1.
Maison Dieu, Dover
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The Hospital of St Mary, Domus Dei, or Maison Dieu, is a medieval building in Dover, England which forms part of the Old Town Hall buildings. De Burgh gave the manors of River and Kingsdown to the hospital in order to fund it, simon de Wardune also gave some land. The original buildings consisted of one hall with a kitchen and living quarters attached for the Master. The hospital accommodated permanent pensioners and other wounded and poor soldiers, in 1227, a chapel was added and Henry III attended its consecration. Today, this survives as a courtroom, having been converted in the nineteenth century by the town council of Dover. When the Master and Brethren of the Hall signed an oath accepting Henry VIIIs Act of Supremacy, declaring him the Head of the Church of England, in 1534, the institutions religious role ended. Ten years later, the building was surrendered to the Crown and was utilized by the navy and army, as a supplies base, in 1834, the building was sold to the Corporation of Dover who used the Maison Dieu as the Town Hall. At first, the building was used by the Town Council with minimal restorations, eventually, the Council turned the old chapel into a courtroom and built a prison below. The Council decided to restore the building, and in 1851 they agreed to implement renovations suggested by Victorian architect Ambrose Poynter. After seven years of fundraising for the project, William Burges, another famous Victorian architect, funded almost entirely by the Council, began work on the restoration project. Burgess admiration of the mediaeval style can be seen in such parts of his renovation as grotesque animals. Burges designed the Council Chamber at the end of the hall added in 1867 and in 1881 began work on a town meeting, the new building, on the site of the old prison, contained meeting rooms and mayoral and official offices. While William Burges designed the project, parts were completed after his death by Pullan and Chapple, the Town Hall and remains of mediaeval Maison Dieu were Grade II* listed in 1973. Maison Dieu House was Grade II* listed in 1949, Maison Dieu is also a Scheduled Monument
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Ordnance Survey National Grid
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The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, different from using Latitude and Longitude. It is often called British National Grid, the Ordnance Survey devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys. Grid references are commonly quoted in other publications and data sources. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system is used to provide references for worldwide locations. European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military Grid Reference System system, the grid is based on the OSGB36 datum, and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War Two, had issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain, more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the GPS, the British maps adopt a Transverse Mercator projection with an origin at 49° N, 2° W. Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly, the distortion created between the OS grid and the projection is countered by a scale factor in the longitude to create two lines of longitude with zero distortion rather than one. Grid north and true north are aligned on the 400 km easting of the grid which is 2° W. 2° 0′ 5″ W. OSGB36 was also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS84 has been used, a geodetic transformation between OSGB36 and other terrestrial reference systems can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true, the definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the OSGB is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN02. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy, the difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB36 are the same as for WGS84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS84 longitude lines are about 70 metres east of their OSGB36 equivalents, the smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. But Great Britain has not shrunk by 100+ metres, a point near Lands End now computes to be 27.6 metres closer to a point near Duncansby Head than it did under OSGB36. For the first letter, the grid is divided into squares of size 500 km by 500 km, there are four of these which contain significant land area within Great Britain, S, T, N and H. The O square contains an area of North Yorkshire, almost all of which lies below mean high tide
4.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
5.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
6.
Retirement home
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A retirement home – sometimes called an old peoples home or old age home, although this term can also refer to a nursing home – is a multi-residence housing facility intended for senior citizens. Typically, each person or couple in the home has a room or suite of rooms. Additional facilities are provided within the building and this can include facilities for meals, gatherings, recreation activities, and some form of health or hospice care. A place in a retirement home can be paid for on a basis, like an apartment. A retirement home differs from a nursing home primarily in the level of care given. Retirement communities, unlike retirement homes, offer separate and autonomous homes for residents, assisted living Media related to Retirement homes at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Timber framed
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
8.
Watling Street
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The Romans later paved the route, which then connected the Kentish ports of Dubris, Rutupiae, Lemanis, and Regulbium to their bridge over the Thames at Londinium. The continuation northwest passed Verulamium on its way to Viroconium, Watling Street was the site of Boudicas defeat by the Romans and the southwestern border of the Danelaw. In the early 19th century, the course between London and the sea was paved and became known as the Great Dover Road, today, the route from Dover to London forms part of the A2 road and the route from London to Wroxeter forms much of the A5 road. The original Celtic and Roman name for the road is unknown, the modern name instead derives from the Old English Wæcelinga Stræt, from a time when street referred to any paved road and had no particular association with urban thoroughfares. The Waeclingas were a tribe in the St Albans area in the medieval period. It is uncertain whether they were considered part of Middlesex or Essex or a British remnant, the original Anglo-Saxon name for the section of the route between Canterbury and London was Casingc Stræt or Key Street, a name still borne by a hamlet on the road near Sittingbourne. This section only later became considered part of Watling Street, the broad, grassy trackway found by the Romans had already been used by the Britons for centuries. The main path led from Richborough on the English Channel to a ford in the Thames at Thorney Island near Westminster to a site near Wroxeter. The western continuation went on to Holyhead while the northern ran to Chester, the Romans began constructing paved roads shortly after their invasion in AD43. The London portion of Watling Street was rediscovered during Christopher Wrens rebuilding of St Mary-le-Bow in 1671–73, modern excavations date its construction to the winter from AD47 to 48. Around London, it was 7. 5–8.7 m wide and it was repeatedly redone, including at least twice before the sack of London by Boudicas troops in 60 or 61. Some of this route is preserved beneath Old Kent Road, suetonius Paulinuss victory over Boudicas Iceni in AD61. They only differ in the distance to Durovernum,14 and 17 Roman miles, the route to Lemanis was sometimes distinguished by the name Stone Street, it now forms most of the B2068 road that runs from the M20 motorway to Canterbury. The Sixth Route also recorded an alternate path stopping at Tripontium between Venonis and Bannaventa, it is listed as taking 24 Roman miles rather than 17, the more direct route north from Londinium to Eboracum was Ermine Street. The stations between Eboracum and Cataractonium were shared with Dere Street, which branched off to the northeast. Durocobrivis was the site of the intersection with the Icknield Way. The Maiden Way ran from Bravoniacum to the lead and silver mines at Epiacum, by the time of the Saxon invasions, the Roman bridge across the Thames had presumably fallen into disrepair or been destroyed. The Saxons abandoned the walled Roman site in favour of Lundenwic to its west and they did not return to Lundenburh until forced to do so by the Vikings in the late 9th century
9.
A2 road (Great Britain)
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The A2 is a major road in southern England, connecting London with the English Channel port of Dover in Kent. This route has always been of importance as a connection between the British capital of London and sea routes to Continental Europe. It was formerly known as the Dover Road, unlike the other single digit A-roads in Great Britain, the A2 does not form a zone boundary. The Zone 1/2 boundary is the River Thames, the route of the current A2 follows a similar route to that of a Romano-British ancient trackway. It was an important route for the Romans linking London with Canterbury and it had river crossings at Rochester over the River Medway, Dartford and Crayford. The Romans paved the road and constructed the first Rochester Bridge across the Medway, access to London was via London Bridge which was first constructed by the Romans in AD50. The road was known as Item a Londinio ad portum Dubris and appeared in the Antonine Itinerary, in Anglo-Saxon times it became part of a longer road known as Wæcelinga Stræt. By the 17th century the road had fallen into disrepair and sections were converted into roads by various Turnpike Acts passed by Parliament. Rochester Bridge was rebuilt in cast iron in 1856, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway completed a railway route from London to Dover in the 1860s. Access to London from the A2 across Thames was improved with the completion of Tower Bridge, Blackwall Tunnel, the road was given the reference A2 within the Great Britain road numbering scheme in the 1920s. The Dartford Southern By-pass, which relieved chronic congestion on the old route through Dartford provided considerable local employment during the Post–World War I recession and it was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1924. It is estimated that the project provided 63,500 days work to unemployed people. The 3-lane stretch of the A2 between Falconwood and Cobham was built in stages from around 1963 until 1973, a section of Ringway 3 (part of the proposed M16 motorway linking to the A2, which later formed part of the M25 motorway opened between 1974 and 1977. The Rochester Way Relief Road, was opened in 1988, the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge opened in 1991. A new flyover for A2 Westbound to M25 Northbound traffic was completed late 2007, in 2008, a section of the A2 beside Gravesend was widened to 3/4 lanes between Pepperhill to Cobham. It was also re-routed away from the houses of Gravesend/Singlewell to make room for the new lanes, the old route of the A2 has been made into a footpath/cyclepath. The new road was opened in 2009, a section of the old road has been turned into Cyclopark, with footpaths, cyclepaths and an equestrian route along the old road. A new Lower Thames Crossing down river from the Dartford Crossing linking to the A2 has been proposed by the Department for Transport in 2009 and its original alignment roughly followed a mix of the ancient Celtic route and the turnpike road to Dover
10.
Ospringe
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Ospringe is a village and civil parish in the English county of Kent. It had a population of 715 in 2001, increasing to 771 at the 2011 census, located south of Faversham, Ospringe forms part of the Borough of Swale. It lies on the Roman road Watling Street, called Ospringe Street in the village, another section of the village lies on Water Lane leading southwards towards Painters Forstal. The remains of substantial Roman buildings have found to its north west. The Roman ruins are believed to be on the site of the Durolevum mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary, although this remains uncertain. In 1798, Edward Hasted records that the village was once called Ospringes, the town was once separate from the hundred of Faversham, and had its own constable. In 1935 part of the parish part of the Borough of Faversham. This enabled electricity to be installed in many of the properties, other parish matters were now controlled by Faversham, removing the need to dispose of waste in a local disused quarry. The stream that gave the village its name ran from Whitehill, near Painters Forstal northwards along a valley, towards Ospringe Church and then past Queen Court. When the M2 motorway was built in 1965, Water Lane was rebuilt south of the A2 and this led to the complete disappearance of the ford and stream. The raised pavements were eventually levelled, in Domesday Book, the village belonged to Odo, Earl of Kent. After Odos trial for fraud, the village passed back to the Crown as part of the royal demesnes. King John stayed in the manor of Ospringe in October 1214, Richard de Marisco, Lord Chancellor of England, came to Ospringe to deliver the Great seal to King John. It then passed to Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent, in 1299, Queen Margaret became the owner. The manor of Ospringe then became Queen-Court, Sir John Pulteney became the owner of the manor of Ospringe. He was Lord Mayor of London and also owner of Penshurst Place, when he died in 1350, it passed to his son William de Pulteney. When Sir William Pulteney died in 1367, it passed to Sir Nicholas Lovaine, the manor then passed through many generations of that family, including Sir Philip St Clere. In 1550, Sir Thomas Cheney, a Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, during the reign of Edward II, after the split, The Manor of Queen-Court passed to Fulk Peyforer, then in 1357 to Sir William de Clinton
11.
Faversham
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Faversham /ˈfævərʃəm/ is a market town and civil parish in the Swale district of Kent, England. The town is 48 miles from London and 10 miles from Canterbury and lies next to the Swale and it is close to the A2, which follows an ancient British trackway which was used by the Romans and the Anglo-Saxons, and known as Watling Street. The Faversham name is of Latin via Old English origin, meaning the metal-workers village, there has been a settlement at Faversham since pre-Roman times, next to the ancient sea port on Faversham Creek, and archaeological evidence has shown a Roman theatre was based in the town. It was inhabited by the Saxons and mentioned in the Domesday book as Favreshant, the town was favoured by King Stephen who established Faversham Abbey, which survived until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538. Subsequently, the became an important seaport and established itself as a centre for brewing. The town was also the centre of the industry between the 17th and early 20th century, before a decline following an accident in 1916 which killed over 100 workers. This coincided with a revival of the industry in the town. Faversham has a number of landmarks, with several churches including St Mary of Charity, Faversham Parish Church. Faversham Market has been established for over 900 years and is based in the town centre. There are good road and rail links, including a Southeastern service to the High Speed 1 line at Ebbsfleet International, Faversham was established as a settlement before the Roman conquest. The town was less than 10 miles from Canterbury, and consequently Faversham had become established on this road network by 50 AD following the initial conquest by Claudius in 43 AD. In 2013, the remains of a 2, 000-year-old Roman theatre, the cockpit-style outdoor auditorium, the first of its kind found in Britain, was a style the Romans used elsewhere in their empire on the Continent. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Faversham was a capital for the Saxon kings of Kent. It was held in royal demesne in 811, and is cited in a charter granted by Coenwulf. Coenwulf described the town as the Kings little town of Fefresham, the name has been documented as meaning the metal-workers village, which may derive from the Old English fæfere, which in turn comes from the Latin faber meaning craftsman or forger. The town had established itself as a seaport by the Middle Ages, the Gough Map of Britain, printed in 1360, shows the Swale as an important shipping channel for trade. The manor was recorded as Terra Regis, meaning it was part of the ancient royal estates. King Stephen gave it to his lieutenant, William of Ypres
12.
Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
13.
Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross
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The Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross, commonly called Crosiers, are a Roman Catholic religious order. The Crosiers were founded by five men attached to the household of the prince-bishop of Liege, Rudolf of Zähringen, who accompanied the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa on the Third Crusade. Upon their return, the five, led by Theodorus de Cellis, sought a new way of life, and shortly before his death, their bishop appointed them to be canons of his St. Lamberts Cathedral, Liège. This settlement of the five at Huy was the beginning of their Order, in 1410, the Crosiers general chapter ordered the destruction of its records and decisions from the time of its foundation. The principal source of information about the origin of the order is in the Chronicon Cruciferorum of Henricus Russelius, the new institution soon extended to France, the Netherlands, Germany, and also to England. So, for example, there was an old tradition that Bishop Albert of Prague took several Crosiers with him to Livonia. In England, too, they and an Italian order of the Holy Cross were both identified as Crutched Friars, and so the location of their houses and their activities are often mistaken for each other. A similar tradition places Crosiers in the train of the French king St. Louis IX of France in 1248 during his crusade, the Order flourished in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, and at its greatest extent had about ninety houses scattered across northern Europe. In 1802, the area between Belgium and the Rhine river fell to France, along with other abbeys in French controlled areas, the Crosier abbeys were abolished and the monks were forced to leave. Thereafter the Order slowly began to recover, there are still Crosiers in all these places, and the Order presently numbers about four hundred men. In the United States today, the Crosiers have priories in Phoenix, Arizona and Onamia, Crosier Father Tom Enneking was elected 13 June as the new prior provincial of the Crosiers in the United States. He was installed for a term in a 16 June 2011 liturgy in Onamia. The Crosiers are an order of Canons Regular, the membership consists of priests and brothers, all of whom live together according to the Rule of St. Augustine. Their way of life consists of three parts, life in a community setting, daily communal celebration of the Churchs liturgy and this ministry takes the form of preaching, directing retreats, parish work, education, prison ministry, immigration services and spiritual direction. The primary feast of the Crosiers, the Exaltation of the Cross, Crosiers believe the resurrection of Jesus guarantees that in suffering and pain, there is hope and healing. Because of this, Crosiers emphasize the glorious, or triumphant, the Crosier habit is also canonical in form. They wear a white soutane or tunic, and over it a black pendant sash, a black scapular, the members of the Order usually reside in houses called priories, so called because they are under the governance and direction of a prior whom the members elect. At the time of writing, the Order has provinces in Europe, the U. S. Indonesia
14.
St Augustine's Abbey
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St Augustines Abbey was a Benedictine monastery in Canterbury, Kent, England. The abbey was founded in 598 and functioned as a monastery until its dissolution in 1538 during the English Reformation, after the abbeys dissolution, it underwent dismantlement until 1848. Since 1848, part of the site has been used for educational purposes, in 597, Augustine arrived in Anglo-Saxon England, having been sent by the missionary-minded Pope Gregory I to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The King of Kent at this time was Æthelberht or Ethelbert, although he worshipped in a pagan temple just outside the walls of Canterbury to the east of the city, Ethelbert was married to a Christian, Bertha. One purpose of the foundation was to provide a residence for Augustine, as another, both King Ethelbert and Augustine foresaw the abbey as a burial place for abbots, archbishops, and kings of Kent. William Thorne, the 14th century chronicler of the abbey, records 598 as the year of the foundation, the monastic buildings were most likely wooden in the manner of Saxon construction, so they could be quickly built. However, building a church of masonry, like the churches Augustine had known in Rome. The church was completed and consecrated in 613, ca.624 a short distance to the east, Eadbald, son and successor of Ethelbert, founded a second church, dedicated to Saint Mary which also buried Kentish royalty. The abbey became known as St Augustines after the founders death, for two centuries after its founding, St Augustines was the only important religious house in the kingdom of Kent. The historian G. F. Maclear characterized St Augustines as being a school where classical knowledge. Over time, St Augustines Abbey acquired a library that included both religious and secular holdings. In addition, it had a scriptorium for producing manuscripts, dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury from 959 to 988, influenced a reorganisation of the abbey to conform to Benedictine rule. Buildings were enlarged and the church rebuilt, dunstan also revised the dedication of the abbey, from the original Saints Peter and Paul, by adding Saint Augustine in 978. Since then, the abbey has been known as St Augustines, the invading Danes not only spared St Augustines, but in 1027 King Cnut made over all the possessions of Minster-in-Thanet to St Augustines. These possessions included the body of Saint Mildred. Belief in the power of this relic had spread throughout Europe. Following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, William the Conqueror confiscated landed estates, at St Augustines Abbey, the Anglo-Saxon buildings were completely reconstructed in the form of a typical Norman Benedictine monastery. By 1100, all the buildings had disappeared under a Romanesque edifice
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Religious habit
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A religious habit is a distinctive set of garments worn by members of a religious order. Modern habits are sometimes eschewed in favor of a business suit. Catholic Canon Law requires only that it be in some way identifiable so that the person may serve as a witness to Gospel values, for instance in Turkey, where religious garb is not allowed in public, a Franciscan might wear street clothes. In many orders, the conclusion of postulancy and the beginning of the novitiate is marked by a ceremony, among some Franciscan communities of men, novices wear a sort of overshirt over their tunic, Carthusian novices wear a black cloak over their white habit. In some orders, different types or levels of profession are indicated by differences in habits, kāṣāya, chougu are the robes of Buddhist monks and nuns, named after a brown or saffron dye. In Sanskrit and Pali, these robes are also given the general term cīvara. Buddhist kāṣāya are said to have originated in India as set of robes for the devotees of Gautama Buddha, a notable variant has a pattern reminiscent of an Asian rice field. Original kāṣāya were constructed of discarded fabric and these were stitched together to form three rectangular pieces of cloth, which were then fit over the body in a specific manner. The three main pieces of cloth are the antarvāsa, the uttarāsaṅga, and the saṃghāti, together they form the triple robe, or tricīvara. The tricīvara is described fully in the Theravāda Vinaya. The antarvāsa is the robe covering the lower body. It is the undergarment that flows underneath the layers of clothing. It has a neck, and almost entirely covers the torso. In representations of the Buddha, the bottom of the antarvāsa usually protrudes, a robe covering the upper body. It comes over the undergarment, or antarvāsa, in representations of the Buddha, the uttarāsaṅga rarely appears as the uppermost garment, since it is often covered by the outer robe, or saṃghāti. The saṃghāti is a robe used for various occasions. It comes over the robe, and the undergarment. In representations of the Buddha, the saṃghāti is usually the most visible garment and it is quite similar in shape to the Greek himation, and its shape and folds have been treated in Greek style in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra
16.
Mark (currency)
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The mark was a currency or unit of account in many nations. It is named for the unit of weight. The word mark comes from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic words, Latinised in 9th century post-classical Latin as marca, marcha, marha or marcus and it was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout Western Europe and often equivalent to eight ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages, as of 2017, the only circulating currency named mark is the Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark. In England the mark never appeared as a coin but was only a unit of account and it was apparently introduced in the 10th century by the Danes. According to 19th-century sources, it was equivalent to 100 pence. In Scotland, the merk Scots was a coin of that value, issued first in 1570. In northern Germany and Scandinavia, the mark was a unit of account, in an attempt to prevent debasement of the currency, the Bank of Hamburg was founded in 1619, after the example of the Bank of Amsterdam. Both these banks established a money of account. The Hamburg unit of account was the mark banco and it was credited in exchange for the sale of bullion or by way of credit against collateral. No coins or banknotes were issued, but accounts were opened showing a credit balance, the account holders could use their credit balances by remittances to other accounts or by drawing bills of exchange against them. These bills circulated and could be transferred by endorsement, and were accepted as payment and this currency proved to be very stable. Following German unification in 1871, the country adopted the German gold mark as its currency in 1873, the name was taken from the mark banco. Coins denominated in gold marks were first issued in 1871, the mark banco was converted into the new gold mark at par. The Bank of Hamburg was incorporated as the Hamburg subsidiary into the newly founded Reichsbank, in 1914, the Reichsbank stopped demanding first-class collateral when providing credit to borrowers. The gold mark became a currency, colloquially referred to as the paper mark. In 1918, the sound money policy was not re-established, and the continuing loose money policy resulted in inflation. In late 1923, when the mark had become virtually worthless, it was replaced by a new currency
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Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
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Shilling
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The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
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Penny
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A penny is a coin or a unit of currency in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius, it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system, presently, it is the formal name of the British penny and the informal name of one American cent as well as the informal Irish designation of 1 cent euro coin. It is the name of the cent unit of account in Canada. The name is used in reference to various historical currencies also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier. It may also be used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin. The Carolingian penny was originally a. 940-fine silver coin weighing 1/240 pound, the British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, no penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings, halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts. Penny is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English peni, a development of numerous variations including pennig, penning, and pending. The etymology of the penny is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *pan-, *pann-. Recently, it has proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic PN. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked new penny until 1982 and 1985, the regular plural pennies fell out of use in England from the 16th century, except in reference to coins considered individually. The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York, in British English, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence and of twenty pence are often written and spoken as a single word, as twopence, threepence, &c. Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, thus, a threepence would be single coin of that value whereas three pence would be its value and three pennies would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as sixpence-farthing, adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as sixpenny. The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin denarius and it followed the amount after a space. It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period, from this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as p. In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢, elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c. The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden
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William Warham
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William Warham was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1503 to his death. Warham was the son of Robert Warham of Malshanger in Hampshire and he was educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford. After graduating, Warham practising and teaching law both in London and Oxford and his father was a tenant farmer, but his brother, Sir Hugh Warham, acquired an estate at Croydon, which passed to his daughter Agnes, who married Sir Anthony St Leger. Later, Warham took holy orders, held two livings and became Master of the Rolls in 1494, Henry VII found him a useful and clever diplomatist. He helped to arrange the marriage between Henrys son, Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon and he went to Scotland with Richard Foxe, then bishop of Durham, in 1497. In 1502, he was consecrated Bishop of London and became Keeper of the Great Seal, in 1506, he became Chancellor of Oxford University, a role he held until his death. In 1509, he married and then crowned Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, on 28 September 1511, he made a visit to the hospital at Maison Dieu, Faversham. As archbishop, Warham seems to have been arbitrary, for example, his actions led to a serious quarrel with Foxe, now Bishop of Winchester. That made him gradually withdraw into the background after the coronation and he resigned the office of Lord Chancellor in 1515 and was succeeded by Thomas Wolsey, whom he had consecrated as bishop of Lincoln in the previous year. His resignation was possibly because of his dislike of Henrys foreign policy, Warham was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 and assisted Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of Henrys marriage with Catherine in 1527. Throughout the divorce proceedings, Warhams position was essentially that of an old, later, it was proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but the suggestion came to nothing. In Warhams concluding years, however, the archbishop showed more independence. He attempted in vain to strike a compromise during the Submission of the Clergy, having been munificent in his public and moderate in his private life, he died on a visit to his nephew, also William Warham. He was buried in the Martyrdom transept of Canterbury Cathedral, john Sherren Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII James Gairdner, Lee, Sidney, ed. Warham, William. Archival material relating to William Warham, portraits of William Warham at the National Portrait Gallery, London
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Secularity
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Secularity is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion. Historically, the secular was not related or linked to religion. The idea of a dichotomy between religion and the secular originated in the 18th century European Enlightenment, one can regard eating and bathing as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them. Nevertheless, some religious traditions see both eating and bathing as sacraments, therefore making them religious activities within those world views, saying a prayer derived from religious text or doctrine, worshipping through the context of a religion, and attending a religious school are examples of religious activities. The secular is experienced in diverse ways ranging from separation of religion and state to being anti-religion or even pro-religion, a related term, secularism, involves the principle that government institutions and their representatives should remain separate from religious institutions, their beliefs, and their dignitaries. Many businesses and corporations, and some operate on secular lines. This stands in contrast to theocracy, government with deity as its highest authority, Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant of a generation, belonging to an age or denoted a period of about one hundred years. In the ancient world, saeculum was not defined in contrast to any sacred concerns and had a usage in Latin. It was in Christian Latin of medieval times, that saeculum was used for distinguishing this temporal age of the world from the realm of God. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. This does not necessarily imply hostility to God or religion, though some use the term this way, routinization — institutionalizing through integration into the society. Differentiation — a redefined place such as when accepting its status as one religion in a plural religious field or morphing into a more generic, disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion. Transformation — gradual change over time in a sense that Protestantism became for Christianity. Generalization — a particular kind of change in which it becomes less specific, more abstract, has moderation of controversial and divisive claims. Desacralization — culture and rationality guide people while leaving out religious beings, segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions, which take their place beside other specialized social institutions. Secularism — the only form that leads to rejection of religion. Examples of secular used in this way include, Secular authority, which involves legal, police, and military authority, as distinct from clerical authority, or matters under church control. Secular clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, who, traditionally, do not live the lives of the regular clergy and are therefore, in a sense
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St John's College, Cambridge
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, in constitutional terms, the college is a charitable corporation established by a charter dated 9 April 1511. The aims of the college, as specified by its Statutes, are the promotion of education, religion, learning, the colleges alumni include the winners of ten Nobel Prizes, seven prime ministers and twelve archbishops of various countries, at least two princes, and three Saints. HRH Prince William was affiliated with St Johns while undertaking a course in 2014. St Johns College is also known for its choir, its members success in a wide variety of inter-collegiate sporting competitions. In 2011 the college celebrated its quincentenary, an event marked by a visit of HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The college was founded on the site of the 13th-century Hospital of St John in Cambridge at the suggestion of Saint John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and chaplain to Lady Margaret Beaufort. However, Lady Margaret died without having mentioned the foundation of St Johns in her will, and it was largely the work of Fisher that ensured that the college was founded. He had to obtain the approval of King Henry VIII of England, the Pope through the intermediary Polydore Vergil, the college received its charter on 9 April 1511. In November 1512 the Court of Chancery allowed Lady Margarets executors to pay for the foundation of the college from her estates, when Lady Margarets executors took over they found most of the old Hospital buildings beyond repair, but repaired and incorporated the Chapel into the new college. A kitchen and hall were added, and a gate tower was constructed for the College Treasury. The doors were to be closed each day at dusk, sealing the monastic community from the outside world. Over the course of the five hundred years, the college expanded westwards towards the River Cam, and now has eleven courts. The first three courts are arranged in enfilade, St Johns College first admitted women in October 1981, when K. M. Wheeler was admitted to the fellowship, along with nine female graduate students. The first women undergraduates arrived a year later, St Johns distinctive Great Gate follows the standard contemporary pattern employed previously at Christs College and Queens College. The gatehouse is crenelated and adorned with the arms of the foundress Lady Margaret Beaufort, above these are displayed her ensigns, the Red Rose of Lancaster and Portcullis. The college arms are flanked by curious creatures known as yales, mythical beasts with elephants tails, antelopes bodies, goats heads, and swivelling horns. Above them is a tabernacle containing a figure of St John the Evangelist
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Arden of Faversham
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Arden of Faversham is an Elizabethan play, entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on 3 April 1592, and printed later that same year by Edward White. It depicts the murder of Thomas Arden by his wife Alice Arden and her lover, the play is notable as perhaps the earliest surviving example of domestic tragedy, a form of Renaissance play which dramatized recent and local crimes rather than far-off and historical events. The author is unknown, and the play has been attributed to Thomas Kyd, Christopher Marlowe, the use of computerized stylometrics has kindled academic interest in determining the authorship. The 2016 edition of The Oxford Shakespeare attributes the play to Shakespeare together with an anonymous collaborator, Thomas Arden, or Arderne, was a successful businessman in the early Tudor period. Born in 1508, probably in Norwich, Arden took advantage of the tumult of the Reformation to make his fortune, in fact, the house in which he was murdered was a former guest house of Faversham Abbey, the Benedictine abbey near the town. His wife Alice had taken a lover, a man of low status named Mosby, together, after several bungled attempts on his life, two ex-soldiers from the former English dominion of Calais known as Black Will and Loosebag were hired and continued to make botched attempts. The snowfall stopped, however, before the tracks were covered. Bloodstained swabs and rushes were found, and the killers quickly confessed, Alice and Mosby were put on trial and convicted of the crime, he was hanged and she burnt at the stake in 1551. Black Will may also have been burnt at the stake after he had fled to Flanders, Loosebag escaped and was never heard of again. Other conspirators were executed and hanged in chains, one—George Bradshaw, who was implicated by an obscure passage in a sealed letter he had delivered—was wrongly convicted and posthumously acquitted. Both the play and the story in Holinsheds Chronicles were later adapted into a ballad, The complaint. Thomas Arden, Thomas Arden was a man, he was formerly the mayor of Faversham and was appointed as the kings controller of imports and exports. Arden made his will in the December before his death Alice Arden, Wife of Thomas Arden, Alice is shown to believe love transcends social class Mosby, Alices lover and brother of Susan, Alices maid Black Will and Shakebag, Hired murderers. In the play the pair fail a number of times to carry out the murder of Arden, Shakebag is shown to be the more evil of the two. Franklin, Thomas Ardens best friend and traveling companion, on the road from London, he begins telling a tale of female infidelity. The play was printed anonymously in three quarto editions during the period, in 1592,1599, and 1633, the last publication occurred in the same year as a broadsheet ballad written from Alices point of view. The title pages do not indicate performance or company, however, the play was never fully forgotten. For most of three centuries, it was performed in George Lillos adaptation, the original was brought back to the stage in 1921, and has received intermittent revivals since
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M2 motorway (Great Britain)
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The M2 is a motorway in Kent, England. It is 25.7 miles long and acts as a bypass of the section of the A2 road which runs through the Medway Towns, Sittingbourne, the M2 starts to the west of Strood at Three Crutches, diverging southeastwards from the A2 road that heads eastwards from London. It begins at Junction 1 with four lanes and descends towards the Medway Valley to the south of Rochester, the Road then crosses the Medway Valley on two Medway viaducts, passing over the Medway Valley Line and Chatham Main Line prior to crossing the river. On the east bank of the River is the village of Borstal, continuing east, passing Medway Service area, it crosses the A249 over the Stockbury Viaduct at Junction 5. It then continues along the rural North Downs, with a connection at Junction 6 to the old A2 at Faversham, the initial section of the motorway was opened by the then Transport Minister Ernest Marples on 29 May 1963, with the remainder being constructed in 1965. Instead the A2 was dualled and improved from Brenley Corner to Dover, aside from retrofitting central crash barriers, like all early motorways, the alignment of the M2 did not significantly change until the late 1990s. Traffic using it decreased when the M20 was completed from London to Folkestone in May 1991, while the M2 continued to Canterbury, Junction 1 was altered when the A289 Wainscott Northern bypass was built in the late 1990s. The M2 was still busy between Junctions 1 and 4, and suffered from HGVs blocking the outside lane, in 2000 work began on widening the M2 from two lanes to four lanes. A joint venture between Costain, Skanska and Mowlem created the company that would undertake the project, the project required the redesign of Junction 2 and Junction 3, and a second Medway Bridge. The existing bridge was converted to a four lane eastbound carriageway, the new bridge formed the westbound carriageway. The entire stretch was lit with streetlights, the old Medway Bridge was physically narrowed by removing part of the footpath. High-pressure water cutting equipment was used to cut the concrete into manageable sections for disposal, there is only one path open to the public now. Spoil from the North Downs Tunnel was used to form the new embankment for the London bound traffic between Junction 2 and the Nashenden Valley, the widening was completed in July 2003. The M2 opened with a service area between Junctions 4 and 5, named Farthing Corner Services and operated by Top Rank. Today the services are known as Medway services and are operated under the Moto brand with a Travelodge hotel, the services have an access road to the local network for service and delivery vehicles that is not, like some motorway service areas, restricted with a gate or barrier. This has led to local businesses using the services as an exit from the motorway. Data from driver location signs are used to distance and carriageway identifier information. Where junctions extend over several hundred metres and the data are available, values are given for the start and end points of the junction
25.
English Heritage
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English Heritage is a registered charity that manages the National Heritage Collection. This comprises over 400 of Englands historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history, within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrians Wall. English Heritage also manages the London Blue Plaques scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings and it was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to establish it as an independent trust. Over the centuries, what is now called Heritage has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the Kings Works after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works, the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works, and the Ministry of Works. Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works then to the Department of the Environment and now the Department for Culture, Media, the states legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. Central government subsequently developed several systems of protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after WW2. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984, soon after, the commission gained the operating name of English Heritage by its first Chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. A national register of parks and gardens, was set up in 1984. Registration is a consideration in the planning process. In 2010–2011 it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions, in 2012 the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive. As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks, the administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. It was retained on grounds of performing a function which should remain independent from Government. However the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s resulting in a deficit of £100 million. In June 2013 the British Government announced plans to provide an £80 million grant to enable English Heritage to become a self-financing charity, the national portfolio of historic properties remain in public ownership, but the new English Heritage will be licensed to manage them. The change occurred on 1 April 2015 with the planning and heritage protection functions remaining an independent, non-departmental public body. The new trust has a licence to operate the properties until 2023, English Heritage is the guardian of over 400 sites and monuments, the most famous of which include Stonehenge, Iron Bridge and Dover Castle
26.
Faversham Stone Chapel
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Faversham Stone Chapel also known as Our Lady of Elwarton, is a medieval chapel built on top of a Romano-British mausoleum. The chapel is located in what is thought to have been the Roman settlement of Durolevum, near the town of Faversham, in Kent. It is the only chapel in England to incorporate the remains of a pagan shrine or mausoleum. Although the site now lies in an area on the outskirts of modern Faversham. There was probably a Roman army camp located at Judd Hill, where there is evidence of a structure. This evidence of Roman occupation has led researchers to believe that Faversham may be the site of Roman Durolevum, the Roman building is roughly square, with walls about 17 feet long, and about 3 feet wide. The walls were built using a typically Roman technique, with a flint foundation and layers of blocks, separated by a double layer of red brick. The windowless structure had a roof, and a monolithic door constructed of greensand stone. The cill of the doorway is still in place, while the stones formed the door frame were reused in the 13th century medieval buttresses. The floor of the structure was originally opus signinum, a hard waterproof concrete made with broken down tiles or bricks, the walls were finished with plaster, which was painted red, and was possibly decorated with frescoes. The size and nature of the flint foundation suggest that this structure was a Roman mausoleum, though in the absence of burials, as there is no villa or cemetery nearby, alternate explanations of the structure are that it was a Romano-Pagan temple or a small Christian Shrine. After the Roman structure fell into disrepair, it is possible that a timber-built church Saxon church existed on the site, by the medieval era, a flint church was built over the remains of the earlier Roman building, making use of its surviving walls. It is possible that a Saxon church built of wood also existed prior to the building of the medieval church, the medieval builders used the Roman building as the chancel of the church, and the nave was built to the west. The nave and the chancel were expanded in the 13th century, the green sandstone door frames were used in the buttresses, and can still be seen today. The church was reported to be in disrepair by 1511 and seems to be abandoned by 1600, the chapel is an Ancient Monument managed by The Faversham Society
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Norton, Buckland and Stone
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Norton, Buckland and Stone is a small rural civil parish 1 mile east of Teynham and 3 miles west of the centre of Faversham in the borough of Swale, Kent, England. It is bypassed by the M2 to the south and traverses the historic A2, in 1798, Edward Hasted records that Norton, was written in ancient records as Northtune. The manor was owned by Odo, Earl of Kent. The parish had three churches, and three mills without tallage, and two fisheries of twelve pence, wood for the pannage of forty hogs. But after his trial in 1076 and his assets were re-apportioned including Badlesmere. The parish returned to the crown who passed it to Hugo de Port, then it passed to John de Campania, with a rent of 30 shillings going to Rochester Castle. In 1790, it passed to John Bennett, esquire of Faversham and this central area constitutes the main settlement with the parish church. On the latter are Norton Court, listed grade II*, dating to the 17th century remodelled by architect Sir Reginald Blomfield and Norton Court Lodge, grade II. The church lies along a straight east-west footpath from the Court leading to a house named Provender, listed grade II*. The flint church of St Marys, is Grade I listed and it is within the diocese of Canterbury, and deanery of Ospringe. It features partly restored thirteen century triple lancet windows with ogee doorway and it contains a bibliologically inspired pictorial white memorial to Rt Hon Mary Elizabeth, Lady Sondes d.1818 and one to George Finch who died in 1584. Once named in ancient Latin deeds as Bocheland, the Manor of Buckland was also under the control of Odo, Earl of Kent. It was later granted to the family of Crevequer and it had its own church, which was dedicated to St. Nicholas, which was a ruin in 1798. It had a spire, which was standing in 1719. The lane is surrounded by orchards and has an oast house, Stone, or Stone-next-Faversham, found close to Ospringe in the east has just a cottage, a farm and its Anglo-Saxon chapel, which is a scheduled ancient monument. Once named in ancient Latin deeds as Stanes, Edward Hasted, refers to it as a small obscure parish, hardly known to anyone. The parish is under the control of the manor of Elverton in Luddenham, which is written in the Domesday survey as Ernolton, and in ancient Latin deeds as Eylwartone. The chapel was called the chapel of our Lady of Eylwarton, which is within the diocese of Canterbury, and deanery of Ospringe
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Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available
