zone was a heavily fortified zone in the center of the Iraqi capital that served as the headquarters of successive Iraqi regimes. It was the center for the Baath Party. The largest of these was the Republican Palace that was President Saddam Husseins primary seat of power, the area is also known as Karradat Mariam so named for a locally famous woman who helped the poor people of Baghdad. The area was taken by US military forces in April 2003 in some of the heaviest fighting during the capture of Baghdad. In the lead-up to the US invasion of Iraq, Saddam, most of the remaining residents fled as US ground forces closed in on the Iraqi capital out of a fear of arrest by Coalition forces or possible reprisals by disgruntled Iraqis. Some of the inhabitants who did not flee continued to live in the area. Coalition airstrikes at the outset of the left a sizable number of buildings in central Baghdad abandoned. The Coalition Provisional Authority administrators who arrived on the heels of the invading forces decided they were ideal for use by Coalition administrators. Jay Garner, head of the team, set up his headquarters in the former Republican Palace, other villas were taken by groups of government officials. Eventually some five thousand officials and civil contractors settled in the area, the abandoned buildings were not only attractive to Coalition forces, but also to homeless Iraqis. They felt that since they were not Baathist, they had as much right to the houses as the Coalition authorities. There continue to be five thousand of these Iraqis living in the Green Zone. Entry to the Green Zone was under the control of a garrison of American troops who manned the various checkpoints. They were typically a battalion of soldiers at FOB Prosperity, under the command of the Multi-National Division - Baghdad, additionally, a battalion of coalition soldiers from the Republic of Georgia also manned the entry checkpoints. It is this security that made the Green Zone the safest area of Baghdad, in October 2004 it was hit by two suicide bombings, which destroyed the bazaar and the Green Zone Cafe. On April 12,2007, a bomb went off in the Iraqi Parliament cafeteria, killing Mohammed Awad and injuring 22, including one of the vice presidents
33.
United States district court
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The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the court, which is a court of law, equity. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States district court, each federal judicial district has at least one courthouse, and many districts have more than one. The formal name of a court is the United States District Court for the name of the district—for example. In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, there is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the court system that is still in place today. There is at least one district for each state, the District of Columbia. District courts in three insular areas—the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands—exercise the same jurisdiction as Article III U. S. district courts, despite their name, these courts are technically not District Courts of the United States. Judges on these Article IV territorial courts do not enjoy the protections of Article Three of the Constitution, there are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories. The United States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade, the United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations of taxes. A judge of a United States district court is titled a United States District Judge. The number of judges in district court is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the judges for terms of good behavior. With the exception of the courts, federal district judges are Article III judges appointed for life. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of a criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, only twelve judges have been impeached by the House, a judge who has reached the age of 65 may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. A federal judge is addressed in writing as The Honorable John/Jane Doe or Hon. John/Jane Doe and in speech as Judge or Judge Doe or, when presiding in court, Your Honor. District judges usually concentrate on managing their courts overall caseload, supervising trials, since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judges discretion, be referred to magistrate judges
34.
Paducah, Kentucky
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Paducah is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of McCracken County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 24,864 in 2015, down from 25,024 during the 2010 U. S. Census, twenty blocks of the citys downtown have been designated as a historic district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Paducah is the hub of its area, which includes McCracken, Ballard and Livingston counties in Kentucky. Paducah was first settled as Pekin by James and William Pore c. 1821, the community – favorably located at the confluence of several waterways – occupied a site previously noted as a Chickasaw trading center. The town was out by William Clark in 1827 and renamed Paducah. Instead, it is probable that Clark named the town for the Comanches, Paducah was formally established as a town in 1830 and incorporated as a city by the state legislature in 1838. By this time, steam boats traversed the river system and its facilities were important to trade. In addition, railroads began to be developed that entered the region, a factory for making red bricks, and a foundry for making rail and locomotive components became the nucleus of a thriving River and Rail economy. It became the site of dry dock facilities for steamboats and towboats, because of its proximity to coalfields further to the east in Kentucky and north in Illinois, Paducah also became an important railway hub for the Illinois Central Railroad. This was the primary north-south railway connecting the cities of Chicago and East St. Louis to the Gulf of Mexico at Gulfport, Mississippi and New Orleans. The Illinois Central system also provided east-west links to the Burlington Northern and the Atchison, Topeka, the Illinois Central Railroad began construction of their largest locomotive workshop at Paducah in 1924. Over a period of 190 days, a ravine between Washington and Jones Streets was filled with 44,560 carloads of dirt to enlarge the site to include 23 buildings. The eleven million dollar project was completed in 1927 as the fourth largest industrial plant in Kentucky and it became the largest employer in Paducah with 1,075 employees in 1938. The shops became part of the Paducah and Louisville Railway in 1986, at the outset of the Civil War, Kentucky attempted to take a neutral position. However, when a Confederate force occupied Columbus, a Union force under General Ulysses S. Grant responded by occupying Paducah. Throughout most of the war, Col. Stephen G. Hicks was in charge of Paducah, on December 17,1862, under the terms of General Order No. 11, US forces required thirty Jewish families to leave their long-established homes, Grant was trying to break up a black market in cotton, in which he suspected Jewish traders were involved. Cesar Kaskel, a prominent local Jewish businessman, dispatched a telegram of complaint to Pres, lincoln and met with him, together with similar actions by other Jewish businessmen and loud complaints by Congress, he succeeded in seeing the order revoked within a few weeks
35.
Courts-martial in the United States
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Courts-martial in the United States are trials conducted by the U. S. military or by state militaries. Most commonly, courts-martial are convened to try members of the U. S. military for criminal violations of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, however, they can also be convened for other purposes, including military tribunals and the enforcement of martial law in an occupied territory. State courts-martial are governed according to the laws of the state concerned, the American Bar Association has issued a Model State Code of Military Justice, which has influenced the relevant laws and procedures in some states. Courts-martial are adversarial proceedings, as are all United States criminal courts, the authority for State National Guards to convene courts martial is under Title 32 of the US Code. State that have militaries outside the Federally regulated National Guard convene courts-martial by authority of state laws, from the earliest beginnings of the United States, military commanders have played a central role in the administration of military justice. The American military justice system, derived from its British predecessor, predates the Articles of Confederation, while military justice in the United States has evolved considerably over the years, the convening authority has remained the instrument of selecting a panel for courts-martial. Tribunals for the trial of military offenders have coexisted with the history of armies. The modern court-martial is deeply rooted in systems that predated written military codes and were designed to bring order and discipline to armed, both the ancient Greeks and the Romans had military justice codes, although no written versions of them survive. Moreover, nearly every form of military tribunal included a trial before a panel or members of some type, the concept of the American military court-martial was derived from the Court of Chivalry in England and the military code of Swedens King Gustavus Adolphus. These courts both strove to strike a balance between the demands of good order and discipline and the concept of due process and this, in turn, laid a foundation for modern systems of military justice that strive to do the same. The Court of Chivalry had a impact on the British Articles of War. The early British Articles of War reflected a concern for due process, when war broke out between the American Colonists and the British in 1775, the British were operating under the 1765 edition of the Articles of War. This version would serve as the template for military justice in the Continental Army, when the United States declared independence and fought the Revolutionary War, it had a ready-made military justice system. The 1765 British Articles of War were the template for the American military justice system, accordingly, a general court-martial panel consisted of thirteen commissioned officers selected by a convening authority, with a field grade officer as president. A regimental court-martial consisted of five commissioned officers selected by the commander, however, unlike the British equivalent. Thus, in the American system, the legislature undertook the government of the forces from the beginning—military justice was not going to be left to the executive. Second, Congress demonstrated its flexibility and willingness to change the Articles as necessary, the top military lawyer, Colonel William Tudor, informed Congress that the Articles were in need of revision. Congress would go on to revise the Articles several times to reflect the realities of a military force
36.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
37.
Arlington County, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
38.
Louisville, Kentucky
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Louisville is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the 30th-most populous city in the United States. It is one of two cities in Kentucky designated as first-class, the other being the states second-largest city of Lexington, Louisville is the historical seat and, since 2003, the nominal seat of Jefferson County. Louisville was founded in 1778 by George Rogers Clark and is named after King Louis XVI of France, making Louisville one of the oldest cities west of the Appalachian Mountains. Sited beside the Falls of the Ohio, the major obstruction to river traffic between the upper Ohio River and the Gulf of Mexico, the settlement first grew as a portage site. It was the city of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Its main airport is also the site of United Parcel Services worldwide air hub, since 2003, Louisvilles borders have been the same as those of Jefferson County because of a city-county merger. The official name of this consolidated city-county government is the Louisville/Jefferson County Metro Government, the citys total consolidated population as of the 2014 census estimate was 760,026. However, the total of 612,780 excludes other incorporated places and semiautonomous towns within the county and is the population listed in most sources. As of 2014, the MSA had a population of 1,269,702, the history of Louisville spans hundreds of years, and has been influenced by the areas geography and location. The rapids at the Falls of the Ohio created a barrier to river travel, the first European settlement in the vicinity of modern-day Louisville was on Corn Island in 1778 by Col. George Rogers Clark, credited as the founder of Louisville. Several landmarks in the community are named after him, two years later, in 1780, the Virginia General Assembly approved the town charter of Louisville. The city was named in honor of King Louis XVI of France, early residents lived in forts to protect themselves from Indian raids, but moved out by the late 1780s. In 1803, explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark organized their expedition across America in the town of Clarksville, Indiana at the present-day Falls of the Ohio opposite Louisville, Kentucky. The citys early growth was influenced by the fact river boats had to be unloaded and moved downriver before reaching the falls. By 1828, the population had swelled to 7,000, the city grew rapidly in its formative years. Louisville was a shipping port and slaves worked in a variety of associated trades. The city was often a point of escape for slaves to the north, during the Civil War, Louisville was a major stronghold of Union forces, which kept Kentucky firmly in the Union. It was the center of planning, supplies, recruiting, and transportation for numerous campaigns, by the end of the war, Louisville had not been attacked, although skirmishes and battles, including the battles of Perryville and Corydon, took place nearby
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Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
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Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
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Life in prison
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Life imprisonment is any sentence of imprisonment for a crime under which convicted persons are to remain in prison for the rest of their lives or until paroled. Life imprisonment can, in cases, also be imposed for traffic offenses causing death. Canada and some U. S. states allow judges to impose life imprisonment for such offenses and this sentence does not exist in all countries. Portugal was the first country in the world to life imprisonment by the prison reforms of Sampaio e Melo in 1884. However, where life imprisonment is a sentence, there may also be formal mechanisms to request parole after a certain period of imprisonment. This means that a convict could be entitled to spend the rest of the sentence outside prison, early release is usually conditional depending on past and future conduct, possibly with certain restrictions or obligations. In contrast, when a term of imprisonment has ended. The United States leads in life sentences, at a rate of 50 people per 100,000 residents imprisoned for life, the length of time and the conditions surrounding parole vary greatly for each jurisdiction. In some places, convicts are entitled to apply for parole relatively early, in others, however, the time until being entitled to apply for parole does not necessarily tell anything about the actual date of parole being granted. The highest determined prison sentence that can be imposed in the ICC, after this period, the court will review the sentence to determine whether or not it should be reduced. Some technically finite sentences are handed out, especially in the U. S. that exceed the maximum life span and are therefore seen as de facto life sentences. He committed suicide in his cell one month later. Courts in South Africa have handed out at least two sentences that have exceeded a century and were thus symbolic life sentences, unlike other areas of criminal law, sentences handed to minors do not differ from those given to legal adults. A few countries worldwide allow for minors to be given sentences that have no provision for eventual release. Of these, only the United States currently has minors serving such sentences, as of 2009, Human Rights Watch had calculated that there were 2,589 youth offenders serving life without parole in the United States. Graham v. Florida was a significant case in juvenile justice, in Jacksonville, Florida, Terrence J. Graham tried to rob a restaurant along with three adolescent accomplices. During the robbery one of Grahams accomplices had a bar that he used to hit the restaurant manager twice in the head. Once arrested, Graham was charged with attempted armed robbery and armed burglary with assault/battery, the maximum sentence he faced from these charges was life without the possibility of parole, and the prosecutor wanted to charge him as an adult
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United States Penitentiary, Tucson
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The United States Penitentiary, Tucson is a high-security United States federal prison for male inmates in Arizona. It is part of the Tucson Federal Correctional Complex and is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the facility also has a satellite prison camp for minimum-security male offenders. USP Tucson is located within Tucsons city limits,10 miles southeast of downtown Tucson. The Federal Bureau of Prisons drafted a report on March 28,2001 naming Tucson as a site for a new federal prison housing either 1,100 medium security or 1,000 high security inmates. A hearing was arranged the following May, construction was completed in 2005 at a cost of about $100 million, but additional preparations took over a year before inmates could be received. The 584, 000-square-foot facility is situated on a 640-acre property and designed for 1,500 inmates, the minimum-security work camp provides labor for day-to-day operations of the federal prison complex. It has been described as its own little city by Josias Salazar, USP Tucson is one of several federal prisons which offers a Sex Offender Management Program and therefore has a higher proportion of sex offenders in its general population. Having a larger number of sex offenders at SOMP facilities ensures that inmates feel safe about participating in treatment, USP Tucson offers a Non-Residential Sex Offender Treatment Program, which is a moderate intensity program designed for low to moderate risk sexual offenders. Many of the inmates in the SOTP-NR are first-time offenders serving a sentence for an Internet sex crime, all SOMP institutions offer the SOTP-NR. Eligible inmates are transferred to a SOMP facility based on their treatment needs, USP Tucson houses several high-profile sex offenders. The penitentiary went into lockdown on May 28,2009 after several inmates were hospitalized from fights involving improvised weapons. Another inmate, Joseph William Nichols, was sentenced to 33 more months after being caught on August 12,2009 with a concealed plastic shank that had been fashioned from his prison chair. A search of the kitchen where Nichols had been assigned resulted in the discovery of hidden contraband packages containing weapons, cunningham, who has become an advocate of prison reform, responded in a handwritten letter that he spends his days there teaching fellow inmates to obtain their GED. He wrote, many students have learning disabilities from either drugs or genetic. During the past 4 years only one of my students was unable to graduate—I taught him life skills, using a calculator to add and this way he could at least balance a check book. Inmates who were released from custody prior to 1982 are not listed on the Bureau of Prisons website
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Gag order
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A gag order is an order, typically a legal order by a court or government, restricting information or comment from being made public or passed onto any unauthorized third party. The phrase may sometimes be used of an order by an employer or other institution. Gag orders may be used, for example, to legitimate trade secrets of a company, to protect the integrity of ongoing police or military operations. Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation orders may potentially be abused in this way, in a similar manner, a gag law may limit freedom of the press, by instituting censorship or restricting access to information. This has been opposed by Indian media who argue that they have adopted self-regulation during such events and it is uncertain if the draft law will be passed. In late 2009 Israel issued a gag order against the Israeli media reporting on facts surrounding the Anat Kamm–Uri Blau affair, the gag order was ultimately subject to widespread criticism and publicity as the details of the case were reported overseas. The scandal centered around leaked documents from the Israeli Defense Force which suggested the military had engaged in extrajudicial killings, a gag order concerning the Prisoner X affair prevented Israeli coverage of the topic for more than two years. On 13 November 2013 a gag order concerning a famous Israeli singer suspected of sex with girls below the age of consent was issued, while the traditional media did not advertise the name of the singer, social media platforms users like Facebook published the singer name and incriminating photos. On 20 November Eyal Golan released a statement announcing he was the suspected singer. There was speculation that a gag order may be imposed by the MCA on their press statements before they are released to the public to ensure maximum effectiveness, such releases would have to be approved by the president. These claims in the media were later denied, North Korea responded by saying that reptile media had insulted its highest dignity by spreading lies. Sources inside North Korea reported it had become a scandal with many rumors spreading despite an official gagging order. A gag order, or anonymity order, is issued by courts in the United Kingdom to protect privacy, prevent harm to suspects, prisoners, witnesses, victims. In the Allan Chappelow murder case, the trial was mostly in camera. The order was imposed after a case made by prosecutors. This criminal case has been thought to be the first in which an order was imposed. According to WikiLeaks, the Guardian been served with 10 secret gag orders —so-called super-injunctions—, in 2008, the paper was served with six. In The Netherlands ethologist Gerrit van Putten was given two separate gag orders by the Minister of Agriculture to protect intensive farming. e, the tails were docked rather than that housing conditions were improved
The Rape Scene in Mahmudiya (BBC)
