1.
Castel Durante
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Urbania borders the following municipalities, Acqualagna, Apecchio, Cagli, Fermignano, Peglio, Piobbico, SantAngelo in Vado, Urbino. It is a famous ceramics and majolica production centre, in recent years, it has become more closely associated with the Befana folk tradition. Originally known as Castel delle Ripe, it was a commune of the Guelph party. In 1277 it was destroyed by the Ghibellines, then rebuilt by the Provençal Guillaume Durand in 1284, later it was ruled by the Brancaleoni family. The last della Rovere duke, Francesco Maria II, is buried in the Ducal Palace of Urbania, in 1631 it became part of the Papal States. Five years later its name changed to the current one, in honor of Pope Urban VIII, on 23 January 1944 Urbania was bombed by the Allies, resulting in the deaths of 250 civilians. It was a Sunday so the people had gathered in the town, after World War II Urbania received the Bronze Medal for Military Valour for the deeds of its citizens during the partisan warfare. Ducal Palace, The palace houses a museum and a library, among the prize holdings are globes made by the Flemish-born, German natural scientist Gerardus Mercator between 1541 and 1551. Chiesa dei Morti, with 18 natural mummies from the Middle Ages, the Barco Ducale is one kilometer outside of the town. After an earthquake, it was rebuilt between 1741 and 1771, normally you can not enter the building. Media related to Urbania at Wikimedia Commons Urbania official website
Castel Durante
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Urbania
Castel Durante
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Globe signed by Mercator and dated 1541; now in the 'Palazzo Ducale' museum. It is one of about 22 existing Mercator globes.
Castel Durante
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The main entrance of the Barco Ducale viewed from south west
2.
Tin-glazed pottery
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Tin-glazed pottery is earthenware covered in glaze containing tin oxide which is white, shiny and opaque, usually this provides a background for brightly-painted decoration. It has been important in Islamic and European pottery, but very little used in East Asia, the pottery body is usually made of red or buff colored earthenware and the white glaze imitated Chinese porcelain. The makers of Italian tin-glazed pottery from the late Renaissance blended oxides to produce detailed, from there it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century and England, France and other European countries shortly after. The rise in the cost of tin oxide during the First World War led to its substitution by zirconium compounds in the glaze. Tin-glazed pottery of different periods and styles is known by different names, the pottery from Muslim Spain is known as Hispano-Moresque ware. The decorated tin-glaze of Renaissance Italy is called maiolica, sometimes pronounced majolica by English speakers, when the technique was taken up in the Netherlands it became known as delftware as much of it was made in the town of Delft. Dutch potters brought it to England in around 1600 and wares produced there are known as English delftware or galleyware, in France it was known as faience. During the Renaissance, the term maiolica was adopted for Italian-made luster pottery copying Spanish examples, in the late 18th century, old Italian maiolica became popular among the British, who referred to it by the anglicized pronunciation majolica. The Minton pottery copied it and applied the term majolica ware to their product, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Minton launched the colorful lead-glazed earthenware which they called Palissy ware soon also to become known as majolica. So now we have two distinct products with the same name, for the article about 19th century lead-glazed earthenware, see Victorian majolica W. B. The term maiolica is sometimes applied to modern tin-glazed ware made by studio potters, the Moors introduced tin-glazed pottery to Spain after the conquest of 711. With the Spanish conquest of Mexico, tin-glazed pottery came to be produced in the Valley of Mexico as early as 1540, although the Moors were expelled from Spain in the early 17th century, the Hispano-Moresque style survived in the province of Valencia. Later wares usually have a coarse reddish-buff body, dark blue decoration, such archaic wares are sometimes dubbed proto-maiolica. During the later 14th century, the palette of colors was expanded from the traditional manganese purple and copper green to embrace cobalt blue, antimony yellow. Sgraffito wares were produced, in which the white tin-oxide slip was decoratively scratched to produce a design from the revealed body of the ware. Refined production of tin-glazed earthenware made for more local needs was concentrated in central Italy from the later 13th century. The city itself declined in importance in the half of the 15th century. Italian cities encouraged the start of a new industry by offering tax relief, citizenship, monopoly rights
Tin-glazed pottery
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Tin-glazed (Majolica) plate from
Faenza, Italy
Tin-glazed pottery
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Chinese
porcelain white ware bowl (left) found in
Iran, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
Iraq, both 9-10th century, an example of
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery.
British Museum.
Tin-glazed pottery
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A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "IHS", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c. 1430–1500.
Burrell Collection
Tin-glazed pottery
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An albarello (drug jar) from Venice or Castel Durante, 16th century. Approx 30cm high. Decorated in cobalt blue, copper green, antimony yellow and yellow ochre.
Burrell Collection
3.
Italian Renaissance
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The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt. The French word renaissance means Rebirth, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages. Though today perhaps best known for Italian Renaissance art and architecture, the period saw major achievements in literature, music, philosophy, Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, and to varying degrees retained this lead until about 1600. This was despite a turbulent and generally disastrous period in Italian politics, the European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centred in the city of Florence. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, the Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new allantico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch and his friend, famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci, Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Ludovico Ariosto. 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek, the same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peters Basilica in Rome, yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginning of economic regression for Italy. By the Late Middle Ages, Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France, in the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily, in contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, the main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining, thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper
Italian Renaissance
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Renaissance
Italian Renaissance
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Pandolfo Malatesta (1417–1468), lord of
Rimini, by
Piero della Francesca. Malatesta was a capable
condottiere, following the tradition of his family. He was hired by the
Venetians to fight against the
Turks (unsuccessfully) in 1465, and was patron of
Leone Battista Alberti, whose
Tempio Malatestiano at Rimini is one of the first entirely classical buildings of the Renaissance.
Italian Renaissance
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Leonardo da Vinci, Italian
Renaissance Man
Italian Renaissance
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Giulio Clovio,
Adoration of the Magi and
Solomon Adored by the
Queen of Sheba from the Farnese Hours, 1546.
4.
Faenza
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Faenza is an Italian city and comune, in the province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, situated 50 kilometres southeast of Bologna. Faenza is noted for its manufacture of glazed earthenware pottery. In the nearby valleys of the rivers Samoggia and Lamone there are great number of 18th and 19th century stately homes. According to mythology, the name of the first settlement, Faoentia, had Etruscan and Celtic roots, meaning in Latin Splendeo inter deos or I shine among the gods, in modern English. The very name, coming from the Romans who developed this center under the name of Faventia, has become synonymous with ceramics in various languages, including French, here Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius defeated populares army of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo in 82 BC. Here Totila and an Ostrogothic army defeated the Byzantine army in Italy in the Battle of Faventia in 542 CE, after a period of decadence from the 2nd century to the early Middle Ages it regained prosperity from 8th century on. The first consuls were elected in 1141 and in 1155 a podestà was in charge of government of the city, in the wars between Guelphs and Ghibellines that began in the following years Faenza was at first loyal to the emperor. In 1178, however, it changed side and entered the Lombard League, the inner disputes anyway favoured acquisition of power by Maghinardo Pagano, who remained podestà and capitano del popolo for several years. At the beginning of the 14th century the Guelph Manfredi began a rule over Faenza that was to last for almost two centuries, the peak of splendour was reached under Carlo II Manfredi, in the second half of the century, when the city centre was renewed. In 1488 Galeotto Manfredi was assassinated by his wife, his son Astorre III succeeded him, but was in turn killed in Rome as a prisoner of Cesare Borgia, after a brief period of Venetian domination Faenza became part of the Papal States until 1797. Faenzas architectural attractions are concentrated in the two main squares, Piazza del Popolo, lined by two double order porticoed wings, and Piazza della Libertà. Faenza Cathedral, located along the east side of Piazza della Libertà, influenced by Tuscan style, it is one of the highest expressions of Renaissance art in Romagna. Built to Giuliano da Maianos design, it was begun in 1474, the marble decoration of the façade remained unfinished. Goldsmiths Portico opposite the Cathedral this open gallery and monumental fountain with bronzes were built in the first decade of the 17th century. Clock Tower, in front of the entrance to the Piazza, is a rebuilding of the 17th century tower that stood at the crossroad of the cardo. Among the other monuments of the centre are Palazzo Milzetti, the richest and most significant Neoclassical building in the region. In the nearby, the Villa Case Grandi dei Ferniani has a collection of 18th and 19th century Faenza ceramics, Faenza is home to the International Museum of Ceramics. Other interesting art collections are located in the Municipal Art Gallery, the Diocese Museum, the Bendandi Museum, the historic production of Faenza majolica is recognized worldwide as one of the highest moments of artistic creativity expressed through pottery
Faenza
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Faenza
Faenza
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Cathedral of Faenza.
Faenza
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An example of Faenza Majolica in the so-called Garofano style.
5.
Dallas Museum of Art
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The Dallas Museum of Art is a major art museum located in the Arts District of downtown Dallas, Texas, along Woodall Rodgers Freeway between St. Paul and Harwood. In 1984, the museum moved from its previous location in Fair Park to the Arts District, the new building was designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes, the 2007 winner of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal. The museum collection is made up of more than 24,000 objects and it is also defined by its dynamic exhibition policy and award-winning educational programs. The Mildred R. and Frederick M. Mayer Library contains over 50,000 volumes available to curators, with 159,000 square feet of exhibition spaces, it is one of the largest art museums in the United States. The museums history began with the establishment in 1903 of the Dallas Art Association, frank Reaugh, a Texas artist, saw in the new library the opportunity to display works of art. This idea was championed by May Dickson Exall, who was the first president of the Dallas Public Library. ”The museum’s collections started growing from this moment on and it soon became necessary to find a new permanent home. The museum, renamed the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts in 1932, relocated to a new art deco facility within Fair Park in 1936 and this new facility was designed by a consortium of Dallas architects in consultation with Paul Cret of Philadelphia. It is still possible to visit this building, in 1943, Jerry Bywaters became the director of the museum, a position he held for the next twenty-one years. Artist, art critic, and teacher, Bywaters gave a sense of identity and community to the museum, under Bywaters tenure, impressionist, abstract, and contemporary masterpieces were acquired and the Texas identity of the museum was emphasized. This identity is represented by works by Alexandre Hogue, Olin Herman Travis, Bywaters himself. In 1963, the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts merged with the Dallas Museum of Contemporary Art, rueppel became the director of the newly merged Museum. In 1965, the museum held an exhibition called The Art of Piet Mondrian and one entitled Sculpture, by the late 1970s, the greatly enlarged permanent collection and the ambitious exhibition program fostered a need for a new museum facility. Under Harry Parker’s direction, the museum was able to once again, to its current venue. The $54 million facility, designed by New York architect Edward Larrabee Barnes, was financed by a 1979 City bond election, the project was galvanized by the slogan “A Great City Deserves a Great Museum, ” and the new building opened in January 1984. The museums collections include more than 24,000 works of art from around the world ranging from ancient to modern times and they are conceived as a celebration of the human power of creation. Objects in the museum’s African collection come from West Africa and Central Africa, the objects date primarily from the 16th to the 20th centuries, although the earliest object is a Nok terracotta bust from Nigeria that dates from somewhere between 200 BC to 200 AD. Some works in the collection were created as symbols of leadership and status, the American art collection includes paintings, sculptures, and works on paper from the United States from the colonial period to World War II, and art from Mexico, and Canada. One of the most important pieces in the collection is The Icebergs by Frederic Edwin Church and this painting had long been referred to as a lost masterpiece
Dallas Museum of Art
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Mark di Suvero, Ave, Dallas Museum of Art sculpture garden
Dallas Museum of Art
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Frederic Church,
The Icebergs, 1861
Dallas Museum of Art
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Gustave Courbet, Fox In The Snow, 1860, Dallas Museum of Art
Dallas Museum of Art
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Takenouchi no Sukune Meets the Dragon King of the Sea, Japanese, Meiji period, 1879-81
6.
Majorca
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Majorca or Mallorca is the largest island in the Balearic Islands archipelago, which are part of Spain and located in the Mediterranean. The capital of the island, Palma, is also the capital of the community of the Balearic Islands. The Balearic Islands have been a region of Spain since 1983. The Cabrera Archipelago is administratively grouped with Majorca, the anthem of Majorca is La Balanguera. Like the other Balearic Islands of Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera, the island is a popular holiday destination, particularly for tourists from Germany. The international airport, Palma de Mallorca Airport, is one of the busiest in Spain, the name derives from Latin insula maior, larger island, later Maiorica, the larger one in comparison to Minorca, the smaller one. Little is recorded of the earliest inhabitants of the island, burial chambers and traces of habitation from the Neolithic period have been discovered, particularly the prehistoric settlements called talaiots, or talayots. They raised Bronze Age megaliths as part of their Talaiotic Culture, the island eventually came under the control of Carthage in North Africa, which had become the principal Phoenician city. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all of its overseas possessions, the island was occupied by the Romans in 123 BC under Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus. It flourished under Roman rule, during which time the towns of Pollentia, in addition, the northern town of Bocchoris, dating back to pre-Roman times, was a federated city to Rome. The local economy was driven by olive cultivation, viticulture. Majorcan soldiers were valued within the Roman legions for their skill with the sling, in 427, Gunderic and the Vandals captured the island. Geiseric, son of Gunderic, governed Majorca and used it as his base to loot and plunder settlements around the Mediterranean, in 534, Majorca was recaptured by the Eastern Roman Empire, led by Apollinarius. Under Roman rule, Christianity thrived and numerous churches were built, from 707, the island was increasingly attacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa. Recurrent invasions led the islanders to ask Charlemagne for help, in 902, Issam al-Khawlani conquered the Balearic Islands, ushering in a new period of prosperity under the Emirate of Córdoba. The town of Palma was reshaped and expanded, and became known as Medina Mayurqa, later on, with the Caliphate of Córdoba at its height, the Moors improved agriculture with irrigation and developed local industries. The Caliphate was dismembered in 1015, Majorca came under rule by the Taifa of Dénia, and from 1087 to 1114 was an independent Taifa. During that period the island was visited by Ibn Hazm, however, an expedition of Pisans and Catalans in 1114-15, led by Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, overran the island, laying siege to Palma for eight months
Majorca
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Example of prehistoric talaiot in Majorca
Majorca
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Flag of Majorca
Majorca
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Ruins of the Roman city of
Pollentia
Majorca
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Arab Baths in
Palma
7.
Hispano-Moresque ware
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It was the most elaborate and luxurious pottery being produced in Europe until the Italian maiolica industry developed sophisticated styles in the 15th century, and was exported over most of Europe. The industrys most successful period was the 14th and 15th centuries, around 711, the Moors conquered Spain. Over the following centuries, they introduced two techniques to Europe, glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and lustreware, which imitates metallic finishes with iridescent effects. Hispano-Moresque wares use both processes, applying the paint as an overglaze which is fired again. At first centred on Málaga in the south, and using typical Islamic decoration, by the 15th century the largest production was around Valencia, wares from Manises and other Valencian towns were mainly for the Christian market, and exported very widely. The earliest major centre of pottery in Al-Andalus was Málaga in southern Spain. This is the major centre whose best-known wares were produced in a Muslim kingdom, as opposed to by a workforce presumed to be largely Muslim, or Morisco, under Christian rule. It was already celebrated for its gold lustrewares in the 14th century, and remained under Muslim rule until 1487, shortly before the fall of Granada, murcia, Almería, and perhaps Granada itself were also early centres of production. This pottery stayed much closer to styles seen in other Islamic countries, although much of it was being exported to Christian markets, as can be seen by the coats of arms on many pieces. Already it was being exported, as some of the earliest evidence is bowls set as decoration into the facades of churches in Pisa when they were built, malagan ware was also exported to the Islamic world, and has been found at Fustat and elsewhere. The best known and most impressive examples of Andalucian wares are the Alhambra vases, a number of very large vases made to stand in niches in the Alhambra in Granada, and perhaps elsewhere. These are very atypical in Islamic pottery in having only a function, with no practical purpose. They are based on traditional shapes descended from the ancient amphora and they are thought to come from a range of dates covering the late 14th and the 15th centuries, and the decoration and precise shape of the body is different in each surviving example. According to Alan Caiger-Smith, few other pots in the world such a strong physical impression. All are now in museums, five in Spain and others in St Petersburg, Berlin, stockholm and Palermo, various large fragments also survive. Lustre tiles are still in place at the Alhambra. The Fortuny Tablet, a unique plaque measuring 90 x 44 cm, has a design, inside a border with an inscription praising Yusuf III. Its design resembles that of some Spanish carpets, in 1362 a cardinal commissioned floor-tiles in obra de Malicha for the Popes Palais des Papes in Avignon from two masters in Manises, at least one with an Arabic name
Hispano-Moresque ware
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A Hispano-Moresque dish, approx 32cm diameter, with Christian monogram "
IHS ", decorated in cobalt blue and gold luster. Valencia, c.1430-1500.
Burrell Collection.
Hispano-Moresque ware
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Manises dish, 1430-1450, Diameter: 14 in. (35.56 cm)
Hispano-Moresque ware
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One of a number of large vases made for the
Alhambra in
Granada, 134 cm high
Hispano-Moresque ware
–
Detail of two gazelles from an
Alhambra vase, c. 1400
8.
Valencia, Spain
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Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 1. 5–1.6 million people. Valencia is Spains third largest metropolitan area, with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.5 million, the Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the busiest container port on the Mediterranean Sea. The city is ranked at Gamma in the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, Valencia was founded as a Roman colony by the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 BC, and called Valentia Edetanorum. In 1238 the Christian king James I of Aragon reconquered the city and divided the land among the nobles who helped him conquer it and he also created a new law for the city, the Furs of Valencia, which were extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Valencia. In the 18th century Philip V of Spain abolished the privileges as punishment to the kingdom of Valencia for aligning with the Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession, Valencia was the capital of Spain when Joseph Bonaparte moved the Court there in the summer of 1812. It also served as capital between 1936 and 1937, during the Second Spanish Republic, the city is situated on the banks of the Turia, on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula, fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea. Valencia is integrated into an area on the Costa del Azahar. Valencias main festival is the Falles, the traditional Spanish dish, paella, originated in Valencia. The original Latin name of the city was Valentia, meaning strength, or valour, the Roman historian Livy explains that the founding of Valentia in the 2nd century BC was due to the settling of the Roman soldiers who fought against an Iberian rebel, Viriatus. It is not clear if the term Balansiyya was reserved for the entire Taifa of Valencia or also designated the city, by gradual sound changes, Valentia /waˈlentia/ has become Valencia or in Castilian and València in Valencian. In Valencian, the grave accent <è> /ɛ/ contrasts with the acute accent <é> /e/—but the word València is an exception to this rule and it is spelled according to Catalan etymology, though its pronunciation is closer to Vulgar Latin. Valencia stands on the banks of the Turia River, located on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at its founding by the Romans, it stood on a river island in the Turia,6.4 km from the sea. The Albufera, a lagoon and estuary about 11 km south of the city, is one of the largest lakes in Spain. The City Council bought the lake from the Crown of Spain for 1,072,980 pesetas in 1911, in 1986, because of its cultural, historical, and ecological value, the Generalitat Valenciana declared it a natural park. Valencia has a Mediterranean climate with short, very mild winters and long, hot and its average annual temperature is 18.4 °C.23.0 °C during the day and 13.8 °C at night. In the coldest month – January, the temperature typically during the day ranges from 14 to 21 °C. In the warmest month – August, the temperature during the day typically ranges from 28–34 °C. Generally, similar temperatures to those experienced in the part of Europe in summer last about 8 months
Valencia, Spain
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Clockwise from top:
City of Arts and Sciences, modernist buildings in Town Hall Square, La Lonja, Queen Square with a view of the Cathedral and its tower the Miguelete, Business Offices in France Avenue, the America's Cup port and the Malvarrosa beach.
Valencia, Spain
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Commercial zone
Valencia, Spain
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Port of Valencia
Valencia, Spain
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The North station (
Estació del Nord)
9.
Caltagirone
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Caltagirone is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Catania, on the island of Sicily, southern Italy, about 70 kilometres southwest of Catania. It is bounded by the comuni of Acate, Gela, Grammichele, Licodia Eubea, Mazzarino, Mazzarrone, Mineo, Mirabella Imbaccari, Niscemi, Piazza Armerina, the city is a production center of pottery, particularly maiolica and terra-cotta wares. Nowadays the production is more and more oriented to artistic production of ceramics, other activities are mainly related to agriculture. The citys name derives from the Arabic qalat-al-jarar - a name that attests to the antiquity of the works which are still thriving. It has been inhabited since prehistoric times, as shown by the presence of two necropolises dating from the second millennium BCE and by other archaeological finds. It was later inhabited by the Sicels pre-Roman population, the Arabs built a castle here that in 1030 was attacked by Ligurian troops under the Byzantine general George Maniakes, who have left traces of Ligurian language in the current dialect. The city flourished under the Norman and Hohenstaufen domination, becoming a center for production of ceramics. The city was almost completely destroyed by the earthquake of 1693, many public and private buildings have then been reconstructed in earthquake Baroque style. Primarily for this reason the city has been included, together with the surrounding territory, the municipality borders with Acate, Gela, Grammichele, Licodia Eubea, Mazzarino, Mazzarrone, Mineo, Mirabella Imbaccari, Niscemi, Piazza Armerina and San Michele di Ganzaria. A collection of ancient and modern pottery and terra-cotta, dating back to the Magna Grecia period, is available in the local Museum of Pottery, created in 1965. The main landmark of the city is the 142-step monumental Scalinata di Santa Maria del Monte, the peculiarity is that each step is decorated with different hand-decorated ceramics, using styles and figures derived from the millennial tradition of pottery making. Religious buildings include, The Cathedral of St. Julian, of Norman origin, the Baroque church of San Francesco di Paola. The sacristy is in Gothic style, dating from before the 1693 earthquake, San Francesco dAssisi, edified in 1236 and rebuilt in Baroque style after 1693. The façade has two orders with marine symbols and a statue of the Immaculate, the façade has eight statues portraying saints and the Madonna with Child. The interior, one a single nave, houses a Pietà by Filippo Paladino, the Renaissance Church of the New Capuchins, in white stone, with a noteworthy treasure and a picture gallery. Also noteworthy is the Palazzo Senatorio, the former Town Hall, don Luigi Sturzo, founder of the Italian Peoples Party. Mario Scelba, Minister of the Interior and Prime Minister of Italy from February 1954 to July 1955, silvio Milazzo, President of the Regional Government of Sicily from 1958-1960. Vincent Drucci Chicago North Side Gang boss, born here in 1898, giuseppe Mascara football player, born here in 1979
Caltagirone
Caltagirone
Caltagirone
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Modern ceramic vase of Caltagirone.
Caltagirone
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The Taking of the Bell of Altavilla to Caltagirone, polychrome maiolica mosaic in the square of Santa Maria del Monte, atop the decorated staircase.
10.
Lusterware
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The first use of lustre decoration was as painting on glass. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD, Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century, the technique later became popular in Persia and Syria. The reminiscence of shining metal, especially gold, made especially attractive. Lusterware was produced in quantity in Egypt during the Fatimid dynasty in the 10th-12th centuries, while the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe through Al-Andalus. Málaga was the first centre of Hispano-Moresque ware, before it developed in the region of Valencia, and then to Italy, in the 16th century lustred maiolica was a specialty of Gubbio, noted for a rich ruby red, and at Deruta. Unlike other Persian wares of the period, these use traditional Middle Eastern shapes and decoration rather than Chinese-inspired ones, designs featured plant forms and animals, and generally flowed freely over the whole surface, typically taking up over half the surface area. Production, which was never large, appears to have mostly been from about 1650-1750 and it is often thought to have been centred in Kirman, though firm evidence is lacking. Metallic lustre of another sort produced English lustreware, which imparts to a piece of pottery the appearance of an object of silver, gold or copper. Very dilute amounts of powdered gold or platinum were dissolved in aqua regia and added to spirits of tar for platinum, the mixture was applied to the glazed ware and fired in an enameling kiln, depositing a thin film of platinum or gold. Platinum produced the appearance of silver, and was employed for the middle class in shapes identical to those uses for silver tea services. Depending on the concentration of gold in the compound and the under slip on which it was applied. The gold lustre could be painted or stenciled on the ware, or it could be applied in the resist technique, in which the background was solidly lustred, in 1810 Peter Warburton of New Hall patented a method of transfer-printing in gold and silver lustre. Wedgwoods lusterware made in the 1820s spawned the production of quantities of copper and silver lustreware in England. Raised, multicolored patterns depicting pastoral scenes were created. Pitchers were produced in a range of sizes from cream pitchers to large milk pitchers, tea sets came a bit later, usually featuring creamers, sugar bowls, and slop bowls. Large pitchers with transfer printed commemorative scenes appear to have arrived around the middle of the 19th century and these were purely decorative and today command high prices because of their historical connections. Delicate lustre imitating mother-of-pearl was produced by Wedgwood and at Belleek in the mid-century, under the impetus of the Aesthetic Movement, William de Morgan revived lustrewares in a manner drawing from lustred majolica and Hispano-Moresque wares, with fine, bold designs. In the United States, copper lusterware became popular because of its lustrousness, apparently, as gaslights became available to the rich, the fad was to place groupings of lusterware on mirror platforms to be used as centerpieces for dinner parties
Lusterware
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Upper part of the mihrab decorated with lusterware tiles (dating from the 9th century) in the
Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan,
Tunisia
Lusterware
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Hispano-Moresque dish from Spain, after 1475 Tin-glazed earthenware with lustred decoration, Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Lusterware
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Lustreware vase by Clement fr:Massier, circa 1900
Lusterware
–
Fragment of a Bowl Depicting a Mounted Warrior, 11th century. Fragment of a lustreware bowl, depicting a rider carrying a shield (and possibly a lance) atop a galloping horse, in which a metallic oxide glaze is applied to the body before firing, leaving a shimmering surface reminiscent of precious metals. Egypt, Fatimid dynasty (909–1171),
Brooklyn Museum
11.
Seville
–
Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
Seville
–
Clockwise from top:
St. Mary of the See Cathedral and
Giralda,
Plaza de España in the
Maria Luisa Park,
Metropol Parasol, the Isabel II ("
Triana ") bridge and the
Torre del Oro.
Seville
–
Flag
Seville
–
View of the
Giralda from the Patio de Banderas (Courtyard of Flags), historic square with remains of Roman, Moorish and Castilian periods.
Seville
–
Cathedral of Saint Mary from Constitución Avenue
12.
Talavera (pottery)
–
Talavera, in Puebla, Mexico, is a type of maiolica pottery, which is distinguished by a white glaze. Much of this pottery was decorated only in blue, but colors such as yellow, black, green, orange, maiolica pottery was brought to Mexico by the Spanish in the first century of the colonial period. Production of this became highly developed in Puebla because of the availability of fine clays. Formally, the tradition developed there is called Talavera Poblana to distinguish it from the similarly named Talavera pottery of Spain. It is a mixture of Italian, Spanish and indigenous ceramic techniques, the tradition has struggled since the Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century, when the number of workshops were reduced to less than eight in the state of Puebla. Later efforts by artists and collectors revived the craft somewhat in the early 20th century and there are now significant collections of Talavera pottery in Puebla, Mexico City, Talavera is a type of maiolica earthenware, distinguished by its white base glaze. Authentic Talavera pottery only comes from the city of Puebla and the communities of Atlixco, Cholula and Tecali, as the clays needed, all pieces are hand-thrown on a potters wheel and the glazes contain tin and lead, as they have since colonial times. This glaze must craze, be slightly porous and milky-white, there are only six permitted colors, blue, yellow, black, green, orange and mauve, and these colors must be made from natural pigments. The painted designs have an appearance as they fuse slightly into the glaze. The base, the part that touches the table, is not glazed, an inscription is required on the bottom that contains the following information, the logo of the manufacturer, the initials of the artist and the location of the manufacturer in Puebla. The design of the pieces is regulated by tradition. The paint ends up slightly raised over the base, only natural clays are used, rather than chemically treated and dyed clays and the handcrafting process takes three to four months. The process is risky because a piece can break at any point and this makes Talavera three times more costly than other types of pottery. Because of this, Talavera manufacturers have been pressure from imitations, commonly from China. Today, only made by designated areas and from workshops that have been certified are permitted to call their work Talavera. Certification is issued by the Consejo Regulador de la Talavera, a regulatory body. Each of these needs to pass an inspection of the manufacturing processes. Pieces are subject to sixteen laboratory tests with internationally certified labs, only pieces from workshops that meet the standards are authorized to have the signature of the potter, the logo of the workshop and the special hologram that certifies the pieces authenticity
Talavera (pottery)
–
Talavera serving dish by
Marcela Lobo on display at the
Museo de Arte Popular, Mexico City.
Talavera (pottery)
–
Talavera plate by Marcela Lobo
Talavera (pottery)
–
Jars in the window of workshop "Taller Armando".
Talavera (pottery)
–
Uriarte Talavera workshop in Puebla
13.
Victorian majolica
–
This article refers to the two types of earthenware made in 19th century between 1848 and 1900 that are together known as Victorian Majolica. For mainstream pottery with a white glaze painted with coloured enamels. Victorian majolica includes two types of earthenware made in 19th century between 1848 and 19001, Victorian majolica was originated by Mintons, who exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Exhibition Catalogue does not use the name Palissy ware that was used in the Minton factory, the debt to the eccentric 16th century potter Bernard Palissy is obvious from its naturalistic plant and animal motifs. Exhibition Catalogue entry Earthenware… Flowerpots, etc.60, a variety of… flowerpots and stands, and garden seats. Exhibition Catalogue entry Tiles, Terra Cotta, and Vases, etc, variety of flowerpots and stands, coloured in the majolica style, etc. The reader will remember that the difference in these wares is that whereas the Palissy ware is coloured by a transparent glaze. The care and taste with which these manufactures have been brought by the Messrs, Minton to their present state of perfection, have been amply rewarded. Within a few days of the opening of the Exhibition all the specimens exhibited had been sold, despite this reminder Mintons Palissy Ware became known as majolica ware, Palissy ware dropped out of use and majolica stuck. In the 1880s, the curators of the South Kensington Museum tried to clear up the confusion by reviving the Italian spelling maiolica with an i instead of a j for Italian tin-glaze, Wedgwood began to manufacture majolica about ten years after Mintons. Wedgwoods glazes and modelling were denser and more formal than Mintons, Wedgwoods majolica included cachepots, jugs, candlesticks, cheese bells, umbrella stands, sardine boxes, plates in naturalistic patterns, bread trays, etc. In Wedgwoods greenware the green glaze emphasizes the low relief patterning, typically of basketwork, Majolica was influenced by the design of the old Cauliflower and Pineapple teapots that had been made by Thomas Whieldon, Wedgwood and other 18th-century Staffordshire potters. Many late 19th-century majolica designs had rustic motifs with backgrounds of basketry and wooden-bound buckets decorated with moulded flowers, birds, fish, handles were made to resemble tree branches, rose stems and twined flowers and leaves. Many potteries responded to the popularity of majolica, the Trent Pottery, George Jones and Sons, made majolica cupids, shells, dolphins, birds, figurines and coral designs in numerous shapes. Their mark was a monogram of the initials G. J. joined together, a beehive bread dish with a cover has a design of wild roses against a background of basketwork and has the Trent Pottery mark. Also flowerpots were made in bright colours and with raised designs of natural flowers, royal Worcester made figurines, shell vases, wall pockets etc. marking most of their output with an impressed crown over rose backstamp, using a distinctive paler blue glaze. William Brownfield made wall pockets, jugs, game pie dishes, some wares were impressed W B. T. Furnival and Sons made jugs and plates with raised oriental designs, which had borders of wickerwork in bold colour and glaze. Their mark, Furnival, is impressed in the ware, edward Steele of Hanley manufactured jugs, flower vases, teapots, dessert services also made majolica and centrepieces with fine colouring
Victorian majolica
–
Minton majolica swan vase
Victorian majolica
–
Minton & Co. - Cherub and ribbon jardiniere
14.
Orvieto
–
Orvieto is a city and comune in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The site of the city is among the most dramatic in Europe, the ancient city, populated since Etruscan times, has usually been associated with Etruscan Velzna, but some modern scholars differ. Orvieto was certainly a centre of Etruscan civilization, the archaeological museum houses some of the Etruscan artifacts that have been recovered in the immediate neighbourhood. Orvieto was annexed by Rome in the third century BC, because of its site on a high, steep bluff of tufa, a volcanic rock, the city was virtually impregnable. It was last conquered by Julius Caesar, by the thirteenth century, three papal palaces had been built. In the 13th century bitter feuds divided the city, which was at the apogée of its wealth but found itself often at odds with the papacy, Pope Urban IV stayed at Orvieto from 1262-64. The city became one of the cultural centers of its time when Thomas Aquinas taught at the studium there. A small university, had its origins in a studium generale that was granted to the city by Pope Gregory IX in 1236. The territory of Orvieto was under papal control long before it was added to the Papal States, it remained a papal possession until 1860. The design has often attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio. The church is striped in white travertine and greenish-black basalt in narrow bands, similar in ways to the cathedral of Siena. In the following decade, cathedral authorities called Sienese architect and sculptor Lorenzo Maitani to stabilize the building and he enlarged the choir and planned a transept with two chapels, spaces that were not finished until long after his death. The Cathedral has five bells, tuned in E flat, which date back to the renaissance, the façade is particularly striking and includes some remarkable sculpture by Lorenzo Maitani. Inside the cathedral, the Chapel of San Brizio is frescoed by Fra Angelico and with Luca Signorellis masterpiece, from the 11th century onward, the popes maintained an aggressive political presence in the papal territory which occupied central Italy. Together with his court, the pope moved from palace to palace in the manner of his European secular counterparts, several central Italian cities hosted the pope and his retinue during the years of wandering, housing them in the bishops palace. Outside Rome, only Orvieto and Viterbo had papal palaces, Pope Adrian IV was the first pope to spend significant time in Orvieto. His successor, Pope Innocent III, was a militant opponent of the Cathar heresy, which had infiltrated the city, in 1227, Pope Gregory IX confirmed the Dominican studium generale in Orvieto, a school of theology, and one of the first in Europe. Pope Urban IV, a Frenchman who was crowned in the Dominican church in Viterbo, in 1263, he began a papal palace, perhaps the first outside Rome, and consecrated the new Dominican church in Orvieto
Orvieto
–
Piazza della Repubblica.
Orvieto
–
Facade of the Orvieto Cathedral.
Orvieto
–
The
Pozzo di S. Patrizio, a well built for the Popes.
Orvieto
–
The monumental
Cathedral of Orvieto.
15.
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Entrance to the Victoria and Albert Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
In 2000,
an 11 metre high, blown glass chandelier by
Dale Chihuly was installed as a focal point in the rotunda at the V&A's main entrance.
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Henry Cole, the museum's first director
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Frieze detail from internal courtyard showing Queen Victoria in front of the 1851 Great Exhibition.
16.
Oxides
–
An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
Oxides
–
Oxides, such as
iron(III) oxide or
rust, which consists of hydrated
iron(III) oxides Fe 2 O 3 · n H 2 O and
iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH) 3), form when oxygen combines with other elements
Oxides
–
Silicon dioxide (SiO 2) is one of the most common oxides on the surface of earth. Like most oxides, it adopts a polymeric structure.
17.
Frit
–
A frit is a ceramic composition that has been fused in a special fusing oven, quenched to form a glass, and granulated. However, not all glass that is fused and quenched in water is frit, according to the OED, the origin of the word frit dates back to 1662 and is a calcinated mixture of sand and fluxes ready to be melted in a crucible to make glass. Nowadays, the raw materials of glass making are more commonly called glass batch. In antiquity, frit could be crushed to make pigments or shaped to create objects and it may also have served as an intermediate material in the manufacture of raw glass. The definition of frit tends to be variable and has proved an issue for scholars. In recent centuries, frits have taken on a number of roles, such as biomaterials, frit in the form of alumino-silicate can be used in glaze-free continuous casting refractories. Archaeologists have found evidence of frit in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Europe, the definition of frit as a sintered, polycrystalline, unglazed material can be applied to these archaeological contexts. It is typically colored blue or green, Blue frit, also known as Egyptian blue, was made from quartz, lime, a copper compound, and an alkali flux, all heated to a temperature between 850 and 1000°C. Quartz sand may have used to contribute silica to the frit. The copper content must be greater than the content in order to create a blue frit. Ultimately the frit consists of crystals and “partially reacted quartz particles bonded together” by interstitial glass. Despite an argument to the contrary, scientists have found that, regardless of alkali content, high alkali content will yield “a large proportion of glass, ” thereby diluting the cuprorivaite crystals and producing lighter shades of blue. Regrinding and resintering the frit will create finer cuprorivaite crystals, also producing lighter shades, the earliest appearance of blue frit is as a pigment on a tomb painting at Saqqara dated to 2900 BC, though its use became more popular in Egypt around 2600 BC. Blue frit has also uncovered in the royal tombs at Ur from the Early Dynastic III period. Its use in the Mediterranean dates to the Thera frescoes from the Late Middle Bronze Age, while the glass phase is present in blue frits from Egypt, scientists have not detected it in blue frits from the Near East, Europe, and the Aegean. Natural weathering, which is responsible for the corrosion of glasses and glazes from these three regions, is the likely reason for this absence. At Amarna, archaeologists have found blue frit in the form of cakes, powder residues. Analysis of the microstructures and crystal sizes of these frits has allowed Hatton, Shortland, the cakes were produced by heating the raw materials for frit, then they were ground to make powders, and finally, the powders were molded and refired to create vessels
Frit
–
The facade of the
Anchorage Museum in
Anchorage, Alaska incorporates a large amount of custom insulated fritted glass.
18.
Lees (fermentation)
–
Lees refers to deposits of dead yeast or residual yeast and other particles that precipitate, or are carried by the action of fining, to the bottom of a vat of wine after fermentation and aging. The yeast deposits in beer brewing are known as trub, however, yeast deposits from secondary fermentation of both wine and beer are referred to as lees. This material is the source for most commercial tartaric acid, which is used in cooking, normally the wine is transferred to another container, leaving this sediment behind. Some wines are aged for a time on the lees, leading to a distinctive yeasty aroma. The lees may be stirred in order to promote uptake of the lees flavour, the lees are an important component in the making of Ripasso where the leftover lees from Amarone are used to impart more flavour and colour to partially aged Valpolicella. Sur lie literally translates from French as on lees, sur lie wines are bottled directly from the lees without racking. In the case of great Chardonnay, such as Montrachet, this adds a toasty, nutty hazelnut quality and additional depth, chemically this can alter the oak flavour molecules increasing the integration, and making the oak seem less obtrusive to the palate. This is desirable because oak tannins are an acid. This process can give an added freshness and creaminess to the wine. Muscadet is made in this fashion, the effect of the lees during bottle fermentation for at least 18 months on Champagne is considerable. The bready toasty notes associated with some of the greatest sparkling wines made are the result of sur lie aging, beer on lees is also sometimes made. Many of the beers offered by the Quebec, Canada based Unibroue are on lees, a process in which yeast is added to wine that has completed primary fermentation. This secondary yeast addition typically remains in the wine from two to eight weeks, depending on the wine makers goals, the yeast is stirred frequently during the protocol, and racked off when the protocol is complete. Also known as autolysis, a light lees protocol releases additional mannoproteins and polysaccharides that can influence the flavour
Lees (fermentation)
–
Lees from
Merlot after fermentation.
Lees (fermentation)
–
A French Muscadet white wine from the Northwestern region that has been aged sur lie.
Lees (fermentation)
–
Lees in a glass
19.
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
Lead-glazed earthenware is one of the traditional types of glazed earthenware, which coat the ceramic body and render it impervious to liquids, as terracotta itself is not. The lead glaze is shiny and transparent after firing, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. In lead glazes tints provided by impurities render greenish to brownish casts, the Romans used lead glazes for high-quality oil lamps and drinking cups. Lead oxide was the principal flux in the glaze, polychrome effects were obtained by using as coloring agents copper, iron, much of Roman technology was lost in the West, but coarse lead-glazed earthenwares were universal in medieval Europe and in Colonial America. In England, lead-glazed Stamford Ware was produced in Stamford, Lincolnshire as early as the ninth century and it was widely traded across Britain and the near continent. In 16th-century France Bernard Palissy refined lead-glazed earthenware to a high standard, lead-glazed earthenwares in Britain include the Toby jugs, such as those made in the late 18th century by Ralph Wood the Younger at Burslem, Staffordshire
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
A
sancai lead-glazed earthenware saddled horse statuette,
Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)
Lead-glazed earthenware
–
Toby jug made by Ralph Wood the Younger, Burslem, ca. 1782-1795 (
Victoria & Albert Museum)
20.
Manganese
–
Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is not found as an element in nature, it is often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels, by the mid-18th century, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had used pyrolusite to produce chlorine. Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite contained a new element, johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon. Manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion prevention on steel, ionized manganese is used industrially as pigments of various colors, which depend on the oxidation state of the ions. The permanganates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are powerful oxidizers, Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode material in zinc-carbon and alkaline batteries. In biology, manganese ions function as cofactors for a variety of enzymes with many functions. Manganese enzymes are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals in organisms that must deal with elemental oxygen. Manganese also functions in the complex of photosynthetic plants. The element is a trace mineral for all known living organisms but is a neurotoxin. In larger amounts, and apparently with far greater effectiveness through inhalation, Manganese is a silvery-gray metal that resembles iron. It is hard and very brittle, difficult to fuse, Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic. Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen, naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. Eighteen radioisotopes have been isolated and described, the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than three hours, and the majority of less than one minute. Manganese also has three meta states, Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years, because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is relatively rare, produced by cosmic rays impact on iron. Manganese isotopic contents are combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology
Manganese
–
Manganese, 25 Mn
Manganese
–
Electrolytically refined manganese chips and 1 cm 3 cube
Manganese
–
Manganese(II) chloride crystals – the pale pink color of Mn(II) salts is due to a spin-forbidden 3d transition.
Manganese
–
Aqueous solution of KMnO 4 illustrating the deep purple of Mn(VII) as it occurs in permanganate
21.
Copper
–
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
Copper
–
Native copper (~4 cm in size)
Copper
–
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting;
etched to reveal
crystallites.
Copper
–
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence color.
Copper
–
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
22.
Cobalt
–
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Like nickel, cobalt is found in the Earths crust only in chemically combined form, the free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal, today, some cobalt is produced specifically from various metallic-lustered ores, for example cobaltite, but the main source of the element is as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The copper belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, cobalt is primarily used in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. The compounds, cobalt silicate and cobalt aluminate give a deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one isotope, cobalt-59. Cobalt-60 is an important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer. Cobalt is the center of coenzymes called cobalamins, the most common example of which is vitamin B12. As such, it is a trace dietary mineral for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also a micronutrient for bacteria, algae, cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is 1,115 °C and the moment is 1. 6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two-thirds that of iron, metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures, hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 °C, but in practice, the difference is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common. Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by an oxide film. It is attacked by halogens and sulfur, heating in oxygen produces Co3O4 which loses oxygen at 900 °C to give the monoxide CoO. The metal reacts with fluorine at 520 K to give CoF3, with chlorine, bromine and iodine and it does not react with hydrogen gas or nitrogen gas even when heated, but it does react with boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur. At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to +5 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2 and these salts form the pink-colored metal aquo complex 2+ in water
Cobalt
–
electrolytically refined cobalt chips
Cobalt
–
A block of
electrolytically refined cobalt (99.9% purity) cut from a large plate
Cobalt
–
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
Cobalt
–
Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured circa 1335
23.
Antimony
–
Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite, Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl. Metallic antimony was known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. In the West, it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio, for some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron, the largest applications for metallic antimony is an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead–acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics, Antimony is in a pnictogen and has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, Antimony is stable in air at room temperature, but reacts with oxygen if heated to produce antimony trioxide, Sb2O3. Antimony is resistant to attack by acids, four allotropes of antimony are known, a stable metallic form and three metastable forms. Elemental antimony is a brittle, silver-white shiny metalloid, when slowly cooled, molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic. A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride, when scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms, when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed upon cooling of antimony vapor. It has the crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic, it oxidizes in air. At 100 °C, it transforms into the stable form. The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable and it has only been generated by oxidation of stibine at −90 °C. Above this temperature and in ambient light, this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope, elemental antimony adopts a layered structure in which layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a density of 6.697 g/cm3
Antimony
–
Antimony, 51 Sb
Antimony
–
Native antimony with
oxidation products
Antimony
–
Stibnite
Antimony
–
The Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio described the first procedure of how to isolate antimony.
24.
Iron oxide
–
Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. All together, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, common rust is a form of iron oxide. Iron oxides are used as inexpensive, durable pigments in paints, coatings. Colors commonly available are in the end of the yellow/orange/red/brown/black range. When used as a coloring, it has E number E172. Limonite Iron oxide nanoparticles List of inorganic pigments Information from Nano-Oxides, http, //chemed. chem. purdue. edu/demos/demosheets/12.3. html http, //minerals. usgs. gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/iron_oxide/ CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards de
Iron oxide
–
Iron oxide pigment
25.
Sgraffito
–
The Italian past participle sgraffiato is also used, especially of pottery. Sgraffito and sgraffiti come from the Italian word graffiare, ultimately from the Greek γράφειν, related terms include graffito and graffiti. Sgraffito on walls has been used in Europe since classical times, it was popularized in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, in combination with ornamental decoration these techniques formed an alternative to the prevailing painting of walls. Of late there has been a growing interest in this old technique. The technical procedure is simple, and the procedures are similar to the painting of frescoes. Most of their work has now weathered away, during the 16th century, the technique was brought to Germany by the master builders of the Renaissance and taken up with enthusiasm. As a simple art, old examples of sgraffito can be found in the wide surroundings of Wetterau. In Germany, the technique is most predominant in Bavaria, the use of sgraffito was common in the creation of housing façades for the purposes of advertising. The technique was used in Thuringia, the Engadin, Austria and Transylvania. In Catalonia, sgraffito was implemented in the early 20th century by the Noucentista neo-classical architects, another use of sgraffito is seen in its simplified painting technique. One coat of paint is left to dry on a canvas or sheet of paper, another coat of a different color is painted on top of the first layer. The artist then uses a knife or oil stick to scratch out a design. This can also be achieved by using oil pastels for the first layer, sometimes a first coat of paint is not needed, and the wet coat scraped back reveals the canvas. This cannot be achieved by using the oil pastel method and this technique is often used in art classes to teach the sgraffito technique to novice art students. The English artist Heywood Sumner has been identified as this eras pioneer of the technique, for example his work at the 1892 St Marys Church, Sunbury, Surrey. Sumners work is sgraffito per se, scratched plaster, but the term has come to encompass a variety of techniques for producing exterior graphic decoration, St. Benets Chaplaincy at Queen Mary, University of London
Sgraffito
–
Palazzo Massimo Istoriato: a fading palace facade in
Rome by
Polidoro da Caravaggio and
Maturino da Firenze, 1523.
Sgraffito
–
Facade of a house in
Kraków
Sgraffito
–
Sgraffito decoration of ceramics, in the brown slip on the rim
Sgraffito
–
Palazzo Nasi,
Florence
26.
Montelupo Fiorentino
–
Montelupo Fiorentino is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Florence in the Italian region Tuscany, located about 20 kilometres southwest of Florence. The area is hilly and is crossed by the river Pesa that, particularly in the municipal area. Human presence in the area of Montelupo dates back to the Palaeolithic era, evidence of this are the many prehistoric sites which have been identified in the last twenty years, in the municipal area. Testimony of human presence during the classical era recently emerged from Etruscan civilization tombs in the old town, during the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the area faced threats of barbarian invasions, and the population left the plains and relocated to the surrounding hills. This phenomenon reached its peak during the 10th century, during the time of power struggles between the great families Guidi, Cadolingi and Alberti and these families realized in the area, a dense network of military facilities, which included the towns of Capraia and Montelupo Fiorentino. At the end of the 12th century AD, began the stage of Florence in the area. Beginning on the 13th century AD, the town of Montelupo Fiorentino is destroyed by the Florentines, towards the end of the 14th century AD, Montelupo Fiorentino became a walled village of the Florentine countryside. The walls were built in 1348, and the Statute of the Powers dates back to 1414, until the 16th century AD, Montelupo Fiorentino lived his golden age. Since then and until World War II, Montelupo Fiorentino found himself on the border of everything, the country was shaken in the last half of the 20th century AD by some catastrophic natural events in nature. Most important are the floods of 1949,1966 and 1992, in these three events in fact, the Arno River north of Montelupo Fiorentino, and the Pesa River adjacent, flood submerging the country below four meters of water. Montelupo Fiorentino was one of the most important centers of production of the Renaissance, at the Italian. The story begins at the end of the 13th century, with the production of manufactured goods with Spanish-Moorish inspired decor. Since then, and for more than three centuries, the furnaces have proliferated within the city walls, to over 50 units at the end of the 15th century. In mid 15th century, Montelupo was the protagonist of the phenomenon of circulation of techniques, artists from Montelupo Fiorentino went to work to Faenza, and Cafaggiolo. It was also documented the presence of Montelupo’s potters in Caltagirone, only through the production of the Capraia’s pots the tradition survived during the 18th and 19th centuries. The memory of the ceramics of Montelupo, was then lost. The Findings are displayed in the Museum of Ceramics of Montelupo, Montelupo Fiorentino is twinned with, Manises, Spain Moustiers-Sainte-Marie, France Beaucaire, France Nove, Italy Official website
Montelupo Fiorentino
–
Panorama of Montelupo Fiorentino
Montelupo Fiorentino
–
Arlecchino type plate with a horseman, an example of Montelupo's pottery from the beginning of the 17th-century at the
Royal Castle in
Warsaw.
27.
Florence
–
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
Florence
–
A collage of Florence showing the
Galleria degli Uffizi (top left), followed by the
Palazzo Pitti, a sunset view of the city and the
Fountain of Neptune in the
Piazza della Signoria
Florence
–
A wooden model of Florence as it would have probably looked during Roman times, showing the ancient amphitheatre
Florence
–
The façade of the Cathedral
Florence
–
Leonardo da Vinci statue outside the
Uffizi Gallery.
28.
Perugia
–
Perugia is the capital city of both the region of Umbria in central Italy, crossed by the river Tiber, and of the province of Perugia. The city is located about 164 kilometres north of Rome and 148 km south-east of Florence and it covers a high hilltop and part of the valleys around the area. The region of Umbria is bordered by Tuscany, Lazio, the history of Perugia goes back to the Etruscan period, Perugia was one of the main Etruscan cities. Perugia is also a cultural and artistic centre of Italy. The famous painter Pietro Vannucci, nicknamed Perugino, was a native of Città della Pieve and he decorated the local Sala del Cambio with a beautiful series of frescoes, eight of his pictures can also be admired in the National Gallery of Umbria. Perugino was the teacher of Raphael, the great Renaissance artist who produced five paintings in Perugia, another famous painter, Pinturicchio, lived in Perugia. Galeazzo Alessi is the most famous architect from Perugia, the citys symbol is the griffin, which can be seen in the form of plaques and statues on buildings around the city. Perugia was an Umbrian settlement but first appears in history as Perusia, one of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria. Fabius Pictors account, utilized by Livy, of the carried out against the Etruscan League by Fabius Maximus Rullianus in 310 or 309 BC. At that time a thirty-year indutiae was agreed upon, however, in 295 Perusia took part in the Third Samnite War and was reduced, with Volsinii and Arretium, a number of lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the city. Negotiations with the besieging forces fell to the bishop, Herculanus. Totila is said to have ordered the bishop to be flayed and beheaded, st. Herculanus later became the citys patron saint. In the Lombard period Perugia is spoken of as one of the cities of Tuscia. Peter, acknowledged the validity of the statement and recognised the established civic practices as having the force of law. However this dominant tendency was rather an anti-Germanic and Italian political strategy, midway through the 14th century Bartholus of Sassoferrato, who was a renowned jurist, asserted that Perugia was dependent upon neither imperial nor papal support. Civic peace was constantly disturbed in the 14th century by struggles between the party representing the people and the nobles. A citadel known as the Rocca Paolina, after the name of Pope Paul III, was built, in 1797, the city was conquered by French troops. On 4 February 1798, the Tiberina Republic was formed, with Perugia as capital, in 1799, the Tiberina Republic merged to the Roman Republic
Perugia
–
Piazza IV Novembre
Perugia
–
View from Perugia, over a valley below.
Perugia
–
View of other hills around Perugia.
29.
Deforestation
–
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestationinclude conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use, the most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 30% of Earths land surface is covered by forests, Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons, trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and it has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation has also used in war to deprive the enemy of cover for its forces. Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, as of 2005, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland, disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue, Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the live in tropical forests. Between 2000 and 2012,2.3 million square kilometres of forests around the world were cut down, as a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres remain of the original 16 million square kilometres of forest that formerly covered the Earth. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation, some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. One study found that population increases due to fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation. Globalization is often viewed as another cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization have promoted localized forest recovery. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years, Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions
Deforestation
–
Satellite photograph of deforestation in progress in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern
Bolivia.
Deforestation
–
The last batch of sawnwood from the
peat forest in Indragiri Hulu, Sumatra,
Indonesia. Deforestation for
oil palm plantation.
Deforestation
–
Illegal slash and burn practice in
Madagascar, 2010
Deforestation
–
Fires on Borneo and Sumatra, 2006. People use
slash-and-burn deforestation to clear land for agriculture.
