1.
Malev (military unit)
–
A malev is an Estonian military unit led by a senior officer that is subordinate to an infantry division. A malev was originally based on a manpower of county and was led by a county vanem, malev is bigger than a pataljon but smaller than a diviis. It is currently the largest military formation among the Estonian Defence League infantry units, a malevs commanding officer is commonly a major or colonel. A modern malev is typically composed of three to five companies or battalions, depending on the area and available manpower of a given county, each malev can operate independently on a battlefield encompassing an area of 10 x 15 kilometres. Military science Pataljon Brigaad Diviis Estonian Defence League malevs
2.
Airline codes
–
This is a list of airline codes. The table lists IATAs two-character airline designators, ICAOs three-character airline designators, IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are two-character codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association to the worlds airlines. The standard is described in IATAs Standard Schedules Information Manual and the codes themselves are described in IATAs Airline Coding Directory, Airline designator codes follow the format xx, i. e. two alphanumeric characters followed by an optional letter. Although the IATA standard provides for three-character airline designators, IATA has not used the third character in any assigned code. This is because some legacy computer systems, especially the central reservations systems, have failed to comply with the standard, the codes issued to date comply with IATA Resolution 762, which provides for only two characters. These codes thus comply with the current airline designator standard, there are three types of designator, unique, numeric/alpha and controlled duplicate. IATA airline designators are used to identify an airline for commercial purposes in reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills, a flight designator is the concatenation of the airline designator, xx, and the numeric flight number, n, plus an optional one-letter operational suffix. Therefore, the format of a flight designator is xxn. After an airline is delisted, IATA can make the code available for reuse after six months, controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely to overlap, so that the same code is shared by two airlines. The controlled duplicate is denoted here, and in IATA literature, an example of this is the code 6Y, which refers to both Mid Airlines, a charter airline in Sudan, and Med Airways, a charter airline in Lebanon. IATA also issues an accounting or prefix code and this number is used on tickets as the first three characters of the ticket number. The IATA codes originally based on the ICAO designators which were issued in 1947 as two-letter airline identification codes and these codes are unique by airline, unlike the IATA airline designator codes. The designators are listed in ICAO Document 8585, Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, ICAO codes have been issued since 1947. The ICAO codes originally based on a two-letter-system and were identical to the codes used by IATA. After an airline joined IATA its existing ICAO-two-letter-code was taken over as IATA code, so in the 1970s the abbreviation BA was the ICAO code and the IATA code of British Airways while non-IATA-airlines like Court Line used their 2-letter-abbreviation as ICAO code only. In the early 1980s ICAO introduced the current three-letter-system due to the number of airlines. It became the new standard system in November 1987. Other designators, particularly starting with Y and Z, are reserved for government organizations
3.
Airline hub
–
Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
4.
Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport
–
The airport won the Skytrax Best Eastern European airport prize three times in a line. It offers international connections primarily within Europe, but also to Africa, the Middle East, from June 2015, the transatlantic flights were restored with two carriers flying to Toronto and Montreal. In 2016, the airport handled 11.4 million passengers and it was the hub for Malév until the airlines bankruptcy on 3 February 2012, when at 6 am Malév ceased its operations after almost 66 years of service. Before its closure, the airline had more than one third of the air traffic at the airport, the airport serves as a base for Ryanair and the hub for the Hungarian low-cost airliner, Wizz Air. Ferihegy is the name of the neighbourhood around the airport, the name is derived from that of Ferenc Xavér Mayerffy, the former owner of an estate who established vineyards and contributed to the development of viticulture in Pest-Buda. Feri is a form of Ferenc while hegy means hill. In fact the area is almost totally flat but originally there was a 147 m high sandy hillock which was levelled in the 1940s during the works of the airport. In 1938 the idea of building a new airport in Budapest was born, the area in the boundary of three settlements was assigned as the area of the new airport. The airport was intended as jointly for civil-military-sporting purposes, civil facilities were to be built up in the north-western and military ones in the south-western section. Just as for building, a public tender was invited for the designing. In December 1939, upon announcement of the results of the tender invited in September that year, the designer, who was one of the originators of modern Hungarian architectural art, dreamt of a building which resembled an aircraft from the top-side view. To approach the airport from the city, a 16-kilometre high-speed road was constructed between 1940 and 1943, which, after improvements, remains in use today, the military buildings were constructed parallel to the civil construction from 1940 but, due to the war situation, faster. Aviation started at the airport in 1943, in wartime, the civil construction slowed down and then stopped at the beginning of 1944. Towards the end of World War II, many of the buildings were damaged. By the end 1944, Budapest and its airport were under Soviet occupation, in 1947 it was decided that the airport would be reconstructed for civil aviation. Under the three-year plan 40 million forints were voted for those works, the opening ceremony was held in May 1950 and the sections finished allowed Magyar-Szovjet Polgári Légiforgalmi Rt. established in 1946, to operate here. At that time the airlines operated only a few flights, in particular those to Prague, Bucharest, Warsaw. Magyar Légiforgalmi Vállalat was established on 25 November 1954, the first regular flight taking off from the airport to the West was the Malévs flight into Vienna in summer 1956
5.
Airline alliance
–
An airline alliance is an aviation industry arrangement between two or more airlines agreeing to cooperate on a substantial level. Alliances may provide marketing branding to facilitate travelers making inter-airline codeshare connections within countries and this branding may involve unified aircraft liveries of member aircraft. In 2015, Star Alliance was the largest with 23% of total scheduled traffic in RPK, followed by SkyTeam with 20. 4% and Oneworld with 17. 8%, benefits can consist of, An extended network, often realised through codeshare agreements. Many alliances started as only codeshare networks, cost reduction from sharing of, sales offices maintenance facilities operational facilities, e. g. catering or computer systems. Operational staff, e. g. ground handling personnel, at check-in, investments and purchases, e. g. in order to negotiate extra volume discounts. Traveler benefits can include, lower prices due to lowered operational costs for a given route, more departure times to choose from on a given route. Shorter travel times as a result of optimised transfers, a wider range of airport lounges shared with alliance members faster mileage rewards by earning miles for a single account on several different carriers. Round-the-world tickets, enabling travelers to fly over the world for a low price. Airline alliances may also create disadvantages for the traveler, such as, less frequent flights, for instance, if two airlines separately fly three and two times a day respectively on a shared route, their alliance might fly less than 5 times a day on the same route. This might be especially true between hub cities for each airline, E. g. flights between Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The ability of an airline to join an alliance may be restricted by laws, competition law issues must also be considered in some countries. The first airline alliance was formed in the 1930s, when Panair do Brasil, the first large alliance began in 1989, when Northwest Airlines and KLM agreed to large-scale codesharing. Normally landing rights are granted for a number of flights per week to a fixed destination. Each adjustment requires negotiations, often between governments rather than between the companies involved, in return, the United States granted antitrust immunity to the alliance between Northwest Airlines and KLM. Other alliances would struggle for years to overcome the barriers and lack of antitrust immunity. The Star Alliance was founded in 1997, which brought competing airlines to form Oneworld in 1999, in 2010 Richard Branson, chairman of the Virgin Group, announced his intention to form a fourth alliance among Virgin branded airlines. Then in September 2011, Branson said that Virgin would join one of the existing alliances, in December 2012, Delta Air Lines purchased Singapore Airlines 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic for £224 million. On February 14,2013, it was announced that American Airlines and US Airways would merge, retaining the American Airlines name, US Airways participation in the Star Alliance lapsed
6.
Oneworld
–
Oneworld is an airline alliance founded on 1 February 1999. The alliances stated objective is to be the airline alliance for the worlds frequent international travelers. Its central alliance office is based in New York City in the United States. As of August 2016, Oneworld is the third largest global alliance in terms of passengers more than 557.4 million passengers carried, behind Star Alliance. Its slogan is An alliance of the worlds leading airlines working as one, Oneworld announced the formation of a central alliance team, the Oneworld Management Company, in February 2000, to mark the alliances first anniversary. The oMC was established in May 2000 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and it acts as the alliances central secretariat, with responsibility for driving future growth and the launch of new customer services and benefits. Bruce Ashby, who previously held roles of CEO of Saudi Arabias SAMA Airlines, CEO of Indias IndiGo, rob Gurney succeeded Ashby as CEO in October,2016. Reporting to the CEO are Vice-Presidents for Commercial, Membership and Customer Experience, and Corporate Communications, a Chief Financial Officer, the CEO reports to the Oneworld Governing Board, which is made up of the chief executives of each of the member airlines. The Governing Board meets regularly to set strategic direction and review progress, chairmanship of the board rotates among the alliance members chief executives. Cathay Pacific CEO Ivan Chu currently has the role, Oneworld was unveiled by its founding members, American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, Cathay Pacific, and Qantas at a press conference in London, United Kingdom, on 21 September 1998. Oneworld was officially launched and became operational on 1 February 1999, at its launch in 1999, Oneworlds member airlines and their affiliates served 648 destinations in 139 countries, and carried 181 million passengers with a fleet of 1,577 aircraft. Finnair, Finlands largest airline and flag carrier, was the alliances first new recruit on 9 December 1998, the alliance welcomed Iberia, Spains flag carrier, as its second recruit on 15 February 1999. Both airlines, together with Iberias franchisee, Iberia Regional Air Nostrum, joined the alliance on 1 September 1999, on 19 May 1999, LanChile became a member-elect, the alliances first representative from Latin America. LanChiles two subsidiaries, LAN Express and LAN Perú, would join the alliance. Irish carrier Aer Lingus was formally elected on board and confirmed as the member of the alliance on 2 December 1999. As LanChile and Aer Lingus joined on 1 June 2000, Canadian Airlines left the alliance, following the purchase by Air Canada. However, Swiss later decided not to proceed with key elements of its agreement with British Airways and was released from its commitment to join Oneworld. Swiss was later taken over by Lufthansa in 2005 and joined Star Alliance in 2006, the mid-2000s saw Oneworld undertake one of the biggest expansions in its history
7.
Budapest
–
Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
8.
Hungary
–
Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
9.
Hungarian language
–
Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
10.
Types of business entity
–
A business entity is an entity that is formed and administered as per commercial law in order to engage in business activities, charitable work, or other activities allowable. Most often, business entities are formed to sell a product or a service, there are many types of business entities defined in the legal systems of various countries. These include corporations, cooperatives, partnerships, sole traders, limited liability company, the specific rules vary by country and by state or province. Some of these types are listed below, by country, for guidance, approximate equivalents in the company law of English-speaking countries are given in most cases, ≈ public limited company ≈ Ltd. When creating or restructuring a business, the legal responsibilities will depend on the type of business entity chosen, Shoqëri komandite, ≈ limited partnership Shoqëri kolektive, ≈ general partnership S. A. ≈ plc S. R. L. ≈ Ltd. ≈ limited liability company S. C. S. ≈ limited partnership S. C. p. A, S. E. ≈ state-owned enterprise S. G. R. Inc. restricted to non-profit associations Ltd. ≈ plc. The suffix Ltd. may also be used by a company limited by guarantee. NL, A type of mining, speculative, or research company with no right to call up the issue price of shares. In Australia companies can act as a trustee for a trust, pty. company with a share capital, A company, similar to its limited company counterpart, but where the liability of the members or shareholders is not limited. Gen, ≈ cooperative Privatstiftung, ≈ private foundation Verein, ≈ nonprofit association European business entities e. U. ≈ sole trader, sole proprietorship Kapitalgesellschaften, ≈ companies AG, Incorporated, OG, ≈ general partnership KG, ≈ limited partnership GmbH & Co. KG, KG in which a GmbH is the general partner, EBVBA / SPRLU, single member Ltd. NV / SA, ≈ plc co-operative companies, CVBA / SCRL, ≈ limited liability cooperative CVOA / SCRI, ≈ GmbH k. d. ≈ limited partnership s. p. ≈ Sole proprietorship Sociedade limitada, ≈ Ltd, a private company contains the term Sendirian Berhad or Sdn. Bhd. as part of its name where as for a public company Berhad or Bhd. is used. KD / КД, ≈ limited partnership KDA / КДА, limited partnership with shares SD / СД, ≈ general partnership, ≈ Plc Ltd. ≈ plc PEEC State Company, ≈ plc State Joint Venture Company, ≈ plc Import Export Co. Ltd In Canada entities can be incorporated under federal or provincial law. Unlimited liability corporations can be formed in Alberta AULC and Nova Scotia NSULC, the word or expression Limited, Limitée, Incorporated, Incorporée, Corporation or Société par actions de régime fédéral or the corresponding abbreviation Ltd. Forms part of the name of every entity incorporated under the Canada Business Corporations Act, ≈ Ltd. or Plc As an exception, entities registered prior to 1985 may continue to be designated Société commerciale canadienne or by the abbreviation S. C. C
11.
Flag carrier
–
The term also refers to any carrier that is or was owned by a government, even long after their privatization when preferential rights or privileges continue. Flag carriers may be known as such due to maritime law requiring all aircraft or ships to display the flag of the country of their registry. A flag carrier may also be known as an airline or a national carrier. The first definition is rooted in the fact that pursuant to Article 17 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation aircraft have the nationality of the state in which they are registered. U. S. law requires American air carriers to operate aircraft registered in the United States and most countries have similar laws. Article 3 of Tokyo Convention declares that The State of registration is competent to exercise jurisdiction over “offenses, the American definition of U. S. -flag air carrier service contained in 48 CFR47. 403-1. is based on this first definition. The U. S. requirements under the Fly America Act, are consistent with requiring that Title 18 of the United States Code would protect U. S. government employees on flights to foreign countries. The second and more broadly used definition of flag carrier is a legacy of the time when countries established state-owned airline companies, governments then took the lead due to the high capital costs of establishing and running airlines. However, not all such airlines were government-owned, Pan Am, TWA, Cathay Pacific, Union de Transports Aériens, Canadian Pacific Air Lines and Olympic Airlines were all privately owned. Most of these were considered to be flag carriers as they were the national airline. The heavily regulated aviation industry also meant aviation rights are negotiated between governments, denying airlines the right to an open market. Some countries also establish flag carriers such as Israels El Al or Lebanons Middle East Airlines for nationalist reasons, or to aid the countrys economy, in many cases, governments would directly assist in the growth of their flag carriers typically through subsidies and other fiscal incentives. The establishment of competitors in the form of other locally registered airlines may be prohibited, in the last two decades, however, many of these airlines have since been corporatized as a public company or a state-owned enterprise, or completely privatized. One of the features of such agreements is the right of a country to designate multiple airlines to serve routes with the result that there is no single flag carrier. The chart below lists airlines considered to be a carrier, based on current or former state ownership. International Air Transport Association US Maritime Administration
12.
Ilyushin Il-14
–
The Ilyushin Il-14 was a Soviet twin-engine commercial and military personnel and cargo transport aircraft that first flew in 1950, and entered service in 1954. Il-14 was also manufactured in East Germany by VVB Flugzeugbau, in Czechoslovakia as the Avia 14, the Ilyushin Il-14 was typically replaced by the Antonov An-24 and Yakovlev Yak-40. The Il-14 was developed as a replacement for the widespread Douglas DC-3 and its Soviet built version, a development of the earlier Ilyushin Il-12, the Il-14 was intended for use in both military and civil applications. The Il-12 had major problems with poor engine-out behaviour, also, it had less payload capability than was originally planned. The development into the Il-14 was a vast improvement over the Il-12, with a new wing and it was powered by two 1,400 kW Shvetsov ASh-82T-7 radial piston engines. These changes greatly improved performance in engine-out conditions. Total production of the Il-14 was 1,345 aircraft,1,065 in Moscow from 1956 to 1958, licensed production of 80 in East Germany by VEB Flugzeugwerke Dresden from 1956 to 1959 and 203 in Czechoslovakia by Avia, Prague, from 1956 to 1960. It was rugged and reliable, and thus was used in rural areas with poor quality airfields. The type was used by the East German aircraft industry as a test aircraft for the horizontal stabilizer of the Baade 152. Il-14, Twin-engined passenger, cargo transport aircraft, il-14FK / 14FKM, Aerial photography version. Il-14LIK-1 / LIK-2, Navigation aid calibration version, Il-14M, Stretched Il-14P, fitted with a lengthened fuselage, 14-36 seat. Il-14PS / S, VIP versions, based on Il-14P, Avia 14, Ilyushin Il-14Ms built by Avia under licence in Czechoslovakia. Avia 14S, VIP transport aircraft with six seats and a six-seat couch. Avia 14 Super, 1960-model with a cabin for 32,36, or 42 passengers. VEB 14P, Ilyushin Il-14Ps built by VVB Flugzeugbau under licence in East Germany, VEB 14T, VEB 14Ps converted to military transports. The Il-14 operated in the Soviet Union until the 1980s and early 90s, however, the unlicensed Chinese built Y-6 remained in the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force as a trainer until the late 1980s. There are no current military operators of the Ilyushin Il-14,26 were supplied to the Afghan Air Force from 1955 onwards. By 1979, the force was reduced to 10, equipping a single squadron,11 have been operated by the Albanian Air Force from 1957
13.
Ilyushin Il-18
–
The Ilyushin Il-18 is a large turboprop airliner that first flew in 1957 and became one of the best known and durable Soviet aircraft of its era. The Il-18 was one of the worlds principal airliners for several decades and was widely exported, due to the aircrafts airframe durability, many examples achieved over 45,000 flight hours and the type remains operational in both military and civilian capacities. The Il-18s successor was the long range Il-62 jet airliner, Two Soviet aircraft shared the designation Ilyushin Il-18. The first Il-18 was an airliner of 1946 but after a year of test flights that programme was abandoned. The two aircraft designs were developed as the Ilyushin Il-18 and the Antonov An-10 and the chosen was the Kuznetsov NK-4 rather than the Ivchenko AI-20. The Il-18 design had started in 1954 before the directive was issued, the design was for a four-engined low-wing monoplane with a circular pressurised fuselage and a conventional tail. The forward retracting tricycle landing gear had four wheels fitted on the main leg bogies, a new feature at the time was the fitting of a weather radar in the nose and it was the first soviet airliner to have an automatic approach system. The aircraft has two doors on the port-side before and after the wing and two overwing emergency exits on each side. The prototype SSSR-L5811 was rolled out in June 1957 and after ground-testing it began taxi test, on 4 July 1957 the prototype first flew from Khodynka. On 10 July 1957 the aircraft was flown to Moscow-Vnukovo Airport to be presented to a Soviet government commission, also present was the prototype Antonov An-10 and the Tupolev Tu-114. The Il-18 type was formally named Moskva and this was painted on the fuselage, the Moscow Machinery Plant No.30 located at Khodynka, near where the Ilyushin design office and the prototype had been built, was chosen to manufacture the aircraft. During 1957 the plant began to reduce its production of the Ilyushin Il-14, the Il-18A was only different from the prototype in minor details, mainly internal configuration to increase the seating from 75 to 89. The first Il-18B flew on 30 September 1958 powered by the AI-20, from April 1961 a TG-18 Auxiliary Power Unit was fitted for ground starting rather than the bank of lead-acid batteries. Some aircraft were modified to allow the APU to be run in flight, with experience of the earlier aircraft a further improvement was the Il-18V variant. The Il-18V was structurally the same but the interior was re-designed including moving the galley, the first Il-18V appeared in December 1959 and was to continue into production until 1965 after 334 had been built. Specialised variants of the aircraft appeared, including aircraft modified for flight calibration. Military variants also appeared including the anti-submarine Ilyushin Il-38, the first Il-18, initially equipped with Kuznetsov NK-4 engines, flew on 4 July 1957. On 17 September 1958 the aircraft first flew with the new Ivchenko AI-20 engines, vladimir Kokkinaki was the test pilot
14.
Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
15.
Tupolev Tu-154
–
The Tupolev Tu-154 is a three-engine medium-range narrow-body airliner designed in the mid-1960s and manufactured by Tupolev. It was exported to 17 non-Russian airlines and used as a transport by the air forces of several countries. With a cruising speed of 900 kilometres per hour the Tu-154 is one of the fastest civilian aircraft in use and has a range of 5,280 kilometres. Since 1968 there have been 39 fatal incidents involving the Tu-154, most of which were caused either by factors unrelated to the aircraft, following a crash in 2016 all Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft in Russia were grounded. However, the Tu-154 is still being used as of January 2017, the Tu-154 was developed to meet Aeroflots requirement to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, the Antonov An-10 and the Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. A takeoff distance of 2,600 metres at maximum weight was also stipulated as a requirement. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry chose the Tu-154 as it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design, the first project chief was Sergey Yeger, in 1964, Dmitryi S. Markov assumed that position. In 1975, the lead role was turned over to Aleksandr S. Shengardt. The Tu-154 first flew on 4 October 1968, the first deliveries to Aeroflot were in 1970 with freight services beginning in May 1971 and passenger services in February 1972. There was still limited production of the 154M model as of January 2009 despite previous announcements of the end of production in 2006,1025 Tu-154s have been built,214 of which were still in service as of 14 December 2009. The last serial Tu-154 was delivered to the Russian Defense Ministry on 19 February 2013 from the Aviakor factory, equipped with upgraded avionics, a VIP interior, the factory has four unfinished hulls in its inventory which can be completed if new orders are received. The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the Boeing 727, but it is larger than its American counterpart. Both the 727 and the Tu-154 use an S-duct for the middle engine, the original model was equipped with Kuznetsov NK-8-2 engines, which were replaced with Soloviev D-30KU-154 in the Tu-154M. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a relatively high thrust-to-weight-ratio which give excellent performance and this became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew. The flight deck is fitted with conventional dual yoke control columns, Flight control surfaces are hydraulically operated. The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on Boeing. The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in a layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout. The layout can be modified to what is called a winter version where some seats are taken out, the passenger doors are smaller than on its Boeing and Airbus counterparts
16.
Frankfurt Airport
–
Frankfurt Airport is a major international airport located in Frankfurt, the fifth-largest city of Germany and one of the worlds leading financial centres. It is operated by Fraport and serves as the hub for Lufthansa including Lufthansa CityLine and Lufthansa Cargo as well as Condor. The airport is also the 12th busiest worldwide by number of passengers in 2015, with 61.032 million passengers using the airport in 2015. It also had a throughput of 2.076 million metric tonnes in 2015 and is the busiest airport in Europe by cargo traffic. As of summer 2017, Frankfurt Airport serves 293 destinations, making it the airport with the most direct routes in the world, in 2016 passengers at the airport fell 0. 4% to 60,792,308 down from 61.032 million in 2015. Frankfurt Airport lies 12 km southwest of central Frankfurt, near the Autobahn intersection Frankfurter Kreuz, the airport grounds, which form a city district of Frankfurt named Frankfurt-Flughafen, are surrounded by the Frankfurt City Forest. The southern portion of the airport grounds extend partially into the cities of Rüsselsheim am Main and Mörfelden-Walldorf, and a western portion of the grounds lie within the city of Kelsterbach. Thereby, along with a rail and motorway connection, the airport serves as a major transport for the greater region. That section of Rhein-Main later became the base for the Graf Zeppelin, its sister ship LZ-130, the airships were dismantled and their huge hangars demolished on 6 May 1940 during conversion of the base to military use. Luftwaffe engineers subsequently extended the runway and erected hangars and other facilities for German military aircraft. During World War II the Luftwaffe used the field sporadically as a fighter base, on 16 November 1909, the worlds first airline was founded in Frankfurt am Main, The Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft. DELAG then built the first airport in Frankfurt, called Airship Base at Rebstock and it opened in 1912 and was extended after World War I, but in 1924 an experts report already questioned the possibility of further expansions at this location. With the foundation of Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926 a rapid boom of civilian air travel started, plans for a new and larger airport located in the Frankfurt City Forest south-west of Schwanheim were approved in 1930, but were not realised due to the Great Depression. After the Machtergreifung in 1933 the government revived the plans and started the construction of the new airport, on the northern part of the airport originated in 1935 a two-storey station building with a six-storey tower, and other operating and outbuildings for maintenance and storage of aircraft. The approximately 100 hectares runway received a grass cover, the official opening of the new Flug- und Luftschiffhafen Rhein-Main took place on July 8,1936. The first plane that landed was a Ju 52/3m, Six days later,1936800 tons of cargo and 58,000 passengers were transported, in 193770,000 passengers and 966 tons of cargo. In the coming years, the new airport was base of the two largest German airships LZ127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ129 Hindenburg. In 1938 Frankfurt was a distribution point for the transport of airmail to North America
17.
Maszovlet
–
MALÉV Ltd. which did business as MALÉV Hungarian Airlines, was the flag carrier and principal airline of Hungary from 1946 to 2012. It had its office in Budapest, with its main operations at Budapest Liszt Ferenc International Airport. From there, the airline flew to 50 cities in 34 countries with a fleet of 22 aircraft, Malév joined the Oneworld alliance on 29 March 2007. On 3 February 2012, Malév stopped flying and on 14 February 2012 was declared insolvent, Hungarian civil aviation was pioneered by airlines such as Aero Rt. Magyar Æeroforgalmi Rt. and Magyar Légiforgalmi Rt, the widespread devastation of World War II forced these airlines to suspend airline service in 1940-44, and they were ultimately replaced by Maszovlet as the national airline after the war. Maszovlet was founded on 29 March 1946, as the Hungarian-Soviet Civil Air Transport Joint Stock Company, a merge between Malert, Maefort and the Hungarian part of Aeroflot. The initial fleet consisted of 21-seat Li-2 passenger aircraft and 3-seat Po-2 taxis, used for air mail. In 1950, Malévs operating base moved from Budaörs to the newly opened airport at Ferihegy, on 25 November 1954, Hungary acquired all the Soviet shares of MASZOVLET, and renamed the company, MALÉV was born. Ilyushin Il-14 twin piston-engined transport aircraft were acquired in the late 1950s, with that, Malév was one of the first airlines in the then-communist countries of Central Europe to operate a Western-built aircraft. TAROM Tarom started operating BAC 1-11 in 1968 and Boeing 707 in 1974, the companys logo which turned out to be the last one, was designed by graphic designer László Zsótér in 1986 and consecutively adopted during the following years. The last Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft was withdrawn from service in 2001, in 2003, MALÉV began replacing its Boeing 737 Classic aircraft with 737 Next-Generation planes. It then ran a fleet of 18 Boeing 737 Next Generations, from 1999 to 2007, the Hungarian State Privatization Company ÁPV Plc. owned 99. 5% of Malév shares. The other 0. 5% were in the hands of small shareholders, ÁPV Plc. repeatedly tried to privatise Malév, finally selling it to AirBridge Zrt. AirBridge acquired 99. 9% of the airline in February 2007 and it had 1,785 staff members, as of 31 December 2007. Despite Czech Airlines offer to sponsor Malév as a member of the SkyTeam alliance. On 12 July 2007 Lloyd Paxton was appointed CEO of MALÉV, Paxton replaced János Gönci, who remained on the board of directors as an adviser. Mr Paxton had been with British Airways for over 35 years, mr Paxton was the first MALÉV CEO to come from the airline industry. Two months later, on 14 September 2007, Lloyd Paxton resigned as CEO of MALÉV, in January 2009, Ballo Anatoly Borisovich became the chairman
18.
Lisunov Li-2
–
The Lisunov Li-2, originally designated PS-84, was a license-built version of the Douglas DC-3. It was produced by Factory #84 in Moscow-Khimki and, after evacuation in 1941, the project was directed by aeronautical engineer Boris Pavlovich Lisunov. The Soviet Union received its first DC-2 in 1935, although a total of 18 DC-3s had been ordered on 11 April 1936, the government of the USSR purchased 21 DC-3s for operation by Aeroflot before World War II. A production license was awarded to the government of the USSR on 15 July 1936, Lisunov spent two years at the Douglas Aircraft Company, between November 1936 and April 1939 translating the design. One of the engineers who accompanied him to Douglas was Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev, design work and production were undertaken at State Aviation Factory 84 in Khimki. The Soviet version was given the designation PS-84 - Passazhirskiy Samolyot 84, customary units to suit Soviet standards. No small task for Vladimir Myasishchev to accomplish, the Russian standard design practice also usually mandated fully shuttered engines in order to cope with the extreme temperatures. A slightly shorter span was incorporated but many of the alterations were less evident. The passenger door was moved to the side of the fuselage. The structural reinforcement included slightly heavier skins necessitated since the metric skin gauges were not exact duplicates of the American alloy sheet metal. Standard Russian metric hardware was different and the various steel substructures such as engine mounts and landing gear, wheels, later modifications allowed the provision of ski landing gear in order to operate in remote and Arctic regions. The first PS-84s began to emerge from the GAZ-84 production line by 1939, by the time Germany invaded the USSR on 22 June 1941,237 PS-84s had been built at GAZ-84, all in civil passenger configuration. After a monumental struggle, the factory was producing PS-84s again by January 1942, some military versions of the Li-2 also had bomb racks and a dorsal turret, unlike the military C-47 development of the DC-3. The PS-84 had flown with Aeroflot primarily as a passenger transport before World War II, when Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941 many of the PS-84s were taken into military use and redesignated the Lisunov Li-2 in 1942. The military models were equipped with a 7.62 mm ShKAS machine gun, the aircraft were used for transport, partisan supply, bombing, and as ambulance aircraft. A version designated Li-2VV had a nose for extra defensive armament. Smaller bombs could be carried inside the fuselage and thrown out of the hatch by the crew. A total of 4,937 aircraft were produced of all Li-2 variants between 1940 and 1954 and it saw use in Eastern Europe until the 1960s
19.
Douglas DC-3
–
The Douglas DC-3 is a fixed-wing propeller-driven airliner. Its cruise speed and range revolutionized air transport in the 1930s and 1940s and its lasting effect on the airline industry and World War II makes it one of the most significant transport aircraft ever made. The DC-3 was a twin-engine metal monoplane, developed as a larger and it had many exceptional qualities compared to previous aircraft. It was fast, had a range and could operate from short runways. It was reliable and easy to maintain and carried passengers in greater comfort, before the war it pioneered many air travel routes. Civil DC-3 production ended in 1942 with 607 aircraft being produced, however, together with its military derivative, the C-47 Skytrain, and with Russian- and Japanese-built versions, over 16,000 were built. Following the Second World War, the market was flooded with surplus C-47s and other transport aircraft. While the DC-3 was soon made redundant on main routes by more advanced such as the Douglas DC-6 and Lockheed Constellation. Large numbers continue to see service in a variety of niche roles well into the 21st century. In 2013 it was estimated that approximately 2,000 DC-3s and military derivatives were still flying, the DC-3 was the culmination of a development effort that began after an inquiry from Transcontinental and Western Airlines to Donald Douglas. TWA asked Douglas to design and build an aircraft that would allow TWA to compete with United, Douglas design, the 1933 DC-1, was promising, and led to the DC-2 in 1934. The DC-2 was a success, but there was room for improvement, Douglas agreed to go ahead with development only after Smith informed him of Americans intention to purchase twenty aircraft. The new aircraft was engineered by a led by chief engineer Arthur E. Raymond over the next two years, and the prototype DST first flew on December 17,1935. Its cabin was 92 in wide, and a version with 21 seats instead of the 14–16 sleeping berths of the DST was given the designation DC-3, there was no prototype DC-3, the first DC-3 built followed seven DSTs off the production line and was delivered to American Airlines. The DC-3 and DST popularized air travel in the United States, eastbound transcontinental flights could cross the U. S. in about 15 hours with three refueling stops, westbound trips against the wind took 17 1⁄2 hours. A few years such a trip entailed short hops in slower and shorter-range aircraft during the day. A variety of engines were available for the DC-3. Early-production civilian aircraft used Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9s, but later used the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp
20.
Po-2
–
The Polikarpov Po-2 served as a general-purpose Soviet biplane, nicknamed Kukuruznik, NATO reporting name Mule. As of 1978 it remained in production for a period of time than any other Soviet-era aircraft. It is one of the most produced aircraft, and may be the most produced biplane with production possibly as high as 30,000 Po-2s built between 1928 and 1959. However, production figures for Polikarpov U-2 and Po-2 bombers and trainers combined are between 20,000 and 30,000, with production ending as early as 1952. Correct figures are hard to obtain since low-rate production by small repair shops, the aircraft was designed by Nikolai Polikarpov to replace the U-1 trainer, itself known as Avrushka to the Soviets. The prototype of the U-2, powered by a 74 kW Shvetsov M-11 air-cooled five-cylinder radial engine, aircraft from the preproduction series were tested at the end of 1928 and serial production started in 1929 in Factory number 23 in Leningrad. Production in the Soviet Union ended in 1953, but license-built CSS-13s were still produced in Poland until 1959, from the beginning, the U-2 became the basic Soviet civil and military trainer aircraft, mass-produced in a Red Flyer factory near Moscow. It was also used for transport, and as a liaison aircraft. Also from the beginning it was produced as an agricultural aircraft variant, although entirely outclassed by contemporary aircraft, the Kukuruznik served extensively on the Eastern Front in World War II, primarily as a liaison, medevac and general-supply aircraft. It was especially useful for supplying Soviet partisans behind the front line, manufacturing of the Po-2 in the USSR ceased in 1949, but until 1959 a number were assembled in Aeroflot repair workshops. The first trials of arming the aircraft with bombs took place in 1941, during the defence of Odessa, in September 1941, the U-2 was used as a reconnaissance aircraft and as a light, short-range, bomber. The bombs, dropped from an aircraft piloted by Pyotr Bevz, were the first to fall on enemy artillery positions. From 1942 it was adapted as a night ground attack aircraft. Nikolay Polikarpov supported the project, and under his leadership, the U-2VS was created, luftwaffe pilots were soon given special instructions for engaging these aircraft. The material effects of these missions may be regarded as minor and they typically attacked by surprise in the middle of the night, denying German troops sleep and keeping them on their guard, contributing to the already high stress of combat on the Eastern front. The U-2 became known as the used by the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, composed of an all-woman pilot. The unit was notorious for daring low-altitude night raids on German rear-area positions, veteran pilots Yekaterina Ryabova and Nadezhda Popova on one occasion flew eighteen missions in a single night. The women pilots observed that the enemy suffered a degree of demoralization simply due to their antagonists being female
21.
Airmail
–
Airmail is a mail transport service branded and sold on the basis of being airborne. Airmail items typically arrive more quickly than surface mail, and usually cost more to send, Airmail may be the only option for sending mail to some destinations, such as overseas, if the mail cannot wait the time it would take to arrive by ship, sometimes weeks. The Universal Postal Union adopted comprehensive rules for airmail at its 1929 Postal Union Congress in London, since the official language of the Universal Postal Union is French, airmail items worldwide are often marked Par avion, literally, by airplane. For about the first half century of its existence, transportation of mail via aircraft was usually categorized and sold as a separate service from surface mail. Today it is often the case that mail service is categorized and sold according to transit time alone, thus even regular mail may make part of its journey on an aircraft. Such air-speeded mail is different from nominal airmail in its branding, price, specific instances of a letter being delivered by air long predate the introduction of Airmail as a regularly scheduled service available to the general public. Although homing pigeons had long used to send messages, the first mail to be carried by an air vehicle was on January 7,1785. It was flown by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries, the letter was written by an American Loyalist William Franklin to his son William Temple Franklin who was serving in a diplomatic role in Paris with his grandfather Benjamin Franklin. The first official air mail delivery in the United States took place on August 17,1859, weather issues forced him to land in Crawfordsville, Indiana, and the mail reached its final destination via train. In 1959, the U. S. Postal Service issued a 7 cent stamp commemorating the event, balloons also carried mail out of Paris and Metz during the Franco-Prussian War, drifting over the heads of the Germans besieging those cities. Balloon mail was carried on an 1877 flight in Nashville. Starting in 1903 the introduction of the airplane generated immediate interest in using them for mail transport, an unofficial airmail flight was conducted by Fred Wiseman, who carried three letters between Petaluma and Santa Rosa, California, on February 17,1911. The worlds first official airmail flight came the day, at a large exhibition in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The letters bore an official frank First Aerial Post, U. P, the aircraft used was a Humber-Sommer biplane, and it made the journey in thirteen minutes. The first official American airmail delivery was made on September 23,1911 by pilot Earle Ovington under the authority of the United States Post Office Department, the first official air mail in Australia was carried by French pilot Maurice Guillaux. On July 16–18,1914, he flew his Blériot XI aircraft from Melbourne to Sydney, at the time, this was the longest such flight in the world. The service was terminated due to constant and severe delays caused by bad weather conditions. In Germany, dirigibles of the 1920s and 1930s were used extensively to carry airmail, it was known as Zeppelin mail, the German Zeppelins were especially visible in this role, and many countries issued special stamps for use on Zeppelin mail
22.
Tupolev Tu-134
–
The Tupolev Tu-134 is a twin-engined, narrow-body, jet airliner built in the Soviet Union from 1966 to 1989. The original version featured a design and, like certain other Russian airliners. One of the most widely used aircraft in former Comecon countries, the model has seen long-term service with some 42 countries, with some European airlines having scheduled as many as 12 daily takeoffs and landings per plane. In addition to passenger service, it has also been used in various air force, army and navy support roles, for pilot and navigator training. In recent years, a number of Tu-134s have been converted for use as VIP transports, a total of 854 Tu-134s were built of all versions with Aeroflot as the largest user, by 1995, the Tu-134 had carried 360 million passengers for that airline. Following the introduction of engines mounted on pylons on the fuselage by the French Sud Aviation Caravelle. Its advantages included clean wing airflow without disruption by nacelles or pylons, at the same time, placing heavy engines that far back created challenges with the location of the centre of gravity in relation to the centre of lift, which was at the wings. To make room for the engines, the tailplanes had to be relocated to the tail fin, the requirement was also driven by the need to replace slow, aging piston-engined Il-14s on domestic routes. In 1961, the Soviet state airline, Aeroflot, updated its requirement specifications to include greater payload, the first Tu-124A prototype, SSSR-45075, first flew on 29 July 1963. On 22 October 1963, the prototype British BAC One-Eleven, which had a similar layout, the aircraft had entered pitch-up, the high-mounted tailplane became trapped in the turbulent wake produced by the wings, which prevented recovery from the stall. As a result, the tailplane on Tu-124A was enlarged by 30% for greater control authority, since Aeroflots requirements dictated a larger aircraft than initially planned, the Soloviev Design Bureau developed the more powerful D-30 low-bypass turbofan engines. On 20 November 1963, the new airliner was designated Tu-134, Design curiosities of the Tu-134 included a sharp wing sweepback of 35 degrees, compared to 25–28 degrees in its counterparts. The engines on early production Tu-134s lacked thrust reversers, which made the one of the few airliners to use a brake parachute for landing. The majority of onboard electronics operated on direct current, serial production began in 1966 at the Kharkov Aviation Production Association, and production of the Tu-124 was discontinued. The Tu-134 was designed for short-haul lines with low passenger traffic, originally the aircraft had 56 seats in a single class configuration, or 50 seats in a two-class configuration. In 1968, Tupolev began work on an improved Tu-134 variant with a 72-seat capacity, the fuselage received a 2. 1-meter plug for greater passenger capacity and an auxiliary power unit in the tail. As a result, the range was reduced from 3,100 kilometers to 2,770 kilometers. The upgraded D-30 engines now featured thrust reversers, replacing the parachute, the first Tu-134A, converted from a production Tu-134, flew on 22 April 1969
23.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
24.
Western world
–
The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
25.
Boeing 737
–
The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
26.
Central Europe
–
Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
27.
TAROM
–
Compania Națională de Transporturi Aeriene Române TAROM S. A. doing business as TAROM, is the flag carrier and oldest currently operating airline of Romania, based in Otopeni near Bucharest. Its headquarters and its main hub are at Henri Coandă International Airport and it is currently the largest airline operating in Romania based on international destinations, international flights and the second largest measured by fleet size and passengers carried. The brand name is an acronym for Romanian, Transporturile Aeriene Române, over ninety-seven percent of TAROM is owned by the Romanian Government. The airline transported almost 2.4 million passengers in 2015, the airline joined SkyTeam on 25 June 2010. The history of Romanian National Air Transport Company can be traced back from 1920, the airline used French-built Potez 15 aircraft for its passenger/mail service between Paris and Bucharest via several cities in Central Europe. In 1925, the city of Galați became the first destination in Romania served by regular flights followed, from 24 June 1926, by a service to Iași. Ten de Havilland DH.9 and five Ansaldo A.300, in addition to the Potez aircraft, in 1928 the airline changed its name to SNNA. In 1930, the company adopted the name LARES while 1937 saw the merger of LARES with its competitor, domestic operations were started from Bucharest on 1 February 1946, when TARS took over all air services and aircraft from LARES. Over the following decade, the companys Soviet share was purchased by Romanian government and, on 18 September 1954, by 1960, TAROM was flying to a dozen cities across Europe. 1966 saw the operation of its first transatlantic flight, on 14 May 1974, it launched a regular service to New York City. Being part of the group of airlines within Eastern Bloc states meant that for much of its history TAROM has operated Soviet-designed aircraft. As was the case with a number of nations, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by Romania. Five examples were owned by TAROM, which leased the aircraft to other operators. Plans were made to acquire Vickers VC10 aircraft as well, but in the end the Soviets did not allow it, with 59 aircraft in operation, in the late 70s, TAROM had the largest fleet in the Eastern Bloc, after Aeroflot. In 1978, a contract was signed with the UK enabling Rombac to manufacture the BAC One Eleven at Romaero, meanwhile, the 707 and Il-62 long-range aircraft were operating New York, Abu-Dhabi-Bangkok-Singapore, and Karachi-Beijing. TAROM was the only Eastern Bloc airline to operate flights to Tel Aviv, after the collapse of the communist regime in 1989, the airline, operating a fleet of 65 aircraft of six basic types, was able to acquire more Western-built jets. By 1993, TAROM had introduced long-haul flights to Montreal and Bangkok using Ilyushin Il-62, during the 1990s, TAROM replaced its long-haul fleet of Boeing 707s and IL-62s with Airbus A310s. TAROM terminated loss-making domestic services to Craiova, Tulcea, Caransebeș, and Constanța, and focused its activity on service to key destinations in Europe,2004 was the first profitable year of the last decade
28.
BAC One-Eleven
–
The British Aircraft Corporation One-Eleven, also known as the BAC-111 or BAC 1-11, was a British short-range jet airliner used during the 1960s and 1970s. It was the second jet airliner to enter service, following the French Sud Aviation Caravelle. The aircraft was produced under license in Romania during the 1980s as the Rombac One-Eleven. The One-Eleven was intended to replace the earlier turboprop-powered Vickers Viscount on short-range routes, the One-Eleven made it to market ahead of rivals such as the Douglas DC-9-10, which gave it a temporary edge on the market. As of 2013, two remain in service as testbeds for Northrop-Grumman. Several aircraft manufacturers raced to release their own passenger jets, including those aimed at the short-haul market, in July 1956, British European Airways published a paper calling for a second generation jet airliner to operate beside their existing turboprop designs. This led to a variety of designs all of the major players in the British aerospace industry. Hunting Aircraft started design studies on a replacement for the successful Vickers Viscount. Around the same time, Vickers started a development of a 140-seat derivative of its VC10 project. Many other aviation firms had produced their own designs. In 1960 Hunting, under British government pressure, merged with Vickers-Armstrongs, Bristol, the newly formed BAC decided that the Hunting project had merit, but that there would be little market for a 30-seat jet airliner. The design was reworked into the BAC107, a 59-seat airliner powered by two 7,000 pounds-force Bristol Siddeley BS75 turbofan engines, BAC also continued development of the larger, 140-seat VC-11 development of the Vickers VC10 which it had inherited. Other competing internal projects, such as the Bristol Type 200, were abandoned following the absorption of Hunting into BAC. The revised design was redesignated the BAC111, with BAC abandoning the VC11 project to concentrate on the more promising One-Eleven, test flying was conducted by Squadron Leader Dave Glaser. On 9 May 1961 the One-Eleven was publicly launched when British United Airways placed the first order for ten One-Eleven 200s, on 20 October Braniff International Airways in the United States ordered six. Mohawk Airlines sent representatives to Europe seeking out a new aircraft to bring them into the jet era, other orders followed from Kuwait Airways for three, and Central African Airways for two. Braniff subsequently doubled their order to 12, while Aer Lingus ordered four, Western Airlines ordered ten aircraft but later cancelled. The CAB also stopped Frontier Airlines and Ozark Air Lines from ordering One-Elevens, although allowing Ozark to order the similar Douglas DC-9, the CAB had also unsuccessfully tried to block Mohawks orders
29.
Boeing 707
–
The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, four-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Its name is pronounced as seven oh seven. Versions of the aircraft have a capacity from 140 to 219 passengers, developed as Boeings first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines. Although it was not the first jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be commercially successful, dominating passenger air transport in the 1960s and remaining common through the 1970s, the 707 is generally credited with ushering in the Jet Age. It established Boeing as one of the largest manufacturers of passenger aircraft, the later 720,727,737, and 757 share elements of the 707s fuselage design. The 707 was developed from the Boeing 367-80, a prototype jet first flown in 1954, a larger fuselage cross-section and other modifications resulted in the initial-production 707-120, powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines, which first flew on December 20,1957. Pan American World Airways began regular 707 service on October 26,1958, later derivatives included the shortened long-range 707-138 and the stretched 707-320, both of which entered service in 1959. A smaller short-range variant, the 720, was introduced in 1960, the 707 has been used on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, and for cargo and military applications. A convertible passenger-freighter model, the 707-320C, entered service in 1963, military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transports. Boeing produced and delivered 1,011 airliners including the smaller 720 series, ten Boeing 707s were in commercial service in July 2013. During and after World War II, Boeing was known for its military aircraft, the company had produced innovative and important bombers, from the B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress, to the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress. The companys civil aviation department lagged far behind Douglas and other competitors, during 1949–1950, Boeing embarked on studies for a new jet transport, realizing that any design must be aimed at both the military and civilian markets. At the time, aerial refueling was becoming a standard technique for military aircraft, with the advent of the Jet Age, a new tanker was required to meet the USAFs fleet of jet-powered bombers, this was where Boeings new design would potentially win military orders. Boeing studied numerous wing and engine layouts for its new transport/tanker, some of which were based on the B-47 and C-97, before settling on 367–80. The Dash 80 took less than two years from launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14,1954, then first flew on July 15,1954. The prototype was an aircraft for both military and civilian use. The United States Air Force was the first customer, using it as the basis for the KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling platform, whether the passenger 707 would be profitable was far from certain. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside Seattle, on August 7,1955, the 132-inch wide fuselage of the Dash 80 was large enough for four-abreast seating like the Stratocruiser
30.
LOT Polish Airlines
–
Polskie Linie Lotnicze LOT S. A. trading as LOT Polish Airlines, is the flag carrier of Poland. Based in Warsaw and established in 1929, it is one of the worlds oldest airlines still in operation, with a fleet of 41 aircraft, LOT operates a network to 60 destinations in Europe, the Middle East, North America, and Asia. It is the airline in the region to offer nonstop long-haul flights to New York City, Newark, Chicago, Los Angeles, Toronto, Beijing. Most of the destinations originate from its hub, Warsaw Chopin Airport, LOT is also a member of the Star Alliance. As Poland made the transition to an economy from 1989. During this time LOT also started a process of renewal with the purchase of modern aircraft. The company found itself undergoing constant management change in the late 2000s due to reductions in market share, at the end of 2012, LOT Polish Airlines became the first European airline that took delivery of one of the most modern aircraft in the world, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. LOT Polish airlines offers three classes on its flights, Economy, Premium Economy and Business class. The first aircraft used were Junkers F.13 and Fokker F. VII and its first international service began on 2 August 1929 to Vienna. It was also at this point in time that LOTs well-renowned logo was picked as the entry of the Airlines logo design competition. Accepted into IATA in 1930, LOT opened a route to Bucharest that year, followed by Berlin, Athens, Beirut, Helsinki. Douglas DC-2, Lockheed Model 10A Electra and Model 14H Super Electra joined the fleet in 1935,1936 and 1938 respectively, the airline had carried 218,000 passengers by the outbreak of war. Services were suspended during the Second World War, and all of LOTs aircraft were destroyed or evacuated to Romania. From August 1944 until December 1945 the Polish Air Force maintained basic transport in the country, on 10 March 1945 the Polish government recreated the LOT airline, as a state-owned enterprise. In 1946,7 years after the service was suspended, the airline restarted its operations after receiving ten Soviet-built Lisunov Li-2s, then a further 30 Li-2s, both domestic and international services restarted that year, first to Berlin, Paris, Stockholm and Prague. Five Sud-Est Languedoc joined the fleet for a period in 1947-1948, followed by five Ilyushin Il-12B in 1949. After the end of Stalinism in Poland, few Western aircraft would be acquired, five Convair 240s in 1957, after that, the composition of the airlines fleet shifted exclusively to Soviet-produced aircraft. Only in 1955 LOT inaugurated services to Moscow, being the centre of the Marxist–Leninist world, services to London and Zürich were not re-established until 1958, and to Rome until 1960
31.
Boeing 767
–
The Boeing 767 is a mid- to large-size, long-range, wide-body twin-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It was Boeings first wide-body twinjet and its first airliner with a glass cockpit. The aircraft has two engines, a conventional tail, and, for reduced aerodynamic drag, a supercritical wing design. Development of the 767 occurred in tandem with a narrow-body twinjet, the 767 is produced in three fuselage lengths. The original 767-200 entered service in 1982, followed by the 767-300 in 1986 and the 767-400ER, the extended-range 767-200ER and 767-300ER models entered service in 1984 and 1988, respectively, while a production freighter version, the 767-300F, debuted in 1995. Engines featured on the 767 include the General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000, United Airlines first placed the 767 in commercial service in 1982. The aircraft was flown on domestic and transcontinental routes, during which it demonstrated the reliability of its twinjet design. In 1985, the 767 became the first twin-engined airliner to receive approval for extended overseas flights. The aircraft was used to expand non-stop service on medium- to long-haul intercontinental routes. In 1986, Boeing initiated studies for a higher-capacity 767, ultimately leading to the development of the 777, in the 1990s, the 767 became the most frequently used airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe. The 767 is the first twinjet wide-body type to reach 1,000 aircraft delivered, as of February 2017, Boeing has received 1,204 orders for the 767 from 74 customers,1,097 have been delivered. A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2016, competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200, while a successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in October 2011. Despite this, the 767 still remains in production, in 1970, Boeings 747 became the first wide-body jetliner to enter service. The 747 was the first passenger jet that was enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body aircraft intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body jets. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and this marked the manufacturers first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. At this stage the aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By 1976, a layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300
32.
Boeing 737 Next Generation
–
The Boeing 737 Next Generation, commonly abbreviated as 737NG, is the name given to the −600/-700/-800/-900 series of the Boeing 737 airliner. It is the third derivative of the 737, and follows the 737 Classic series. They are short- to medium-range, narrow-body jet airliners, produced since 1996 by Boeing Commercial Airplanes, the 737NG series includes four variants and can seat between 110 and 210 passengers. As of December 2016, a total of 7,071 737NG aircraft have been ordered, the remaining orders are in the -700, -700 BBJ, -800, and -900ER variants. The 737NGs primary competition is with the Airbus A320 family, upgraded and re-engined models in development as the 737 MAX series are to eventually supplant the 737NG, with the first 737 MAX to be delivered in 2017. Prompted by the development of the Airbus A320, which incorporated ground-breaking technologies such as fly-by-wire, after working with potential customers, the 737 Next Generation program was announced on November 17,1993. The 737NG encompasses the −600, −700, −800 and −900 variants, the performance of the 737NG is essentially that of a new airplane, but important commonality is retained from previous 737 generations. The wing was modified, increasing its area by 25% and span by 16 ft, new quieter and more fuel-efficient CFM56-7B engines were used. These improvements combine to increase the 737s range by 900 nmi, a flight test program was operated by 10 aircraft,3 -600s,4 -700s, and 3 -800s. The interior of the 737 Next Generation also became the interior on the Boeing 757-300. In 2010, the interior of the 737 Next Generation was updated to look similar to that of the Boeing 787, known as the Boeing Sky Interior, it introduces new pivoting overhead bins, new sidewalls, new passenger service units, and LED mood lighting. Boeing also offers BSI retrofits for older 737NG aircraft, Boeings Space Bins carry 50% more than the pivoting bins, allowing a 737 to hold 174 carry-on bags. The first NG to roll out was a −700, on December 8,1996 and this aircraft, the 2, 843rd 737 built, first flew on February 9,1997 with pilots Mike Hewett and Ken Higgins. The prototype −800 rolled out on June 30,1997 and first flew on July 31,1997, piloted by Jim McRoberts, the monthly production rate could reach 57 per month in 2019, even to the factory limit of 63 later. A single airplane is produced in Boeing Renton Factory in 10 days, the empty fuselage from Spirit AeroSystems in Wichita, Kansas, enters the plant on Day 1. Electrical wiring is installed on Day 2 and hydraulic machinery on Day 3, on Day 4 the fuselage is crane-lifted and rotated 90 degrees, wings are mated to the airplane in a six-hour process, along with landing gear, and the airplane is again rotated 90 degrees. The final assembly process begins on Day 6 with the installation of seats, galleys, lavatories, overhead bins. Engines are attached on Day 8 and it rolls out of the factory for test flights on Day 10
33.
Bombardier Dash 8
–
The Bombardier Dash 8 or Q-Series, previously known as the de Havilland Canada Dash 8 or DHC-8, is a series of twin-engine, medium-range, turboprop airliners. Introduced by de Havilland Canada in 1984, they are now produced by Bombardier Aerospace, over 1,000 Dash 8s of all models have been built. The Dash 8 was developed from the de Havilland Canada Dash 7, with the Dash 8, DHC focused on improving cruise performance and lowering operational costs. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW100, the aircraft has been delivered in four series. Models delivered after 1997 have cabin noise suppression and are designated with the prefix Q, production of the Series 100 ceased in 2005, and the Q200 and Q300 in 2009. In the 1970s, de Havilland Canada had invested heavily in its Dash 7 project, concentrating on STOL and short-field performance, however, only a handful of air carriers employed the Dash 7, as most regional airlines were more interested in operational costs than short-field performance. In 1980, de Havilland responded by dropping the short-field performance requirement and its favoured engine supplier, Pratt & Whitney Canada, developed the new PW100 series engines for the role, more than doubling the power from its PT6. Originally designated the PT7A-2R engine, it became the PW120. When the Dash 8 rolled out on April 19,1983, certification of the PW120 followed in late 1983. First flight was on June 20,1983, and the airliner entered service in 1984 with NorOntair, in 1984, Piedmont Airlines, formerly Henson Airlines, was the first US customer for the Dash 8. The Dash 8 design has better performance than the Dash 7, is less expensive to operate. The Dash 8 has the lowest cost per mile of any regional airliner of its era. In April 2008, Bombardier announced that production of the classic versions would be ended, a total of 671 Dash 8 classics were produced, the last one was delivered to Air Nelson in May 2008. The payload is increased by 2,000 pounds and the maintenance check intervals are increased,800 hours from 600 for an A-check and 8,000 hours from 6,000 for a C-check. Bombardier proposed development of a Q400 stretch with two segments, called the Q400X project, in 2007. In response to this project, as of November 2007, ATR was studying a 90-seat stretch, as of July 2010, Bombardiers vice president, Phillipe Poutissou, made comments explaining the company was still studying the prospects of designing the Q400X and talking with potential customers. At the time, Bombardier was not as committed to the Q400X as it had been previously, as of February 2012, Bombardier was still studying the issue, but as of 2011, the launch date is no longer targeted for the 2014 range. At least a three-year delay was envisioned, in October 2012, a joint development deal with a government-led South Korean consortium was revealed, to develop a 90-seater turboprop regional airliner, targeting a 2019 launch date
34.
AiRUnion
–
AiRUnion was a Russian airline alliance. It was the first airline alliance ever established in Russia, the airline and member carriers have since gone bankrupt in 2008. With government sponsorship, the alliance might become resurrected as Rossiya and this alliance was originally known as AirBridge. In October 2004 Russian airlines KrasAir and Domodedovo Airlines set up a joint management company called AirBridge, KrasAir is owned by the city government of Krasnoyarsk and AirBridge management. While retaining separate legal identities the airlines were planning to integrate their networks and services, in April 2007 AirBridge had purchased Malév airline from Hungarian government. Boris Abramovich is also a CEO of AirUnion alliance, the Abramovich brothers aggressive expansion campaign led to the creation of AiRUnion alliance in 2005, the first airline alliance in Russia. It included KrasAir, Domodedovo Airlines, Omskavia, Samara Airlines, all of the member airlines are virtually controlled by Krasair. On May 3,2007 the five members of the AirUnion alliance were rolled into a similarly named holding company, OAO AirUnion, although Malév was a Oneworld member, in early 2007 AiRUnion began a codeshare with Austrian Airlines and Lufthansa in its strategic expansion into European routes. AiRUnion was competing with S7 Airlines to become the second largest domestic carrier in Russia in 2007, AiRUnion carried 4.9 million passengers in 2006 compared to 8.75 million for Aeroflot. Domodedovo Airlines KrasAir Omskavia Samara Airlines Sibaviatrans AiRUnion had one level, Premium. Each member and regional airline recognized AiRUnion Premium status, with only a few exceptions, status has no specific requirements, membership is based solely on the frequent flyer programs of individual member airlines
35.
Czech Airlines
–
Czech Airlines a. s. is the national airline of the Czech Republic. Its head office on the grounds of 6th district Prague, Vokovice, the airlines hub is at Václav Havel Airport Prague, it have other bases in Czech city Karlovy Vary and Slovakian cities Bratislava and Košice. Today, it operates scheduled, charter and cargo services and it is a member of the SkyTeam alliance. Czech Airlines have three main shareholders, Korean Air, Travel Service and a Czech state company Prisko, Czech Airlines Technics is responsible for aircraft maintenance and Czech Airlines Handling is responsible for passenger and aircraft handling. In summer season, ČSA flies to 50 destinations in Asia, Czech Airlines carried 2.26 million passengers on their flights in 2016, which is 13% increase compared with 2015. ČSA is the fifth oldest still operating airline in the world, older are only Dutch KLM, Colombian Avianca, Australian Qantas and it is also the second airline to initiate successful jet airliner services and simultaneously the first airline in the world to fly regular jet-only routes. CSA was founded on 6 October 1923, by the Czechoslovak government as CSA Československé státní aerolinie, twenty-three days later its first transport flight took place, flying between Prague and Bratislava. It operated only domestic services until its first international flight from Prague to Bratislava, after the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939 with the country splitting up into three parts, the airline was terminated. Gradually replaced much of the fleet with Soviet-built airliners, the venerable Ilyushin Il-14 was even updated and built under licence in Czechoslovakia as the Avia-14. In 1950, CSA became the worlds first victim of a mass hijacking, three Douglas Dakota airliners landed in the morning of 24 March near Munich instead of at Prague. The first one, from Brno, at 08,20, the one from Moravská Ostrava at 08,40. Two thirds of the people on board were involuntary passengers who returned to Czechoslovakia. The pilot from Brno was Josef Klesnil, a former Royal Air Force pilot with 311 squadron, in 1957 CSA became the third of the worlds airlines to fly jet services, taking delivery/putting in service the first Tupolev Tu-104A in 1957. CSA was the airline other than Aeroflot to operate the Tu-104 which was the worlds first successful jet airliner. The service operated by the Tu-104A from 1957 between Prague and Moscow was the first jet-only connection, the first transatlantic services started on 3 February 1962 with a flight to Havana, using a Bristol Britannia turboprop leased from Cubana de Aviación. CSAs transatlantic flights were code-shared with Cubanas own services to Prague, the Britannia was replaced with long-range Ilyushin Il-18D turboprops at this time, and transatlantic routes were established to Montreal and New York City, besides Havana. Apart from the Il-18D, other aircraft in CSAs fleet included the short range Tupolev Tu-134, the medium-range tri-jet airliner Tu-154, as was the case in several other countries, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by CSA. The plane has a range of 10,300 km and for time was operated concurrently with the Il-18D
36.
SkyTeam
–
Founded in June 2000, SkyTeam was the last of the three major airline alliances to be formed, the first two being Star Alliance and Oneworld. As of March 2014, SkyTeam consists of 20 carriers from five continents and it also operates a cargo alliance named SkyTeam Cargo, which partners ten carriers, all of them SkyTeam members. Its centralised management team, SkyTeam Central, is based at the World Trade Center Schiphol Airport on the grounds of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Haarlemmermeer, Netherlands. In terms of passengers, with 665.4 million carried passengers, SkyTeam has grown and is now the largest alliance in the world ahead of Star Alliance. In 2004, the alliance had its biggest expansion when Continental Airlines, Northwest Airlines, garuda Indonesia entered the alliance in March 2014. As of March 2014, SkyTeam flies to more than 1,000 destinations in 178 countries and operates some 15,700 daily flights with a fleet of over 4,400 aircraft. The alliance and its members have a workforce of 459,781, furthermore. On 22 June 2000, representatives of Aeroméxico, Air France, Delta Air Lines and these became the four founding carriers of SkyTeam. Upon its formation, SkyTeam would offer its customers a total of 6,402 daily flights to 451 destinations in 98 countries, in September 2000, the alliance established a cargo alliance, SkyTeam Cargo. The groups inaugural members were Aeromexpress, Air France Cargo, Delta Air Logistics, the following month, the newly established airline alliance announced its intentions to incorporate CSA Czech Airlines as the 5th member in April the following year. The alliance saw the joining of CSA Czech Airlines on 25 March 2001, Alitalia entered SkyTeam on 27 July the same year, on 30 September 2001, the alliance received KLMs application for membership, following the airlines plans to create a leading airline group with Air France. In 2003, Deltas subsidiary, Delta Express, was replaced by Song and that same year, SkyTeam also launched an improved website focused on providing passengers with more information, increased interactivity and other resources. On 24 May 2004, Aeroflot, the carrier and principal airline of Russia. The event took place in Kremlin following the airlines application earlier in the year for membership, SkyTeam expressed that Aeroflot has not met the consortiums standards, but that the airlines large hub networks made it ideal for the alliance, and made up for its deficiencies. On 28 August, China Southern Airlines, the largest carrier in the Peoples Republic of China, on 13 September, Continental Airlines, KLM and Northwest Airlines joined the alliance. Their simultaneous entry was the largest expansion event in airline alliance history, every associate adopted a frequent-flyer program of a full member, Copa Airlines already used Continentals OnePass, Kenya Airways and Air Europa used Air France–KLMs Flying Blue. Following a 23-month joining process since May 2004, Aeroflot joined on 14 April 2006 and it was the first Russian airline to be associated with any airline alliance. Aeroflot has increased its operational standards, passing International Air Transport Associations Operational Safety Audit, Deltas subsidiary Song continued to operate as Delta Air Lines
37.
Air Astana
–
Air Astana is the principal airline and the flag carrier of the Republic of Kazakhstan, based in Almaty, Kazakhstan. It operates scheduled domestic and international services on 64 routes from its hub, Almaty International Airport. It is a joint venture between Kazakhstans sovereign wealth fund Samruk-Kazyna, and BAE Systems PLC and it was incorporated in October 2001 and started commercial flights on 15 May 2002. Air Astana was described by the Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation in January 2012 as having performed better in its first decade than just about any other start-up carrier. Yet its origins represent one of the intriguing and unlikely stories to have emerged from the airline industry in recent times. Sir Richard Evans, BAE Systems’ chairman at the time, was instrumental in, however, the radar contract never materialized, and subsequent senior management changes and strategic reviews at BAE Systems led to the closure of its offices in Kazakhstan. In spite of these gloomy auguries the airline took off on the charge, in late 2003 Fokker 50s were leased from Aircraft Finance Trading BV and 3 Boeing 757s from Pegasus Leasing Corp. It declared a net profit in 2003, its first full year of operations, early growth pains and disagreements over fleet plans and hub strategy led to tensions between the shareholders and a management change in autumn 2005. Long-term development plans and management structures were established that have remained unchanged since then. In an article on BAE Systems offset programmes the Financial Times stated, until 8 December 2016, Air Astana was the only Kazakhstani airline allowed to fly to the European Union. Air Astana is the Official Air Carrier of EXPO-2017 and the carrier and general partner of the 2017 Winter Universiade. In September 2002 the airline launched flights between Astana and Moscow with a frequency of 3 times a week and daily flights between Almaty and Moscow performed by Boeing 737–700. In 2014, the number of services on the Astana – Moscow route was increased up to 9 flights a week. Air Astana is represented in Russian Federation in Moscow city on Bolshoi Gnezdnikovskii pereulok 1, there is also a ticket office at the Sheremetyevo airport. Air Astana has built on its strength by expanding its network to cover all key cities of the region with short haul flights. In Central Asia and Caucasus Air Astana offers services to Bishkek, Tashkent, Baku, services to Dushanbe are currently performed from Almaty and will be extended from Astana starting IATA Summer 2016 navigation season. Air Astana closed its last gap in the region in 2013 by launching services to Kiev from Almaty with 3 flights per week. Since the launch of services, Air Astana has rapidly become a key provider for air transport to Central Asia and Far Eastern destinations from Ukraine and v. v
38.
Vnesheconombank
–
Vnesheconombank is a Russian government-owned development bank, meant to provide funding for projects aimed at developing the Russian economy. It is not involved in banking activities. The Russian government uses VEB to support and develop the Russian economy and to manage Russian state debts and it is a part in the governments plan to diversify the Russian economy, and to do so receives funds directly from the federal state budget. The bank was instituted in 1922, from 2005 to 2006, both the assets and liabilities of the bank doubled from around $6 billion to $12 billion, and the income rose from $239 million to $301 million. Sergey Nikolaevich Gorkov has been Chairman since February 26,2016, Gorkov was previously the deputy chairman of the board at Sberbank, Russia’s largest state-owned bank. VEB was first established in 1922 as Ruskombank, and in 1924 it was renamed Vneshtorgbank of the USSR and it was finally renamed Vnesheconombank of the USSR in 1988. In April 2007 Russias State Duma passes the federal law On Bank for Development, in July 2014 the United States Department of the Treasury imposed sanctions that prohibit U. S. persons from providing new financing to VEB after the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. In March 2017, Jared Kushner volunteered to discuss with the United States Senate Intelligence committee Kushners relationship and any meetings with Sergey Gorkov, during Donald Trumps transition December 2016, these meetings were held in Trump Tower in New York City and had been arranged by Sergey I. Kislyak, Russias Ambassador to the United States, EXIAR Official homepage VEB history website Financial information
39.
Aeroflot
–
OJSC Aeroflot – Russian Airlines, commonly known as Aeroflot, is the flag carrier and largest airline of the Russian Federation. The carrier operates domestic and international passenger and services, mainly from its hub at Sheremetyevo International Airport, Aeroflot is one of the oldest airlines in the world, tracing its history back to 1923. During the Soviet era, Aeroflot was the Soviet national airline, following the dissolution of the USSR, the carrier has been transformed from a state-run enterprise into a semi-privatised company which ranked 19th most profitable airline in the world in 2007. Aeroflot is still considered the de facto national airline of Russia and it is 51%-owned by the Russian Government. As of September 2013, the Aeroflot Group had 30,328 employees, the company has embarked on a fleet modernisation programme, extensive route restructuring, and an image overhaul. The airline joined SkyTeam in April 2006, becoming the 10th member of the alliance, on 17 January 1921, the Sovnarkom of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic published About Air Transportation. The document signed by Lenin set out the regulations on air transport over the territory of the RSFSR. The document was significant as it was the first time that a Russian state had declared sovereignty over its airspace, in addition, the document defined rules for the operation of foreign aircraft over the Soviet Unions airspace and territory. After Lenin issued an order, a State Commission was formed on 31 January 1921 for the purpose of civil aviation planning in the Soviet Union. This was followed by the formation of Deruluft-Deutsch Russische Luftverkehrs A. G. in Berlin on 11 November 1921, as a joint venture between the Soviet Union and Germany. The company, whose aircraft were registered in both Germany and the Soviet Union, began operations on 1 May 1922 with a Fokker F. III flying between Königsberg and Moscow, the service was initially operated twice a week and restricted to the carriage of mail. On 3 February 1923 Sovnarkom approved plans for the expansion of the Red Air Fleet, the artist Alexander Rodchenko became involved in the ODVF at this time. He designed posters encouraging citizens to buy stock in Dobrolet and the famous Winged Hammer, regular flights by Dobrolet from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod commenced on 15 July 1923. During the same period, an additional two airlines were established, Zakavia being based in Tiflis, and Ukrvozdukhput based in Kharkov, during 1923 an agreement was signed establishing a subdivision of Dobrolet to be based in Tashkent, which would operate to points in Soviet Central Asia. Services between Tashkent and Alma Ata began on 27 April 1924, and by the end of 1924 the subdivision had carried 480 passengers and 500 kilograms of mail and freight, in March 1924, Dobrolet began operating flights from Sevastopol to Yalta and Yevpatoriya in the Crimea. Dobrolets route network was extended during the 1925–1927 period to include Kazan, plans were made for Dobrolet flights to Kharkov to connect with Ukrvozdukhput services to Kiev, Odessa and Rostov-on-Don. Expansion of air routes which had taken shape in the late 1920s, the agreement between the Soviet Union and Germany relating to Deruluft expired on 1 January 1937 and wasnt renewed, which saw the joint venture carrier ceasing operations on 1 April 1937. On that date Aeroflot began operations on the Moscow to Stockholm route, under the third Five-Year Plan, which began in 1938, civil aviation development continued, with improvements to airport installations being made and construction of airports being commenced
40.
DBA (airline)
–
DBA was a low-cost airline headquartered on the grounds of Munich Airport in a building within the municipality of Hallbergmoos, Germany. It operated scheduled domestic and international services and also operated flights for tour operators to Europe. It was acquired by Air Berlin in August 2006, but continued to operate independently, the airline was established in March 1992 and started operations in June 1992. It was founded when British Airways acquired a 49% stake in Delta Air, a airline based at Friedrichshafen. In April 1997, after liberalisation of the European air traffic market, rod Eddington replaced Bob Ayling as British Airways Chief Executive in May 2000, starting major reviews of the airlines operations. First indications of a BA review of its German arm came in 2001 at which time Deutsche BA had amassed losses of over £15m, on May 3,2002 EasyJet announced that it intended to pursue a purchase of former BA subsidiary Go. EasyJet followed with an announcement on May 8,2002 that it had signed an agreement with British Airways giving it the option to purchase Deutsche BA. EasyJet had until March 31,2003, or with an extension until July 3,2003, during this time Deutsche BA would remain fully under BA control. However, EasyJet had several commitments, send three managers to the German operation, contribute £3m for capital expenditure and pay BA £366,000 per month until it exercised its option. In March 2003 EasyJet announced it had abandoned its plans to acquire Deutsche BA, citing the economic climate, in June 2003, BA announced plans to sell Deutsche BA to Intro Verwaltungsgesellschaft for a token sum of 1 Euro. In addition BA would invest £25m into the airline and guarantee its fleet of 16 Boeing 737s for a year, in return BA would receive 25% of any profits or proceeds from a sale until June 2006. In March 2005 dba announced its intention to acquire rival airline Germania Express which would create Germanys third largest airline after Lufthansa, the gexx brand was phased out on the former airlines services, along with its Fokker 100 aircraft which dba has assumed the lease of. Dba submitted a bid for ailing Greek national airline Olympic Airlines in April 2005. In the fiscal year ending 31 March 2005, dba announced its first profit since creation in 1992,3 million passengers flew on dba aircraft in the year ending March 2005. The airline was owned by Intro Verwaltungsgesellschaft and Martin Gauss and Peter Wojahn, on February 17,2006, dba announced the purchase of 60% of LTU. Hans-Rudolf Wöhrl, the majority owner of dba, planned to link the operations of LTU and dba, with dba flying inside Germany and it would allow LTU to increase its longhaul services by providing feeder services to Munich and Düsseldorf. LTU managing director Jürgen Marbach took a 24% stake in the carrier, in February 2006 Lutz Helmig acquired a 25. 1% stake in the airline through the Aton company. On August 17,2006 it was announced that Air Berlin had acquired 100% of the shares in dba
41.
Cirrus Airlines
–
Cirrus Airlines Luftfahrtgesellschaft mbH was a regional airline with its head office on the property of Saarbrücken Airport in Saarbrücken, Germany. It operated both charter and scheduled flights, the latter on behalf of Lufthansa and Swiss International Air Lines and its main base and hub was Saarbrücken Airport, Germany. Cirrus was founded in February 1995 as Cirrus Luftfahrtgesellschaft mbH and operated a charter business. In March 1998, Cirrus Airlines received its licence to operate scheduled services between Saarbrücken Airport and Hamburg, in August 1999, Cirrus took over the route from Mannheim to Berlin Tempelhof from Cosmos Air. In February 2000, upon the 5th anniversary of Cirrus Airlines, it established a partnership with German-owned Lufthansa. In April that year, Cirrus received licences to operate scheduled service between Mannheim City Airport and Hamburg Airport and between Berlin and Sylt. The company introduced a corporate identity in January 2008. On 20 January 2012, the airline ceased operations and flew all aircraft back to Saarbrücken, Cirrus Airlines was a company within Aviation Investment Corp. along with Cirrus Maintenance and Cirrus Service. Cirrus Airlines operated the services, Domestic scheduled destinations, Dresden, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Münster, Hof. International scheduled destinations, Berne, Salzburg, Vienna and Zürich, as of December 24,2011, Cirrus Airlines fleet included, Media related to Cirrus Airlines at Wikimedia Commons
42.
Government of Hungary
–
The Government of Hungary exercises executive power in Hungary. It is led by the Prime Minister, and comprises ministers and it is the principal organ of public administration. The Prime Minister elected by the National Assembly and serves as the head of government, the Prime Minister is the leader of the party with the most seats in parliament. The Prime Minister selects Cabinet ministers and has the right to dismiss them. Cabinet nominees must appear before consultative open hearings before one or more parliamentary committees, survive a vote in the National Assembly, the cabinet is responsible to the parliament. Since the fall of communism, Hungary has a multi-party system, the last Hungarian parliamentary election took place on 6 April 2014. This parliamentary election was the 7th since the 1990 first multi-party election, the result was a victory for Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority with Viktor Orbán remaining Prime Minister. It was the first election according to the new Constitution of Hungary which went into force on 1 January 2012, the new electoral law also entered into force that day. The voters elected 199 MPs instead of previous 386 lawmakers, list of cabinets since 1989, Following the Hungarian parliamentary election,2014, the current prime minister, Viktor Orbán is serving with his government since 6 June 2014. The Minister of Interior of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current foreign minister is Sándor Pintér. Between 2006 and 2010 the ministry was split into the Ministry of Local Government, in 2010 the prior organization was restored. Ministry of Local Government Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current foreign minister is Péter Szijjártó. The Minister of National Economy of Hungary is a member of the Hungarian cabinet, the current minister of national economy is Mihály Varga
43.
European Commission
–
Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
44.
Western European Time
–
Western European Time is a time zone covering parts of western and northwestern Europe. WEST is called British Summer Time in the UK and is known as Irish Standard Time in Ireland. Conversely, Iceland and eastern Greenland are included although both are west of 7. 5°W, in September 2013, a Spanish parliamentary committee recommended switching to WET, a move being considered by MPs. However, the German occupation switched France to German time, two other occupied territories, Belgium and the Netherlands, did the same, and Spain also switched to CET in solidarity with Germany under the orders of General Franco. In the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1945 British Summer Time was used in winters, between 18 February 1968 and 31 October 1971, BST was used all year round. In Ireland, from 1940 to 1946 Irish Summer Time was used all year round, between 18 February 1968 and 31 October 1971, Irish Standard Time was used all year round. In Portugal, CET was used in the mainland from 1966 to 1976, the autonomous region of the Azores used WET from 1992 to 1993. Iceland Mykines, Faroe Islands Western Ireland Western Portugal Madeira Canary Islands These areas are located between 7°30′ W and 22°30′ W Areas using UTC+1, See Central European Time
_(8461455884).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
