1.
Sanderstead
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Sanderstead /ˈsɑːndərstɛd/ is a village in the London Borough of Croydon, situated on high ground at the edge of the built-up area of Greater London. From 1915 to 1965 it formed a parish in the Coulsdon, having been a farming community in previous centuries, Sanderstead is now essentially a dormitory village for commuters to central London and Croydon. The Grade I listed All Saints Church dates from the 13th century but was altered in later periods. Sanderstead station is lower down the hill and has trains to East Croydon and central London, Sanderstead was the place of origin of the Sanders surname. There is evidence of human activity in and around Sanderstead. North of the village at Croham Hurst, upon a hill, are circular barrows believed to be from a Bronze Age settlement. This is now part of an open space and the site is marked by a brass monument. A Romano-British homestead was discovered during the construction of the Atwood School, during the 1980s, when the school was extended, further excavation revealed the remains of several round huts, hearths, a brooch, and pottery, some of which hailed from North Africa. An Anglo-Saxon reference to Sanderstead can be found in the will, dated 871, of Alfred, the village lay within the Anglo-Saxon administrative division of Wallington hundred. It later appears to have given to St Peters Abbey, Winchester by Æthelflæd, the wife of Edgar the Peaceful and mother of Edward the Martyr. Sanderstead appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Sandestede, and belonging to St Peters Abbey and it had a total household population of 26 including 21 villagers,4 slaves and 1 cottager. Its Domesday assets were assessed as 5 hides, and 10 carucates of arable land and it had 9 ploughs and wood worth 30 hogs. Its Domesday entry records that in the time of Edward the Confessor it was valued at 100 shillings, and now 12 pounds, the village was granted to Sir John Gresham by Henry VIII following the Dissolution of the Monasteries. It was passed to his son Richard who subsequently sold it to John Ownsted, Ownsted died without issue in 1600, and devised his estates to his two sisters and cousin Harman Atwood, with Atwood subsequently purchasing the shares of his joint legatees. The Atwood family had an association with Sanderstead, with inscriptions at the local church indicating a presence in the village from the reign of Edward II. On Monday,6 September 1731, the nearby Sanderstead Common was the venue for an important cricket match between Surrey and Thomas Chambers XI, Surrey winning the match by an unknown margin, on Monday,26 June 1732, Surrey played London on the common. The manor house, known as Sanderstead Court, was remodelled by Harman Atwood. This large country house was probably first constructed in the sixteenth century
2.
Surrey
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Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
3.
Robertsbridge
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Robertsbridge is a village in East Sussex, England within the civil parish of Salehurst and Robertsbridge. It is approximately 10 miles north of Hastings and 13 miles south-east of Tunbridge Wells, the River Rother passes through the village. The village is thought to date back to 1176 when a Cistercian abbey was founded there by the Abbot, when a market charter was granted in 1198 by Richard I to Robertsbridge it was the first recorded use of the name. Robertsbridge is also home to the Robertsbridge Codex, a manuscript of the 14th century. It contains the earliest surviving music written specifically for keyboard, the opening of the Robertsbridge bypass, in 1989, relieved the village of constant traffic through it. Robertsbridge Community College, a specialist mathematics and computer college, is the smallest such in the county of East Sussex, also, as well as the secondary school in the village, there is a primary school, a school with an exceedingly good reputation throughout the area. Among sports clubs is the Robertsbridge RUFC, and Robertsbridge Cricket Club, Robertsbridge also has its own bonfire society. Robertsbridge United Reformed Church, a Grade II-listed chapel built in 1881, the former Bethel Strict Baptist Chapel, built in 1842 and also listed at Grade II, is nearby. Harry Andrews Heather Mills Malcolm Muggeridge The demographics above are drawn from the National Statistics Office,2001 Census, as data is not available for Robertsbridge in isolation, the table includes the entire parish of Salehurst and Robertsbridge. As data for the table above is not available for Robertsbridge in isolation, it is drawn from the Salehurst Ward which covers an area including Salehurst, Robertsbridge
4.
East Sussex
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East Sussex /ˈsʌsᵻks/ is a county in South East England. It is bordered by the counties of Kent to the north and east, Surrey to the north west and West Sussex to the west, archaeological remains are plentiful, especially in the upland areas. The areas position on the coast has also meant that there were invaders, including the Romans. Earlier industries have included fishing, iron-making, and the trade, all of which have declined. Sussex is traditionally sub-divided into six rapes, from the 12th century the three eastern rapes together and the three western rapes together had separate quarter sessions, with the county town of the three eastern rapes being Lewes. This situation was formalised by Parliament in 1865, and the two parts were made into administrative counties, each with distinct elected county councils in 1889 under the Local Government Act 1888, in East Sussex there were also three self-administered county boroughs, Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings. In 1974 East Sussex was made a non-metropolitan and ceremonial county, at the same time the western boundary was altered, so that the Mid Sussex region was transferred to the county of West Sussex. In 1997, Brighton and Hove became a unitary authority, it was granted city status in 2000. East Sussex is divided into five local government districts, three are larger, rural, districts are, Lewes, Wealden, and Rother. Eastbourne and Hastings are mainly urban areas, the rural districts are further subdivided into civil parishes. To the north lie parallel valleys and ridges, the highest of which is the Weald itself, the sandstones and clays meet the sea at Hastings, the Downs, at Beachy Head. East Sussex, like most counties by the south coast, has an average total of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year. This is much higher than the UKs average of about 1,340 hours of sunshine a year, the relief of the county reflects the geology. The chalk uplands of the South Downs occupies the coastal strip between Brighton and Eastbourne, there are two river gaps, the Rivers Ouse and Cuckmere. The Seven Sisters, where the Downs meet the sea, are the remnants of dry valleys cut into the chalk, to the east of Beachy Head lie the marshlands of the Pevensey Levels, formerly flooded by the sea but now enclosed within a deposited beach. At Bexhill the land begins to rise again where the sands and clays of the Weald meet the sea, further east are the Pett Levels, more marshland, beyond which is the estuary of the River Rother. On the far side of the estuary are the dunes of Camber Sands, the highest point of the Downs within the county is Ditchling Beacon, at 814 feet, it is termed a Marilyn. The Weald occupies the northern borderlands of the county, between the Downs and Weald is a narrow stretch of lower lying land, many of the rivers and streams occupying this area originate in the Weald
5.
Selwyn College, Cambridge
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Selwyn College is a constituent college in the University of Cambridge in England. The college currently has 56 Fellows and around 110 non-academic staff, in 2006 it had an estimated financial endowment of £22 million, and in 2004 fixed assets were worth £70 million. The college was ranked 16th out of 30 in an assessment of college wealth conducted by the student newspaper Varsity in November 2006, in 2008, Selwyn was ranked first out of the 29 colleges which admit undergraduate students on the Tompkins Table. In 2016 it had fallen to 15th, Selwyns sister college at Oxford is Keble College. It proposed that a new Cambridge college should be established as a memorial to his legacy, the foundation stone of the College was laid by Edward Herbert, 3rd Earl of Powis in a ceremony on 1 June 1881, following a lunch in Kings College, Cambridge. Selwyns first 28 undergraduates, joined the original Master and twelve other Fellows at the then Public Hostel of the university in 1882, the college was founded by subscription, with an explicitly Christian mission. Membership was initially restricted to baptised Christians, the foundation charter specified that the college should make provision for those who intend to serve as missionaries overseas and. The chapel was built in 1895 before the hall, as it was deemed to be more important. However, a library was opened in 1928, funded by subscriptions in honour of College members who had died in the First World War. University education was expensive at the time of Selwyns foundation, and it was intended to be a college for poorer students, undergraduates initially paid £27 per term for food, lodgings, lectures and tuition, with a small surcharge for medics, scientists and engineers. This was only raised to £28 in 1916, and £33 in 1918, to keep the College afloat, Selwyn, in common with other Cambridge colleges, originally admitted only men, but was one of the first colleges to become mixed when women were admitted from 1976. In 1976, women lived only on E and H Staircases, in 2009, Selwyn became the first Cambridge college to appoint a female head porter, Helen Stephens. Phase I was completed in July 2005 and consists of 43 ensuite rooms and 15 administrative offices, the second phase, including 40 en-suite bedrooms forming staircases Q and R and a new Junior Combination Room at a cost of £2.5 million, was completed in Summer 2009. The College bar was refurbished in 2002, and redecorated in 2011, the plans for Phase 5 may turn into two more staircases of accommodation, as needs dictate. The Selwyn College coat of arms incorporates the arms of the Selwyn family impaled with a version of the arms of the Diocese of Lichfield, Selwyn College began to use its Arms long before an official grant by the College of Arms. The dexter half of the arms are unusual, with or countercharged on argent, violating the rule of tincture and this is thought to refer to the arms of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which also famously violates this rule. Selwyns pastoral staff is based on a hardwood Māori staff which is held in the College Chapel, the College was also granted a badge, A Mitre Or within an Annulet Purpure. The College motto is a quotation from 1 Corinthians, chapter 16, verse 13, in Greek, ΑΝΔΡΙΖΕΣΘΕ
6.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
7.
Left-wing politics
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Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. The term left wing can also refer to the radical, reforming, use of the term Left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the Independents. The word wing was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, throughout the 19th century in France, the main line dividing left and right was between supporters of the French Republic and those of the Monarchy. The June Days Uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, in the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy, and anti-clericalism became features of the French Left. After Napoleon IIIs 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism, the influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, asserted that all human history is the history of class struggle. They predicted that a revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a classless, stateless. It was in period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the International Workers Association, the Second International became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, such as Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, in the United States after Reconstruction, the phrase the Left was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. More recently in the United States, left-wing and right-wing have often used as synonyms for Democratic and Republican. Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as art was called leftist in all Europe. The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics, during the industrial revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy, leftists continue to criticize what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, the race to the bottom, and unjust lay-offs. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the theories of Karl Marx. Marxian economics does not exclusively rely upon Marx, it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources, the political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject, Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters, according to Marx, Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together. Are not owners of the earth and they are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations
8.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
9.
Mother Teresa
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Mother Teresa MC, known in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta, was an Albanian-Indian Roman Catholic nun and missionary. She was born in Skopje, then part of the Kosovo Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire, after living in Macedonia for eighteen years she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life. In 1950 Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation which had over 4,500 sisters and was active in 133 countries in 2012. Members, who take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, also profess a fourth vow, Teresa received a number of honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. She was canonised on 4 September 2016, and the anniversary of her death is her feast day, a controversial figure during her life and after her death, Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work. She was praised and criticised for her opposition to abortion, and her authorised biography was written by Navin Chawla and published in 1992, and she has been the subject of films and other books. Teresa was born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu on 26 August 1910 into a Kosovar Albanian family in Skopje and she was baptized in Skopje, the day after her birth. She later considered 27 August, the day she was baptised and she was the youngest child of Nikollë and Dranafile Bojaxhiu. Her father, who was involved in Albanian-community politics in Macedonia and he may have been from Prizren, Kosovo, and her mother may have been from a village near Gjakova. Her resolve strengthened on 15 August 1928 as she prayed at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Vitina-Letnice and she never saw her mother or her sister again. Her family lived in Skopje until 1934, when moved to Tirana. She arrived in India in 1929 and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, in the lower Himalayas, Teresa took her first religious vows on 24 May 1931. She chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the saint of missionaries, because a nun in the convent had already chosen that name. Teresa took her vows on 14 May 1937 while she was a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally. She served there for twenty years, and was appointed its headmistress in 1944. Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. The Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city, on 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as the call within the call when she travelled by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them, to fail would have been to break the faith
10.
Labour Party (UK)
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The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
11.
Croydon
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Croydon is a large town in south London, England,9.5 miles south of Charing Cross. The principal settlement in the London Borough of Croydon, it is one of the largest commercial districts outside Central London, with a shopping district. Its population of 52,104 at the 2011 census includes the wards of Addiscombe, Broad Green, Croydon expanded in the Middle Ages as a market town and a centre for charcoal production, leather tanning and brewing. The Surrey Iron Railway from Croydon to Wandsworth opened in 1803 and was the worlds first public railway, later nineteenth century railway building facilitated Croydons growth as a commuter town for London. By the early 20th century, Croydon was an important industrial area, known for car manufacture, metal working, Croydon was amalgamated into Greater London in 1965. Road traffic is diverted away from a largely pedestrianised town centre, East Croydon is a major hub of the national railway transport system, with frequent fast services to central London, Brighton and the south coast. The town is unique in Greater London for its Tramlink light rail transport system, alternative, although less probable, theories of the names origin have been proposed. According to John Corbett Anderson, The earliest mention of Croydon is in the joint will of Beorhtric and Aelfswth, in this Anglo-Saxon document the name is spelt Crogdaene. Crog was, and still is, the Norse or Danish word for crooked, which is expressed in Anglo-Saxon by crumb, from the Danish came our crook and crooked. This term accurately describes the locality, it is a crooked or winding valley, in reference to the valley runs in an oblique. However, there was no long-term Danish occupation in Surrey, which was part of Wessex, and Danish-derived nomenclature is also highly unlikely. The town lies on the line of the Roman road from London to Portslade, later, in the 5th to 7th centuries, a large pagan Saxon cemetery was situated on what is now Park Lane, although the extent of any associated settlement is unknown. By the late Saxon period Croydon was the hub of an estate belonging to the Archbishops of Canterbury, the church and the archbishops manor house occupied the area still known as Old Town. Croydon appears in Domesday Book as Croindene, held by Archbishop Lanfranc and its Domesday assets were,16 hides and 1 virgate,1 church,1 mill worth 5s,38 ploughs,8 acres of meadow, woodland worth 200 hogs. The church had established in the middle Saxon period, and was probably a minster church. A charter issued by King Coenwulf of Mercia refers to a council that had taken place close to the monasterium of Croydon, an Anglo-Saxon will made in about 960 is witnessed by Elfsies, priest of Croydon, and the church is also mentioned in Domesday Book. The will of John de Croydon, fishmonger, dated 6 December 1347, includes a bequest to the church of S John de Croydon, the church still bears the arms of Archbishop Courtenay and Archbishop Chichele, believed to have been its benefactors. In 1276 Archbishop Robert Kilwardby acquired a charter for a market
12.
South London
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South London is the southern part of London, England. The River Thames divides Greater London into two parts, the southern part includes the historic central areas of Southwark, Lambeth and Bankside and also maritime Greenwich. The area has only a section of the London Underground network. This area is made up of the London boroughs of Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Greenwich, Kingston, Lambeth, Lewisham, Merton, Richmond, Southwark, Sutton and this definition is used by the Boundary Commission for England. For the purposes of the London Plan, there was a South London sub-region in operation from 2004 to 2008 consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Richmond, in 2001 this area had a population of 1,329,000. This definition is used by such as Connexions. In 2011 a new South London region was created consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Sutton, Richmond now lies within the West London region, and Lambeth and Southwark are part of the Central London region. Three Met Office weather stations collect climate data south of the river, Kew, Hampton and Kenley Airfield. Long term climate observations dating back to 1763 are available for Greenwich, often snow can be seen to lie on the North Downs near Croydon when central London is snow free. The record high temperature at Greenwich is 37.5 °C recorded during August 2003, the highest temperature recorded across South London was 38.1 °C on the same occasion at Kew Gardens. Although the Met Office accepts a higher reading from Brogdale in Kent, many have questioned the accuracy of this, North London v South London - The debate. North London v South London - The debate
13.
Fabian Society
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Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of 15 socialist societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia, in Canada, in Sicily, the Fabian Society was founded on 4 January 1884 in London as an offshoot of a society founded a year earlier called The Fellowship of the New Life. Early Fellowship members included the visionary Victorian elite, among them poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, sexologist Havelock Ellis and they wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Some members also wanted to become involved to aid societys transformation, they set up a separate society. All members were free to both societies. The Fabian Society additionally advocated renewal of Western European Renaissance ideas, the Fellowship of the New Life was dissolved in 1899, but the Fabian Society grew to become the pre-eminent academic society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era. It was typified by the members of its vanguard Coefficients club, public meetings of the Society were for many years held at Essex Hall, a popular location just off the Strand in central London. The Fabian Society was named—at the suggestion of Frank Podmore—in honour of the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the wolf in sheep’s clothing symbolism was later abandoned, due to its obvious negative connotations. Its nine founding members were Frank Podmore, Edward R. Pease, William Clarke, Hubert Bland, Percival Chubb, Frederick Keddell, H. H. Champion, Edith Nesbit, and Rosamund Dale Owen. Havelock Ellis is sometimes mentioned as a tenth founding member. Even Bertrand Russell briefly became a member, but resigned after he expressed his belief that the Societys principle of entente could lead to war, at the core of the Fabian Society were Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Together, they wrote numerous studies of industrial Britain, including alternative co-operative economics that applied to ownership of capital as well as land, at the meeting that founded the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, the Fabian Society claimed 861 members and sent one delegate. In 1912 a student section was organised called the University Socialist Federation, the first Fabian Society pamphlets advocating tenets of social justice coincided with the zeitgeist of Liberal reforms during the early 1900s, including eugenics. The Fabian proposals however were more progressive than those that were enacted in the Liberal reform legislation. That the future battles of the Empire for commercial prosperity are already being lost, in 1900 the Society produced Fabianism and the Empire, the first statement of its views on foreign affairs, drafted by Bernard Shaw and incorporating the suggestions of 150 Fabian members. It was directed against the individualism of those such as John Morley. It claimed that the liberal political economy was outdated. The question was whether Britain would be the centre of an empire or whether it would lose its colonies
14.
Romford
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Romford is a large town in East London, England, and the administrative centre of the London Borough of Havering. It is located 14.1 miles northeast of Charing Cross and is one of the metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. It was historically a town in the county of Essex and formed the administrative centre of the liberty of Havering. It now forms one of the largest commercial, retail, entertainment, Romford is first recorded in 1177 as Romfort, which is formed from Old English rūm and ford and means the wide or spacious ford. The naming of the River Rom is a local back-formation from the name of the town, the ford most likely existed on the main London to Colchester road where it crossed that river. The original site of the town was to the south, in an area known as Oldchurch. It was moved northwards to the present site in the medieval period to avoid the frequent flooding of the River Rom. The first building on the new site was the church of Saint Edward the Confessor. The town developed in the Middle Ages on the road to London. The early history of Romford and the area is agricultural. Several failed attempts were made in the early 19th century to connect the town to the Thames via a Romford Canal. The development of the town was accelerated by the opening of the station in 1839 which stimulated the local economy and was key to the development of the Star Brewery. Initially Eastern Counties Railway services operated between Mile End and Romford, with extensions to Brentwood and to Shoreditch in 1840. A second station was opened on South Street in 1892 by the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway on the line to Upminster and Grays, the two stations were combined into one in 1934. Suburban expansion increased the population and reinforced Romfords position as a significant regional town centre. Romford formed a chapelry in the ancient parish of Hornchurch in the Becontree hundred of Essex, as well as the town it included the wards of Collier Row, Harold Wood. Over time the vestry of Romford chapelry absorbed the powers that would usually be held by the parish authorities. Improvement commissioners were set up in 1819 for paving, lighting, watching, the remainder of the parish became part of the Romford rural sanitary district in 1875
15.
Ramsay MacDonald
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Historians credit MacDonald, along with Keir Hardie and Arthur Henderson, as one of the three principal founders of the Labour Party. His speeches, pamphlets and books him an important theoretician. He entered Parliament in 1906 and was the Chairman of the Labour MPs from 1911 to 1914 and he was widely denounced for his opposition to the First World War, and he lost his seat in 1918. The antiwar mood of the 1920s led to his rehabilitation in the 1920s and he returned to Parliament in 1922, the first Labour government—formed with Liberal support—in 1924 lasted only nine months but demonstrated that the Labour Party was sufficiently competent to run a government. In 1931, MacDonald formed a National Government in which two of his Labour colleagues agreed to serve. His majority came from the Conservatives and he abandoned the gold standard and called a general election in 1931 seeking a doctors mandate to do whatever was necessary to fix the economy. MacDonalds National coalition won a landslide and the Labour Party was reduced to a rump of around 50 seats in the House of Commons. Nevertheless budget pressures, and a strong popular pacifist sentiment, forced a reduction in the military and his health rapidly deteriorated and he became increasingly ineffective as a leader. He stood down as Prime Minister in 1935, losing his seat at the election that autumn. He remained in the Cabinet as Lord President of the Council until retiring from the government in 1937 and dying, still an MP, later that year. Since 1931 MacDonald has been denounced by Labour supporters as a traitor to their cause. Since the late 1970s historians have defended his reputation, emphasising his role in building up the Labour Party. MacDonald was born at Gregory Place, Lossiemouth, Morayshire, Scotland, the son of John MacDonald, a farm labourer, and Anne Ramsay. Although registered at birth as James McDonald Ramsay, he was known as Jaimie MacDonald and his mother had worked as a domestic servant at Claydale farm, near Alves, where her future husband was also employed. Ramsay MacDonald received an education at the Free Church of Scotland school in Lossiemouth from 1872 to 1875. He left school at the end of the term in 1881, at the age of 15. In December 1881 he was appointed as a teacher at Drainie parish school. In 1885 he left to take up a position as an assistant to Mordaunt Crofton and it was in Bristol that Ramsay MacDonald joined the Democratic Federation, a Radical sect
16.
Selhurst High School
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Selhurst High School for Boys is a name that has been given to two separate schools in England that existed at different times, but occupied the same site. The former school had been a school that closed in 1988. Thus, the current Selhurst High School for Boys is not simply an extension of the old school, the school, located in the north of Croydon, is currently referred to as Selhurst Mathematics and Computing Specialist School. The school is not only in the eminent alumni that feature among its forerunners former pupils. In 1904 two schools were opened under the name Croydon Borough School, one of which was for boys, the Borough Grammar School for Boys was opened in September 1904 at the Scarbrook Road premises occupied in the evenings by Croydon Polytechnic. The school moved into its premises in the Crescent in September 1913, in this period, the Crescent was used as a hospital. As a comprehensive, it known as Selhurst High School for Boys. By 1977, a study of the population of 650 14- to 18-year-old boys, showed that the school was the most ethnically diverse in the UK. The schools legacy as a grammar school permeated its culture and structure even into its comprehensive era, barlow – Earlier a pupil at the school 1 September –31 December 1950 C. F. R. Ackland –1 January 1951 –30 March 1969 Ronald A. Smith MA –17 April 1969 –31 August 1988 when retired, during World War I it moved to the Croydon Polytechnic buildings in order that The Crescent premises should be used as a hospital. Following World War I it returned to The Crescent, mirroring the Boys school, in 1971 the school became a Comprehensive for girls aged 14 and above. Like its male counterpart, it was closed in 1988 on account of falling numbers, the buildings went on to house the BRIT School. Miss M Freeman BA –1 Sept 1987 –31 Aug 1988 when she retired, Ingram Road Council School, a public elementary school, was established in 1905 on Ingram Road in Thornton Heath, Surrey. It was a school in its beginnings and remained a mixed school after its name was changed in 1922 to Ingram Council School. The girls school, also known as Ingram High for Girls, after this date the girls school moved to new premises less than a mile away to become Westwood High School from 1958. This school is still in operation today, like the girls school, Ingram for Boys was also known as Ingram High and became a comprehensive school in the 1970s. It maintained a record of moderate academic achievement until the early 1990s. Its fortunes then declined spectacularly, and in 1995 it was named by the government as one of the 18 worst schools in Britain, it was placed in Special Measures and closed
17.
John Ruskin College
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John Ruskin College is a sixth form college situated in Addington Village, London, on the A2022, close to the A212 roundabout. The college is accessible by tram via Gravel Hill tram stop and its location was Scarbrook Road, Croydon. Named after John Ruskin, it opened on 12 January 1920, the Lady Edridge School, its sister school for girls opened the same day. Lady Edridge was wife of a Mayor of Croydon and the first Lady Freeman of the Borough and it closed in 1980 and was demolished. In 1935 the school moved to Tamworth Road, and in April 1945 it was granted school status as the John Ruskin Grammar School for Boys. It had been previously the John Ruskin Selective Central School and it moved to Upper Shirley Road, Shirley, in 1955, and was retitled the John Ruskin High School in 1971 before being demolished in 1991. The Upper Shirley Road site surrounded the Shirley Windmill, a 19th-century tower mill, the college should not be confused with John Ruskin Primary School, which is in Southwark, nor the John Ruskin School Technology College in Cumbria, nor Ruskin College, Oxford
18.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
19.
Union Christian College, Aluva
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The Union Christian College, Aluva is an educational institution in Kerala, India. It is situated to the north of Aluva in Ernakulam District, the college was affiliated to The Madras University, then Travancore University and is now affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. Chacko, Prof. A. M. Varki, Prof. C. P. Mathew, Union Christian College Aluva was founded in 1921 as a premier centre of higher learning in Kerala, South India. The campus is located close to the banks of the river Periyar, Union Christian College is the only centre of higher education in Kerala functioning on an ecumenical basis. It became a centre for a host of scholars, theologians. The list includes Canon W. E. S. Holland, Rev. L. W. Hooper, Rev. B. G. Crowley, the faculty of the early years was a balanced mix of Christian and non-Christian members. The college has maintained this structure to the present. Union Christian College received A grade from the National Assessment and Accreditation Council, in the history of India, UCC is the first college getting accredited in the third cycle. The NAAC team visited the campus on 16,17 and 18 March 2011, the college, at first entirely residential, has now on its rolls a larger number of day scholars than residents. In 1925 Mahatma Gandhi visited the college and planted a mango tree and he wrote in the visitors book delighted with the ideal situation. The mango sapling is now flourishing in front of the administrative block The present emblem was adopted in 1939, the symbolism calls on the seekers after knowledge and truth to hold the torch, read the book and reap the harvest. The college motto is The Truth shall make you free and this motto is drawn from a statement made by Jesus to the Jews, “You will know the truth and the truth will make you free”. The Rigveda proclaims that ‘Truth is the support of the earth’, buddha exhorts, ‘Hold to the truth within yourselves as to the only lamp’. The Quran declares that ‘God is truth’, to Gandhiji, the father of the nation, the whole of life was the pursuit of or experiments with truth. His life demonstrated to the world, although in a limited field, ‘Mahaganitham’ is a sculpture commemorating the large mahogany tree that stood in front of the Cutcherry Malika. The tree was struck by lightning in 2002 and the stand as ‘Mahaganitham’ near its original position. The ‘Mahaganitham’ represents the historic Mahogany tree and ‘Ganitham’, Mathematics, concepts like the Golden ratio and Fibonacci series are used in the design. More than a thousand mathematical entities and geometrical shapes are engraved in the sculpture, the five Platonic bodies - tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron - are present in it
20.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
21.
Mahatma Gandhi
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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights, the honorific Mahatma —applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa—is now used worldwide. In India, he is also called Bapu and Gandhiji and he is unofficially called the Father of the Nation. After his return to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants, farmers, Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhi attempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situations, and he lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest. Eventually, in August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab, eschewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several fasts unto death to promote religious harmony, the last of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 when he was 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Gandhi was too accommodating, among them was Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who assassinated Gandhi on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. Mahatma Gandhis birthday,2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday and his father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, served as the diwan of Porbandar state. The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State, in the late 17th or early 18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. In 1831, Rana Khimojiraji died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, as a result, Rana Khimojirajjis widow, Rani Rupaliba, became regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return to his village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him with his hand instead of his right. In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his diwan, in 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchands son, Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamchand over the states maintenance of a British garrison. Although he only had an education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration
22.
Beatrice Webb
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Martha Beatrice Webb, Baroness Passfield, FBA, was an English sociologist, economist, socialist, labour historian and social reformer. It was Webb who coined the collective bargaining. She was among the founders of the London School of Economics and her paternal grandfather was Liberal Party MP Richard Potter, co-founder of the Little Circle which was key in creating the Reform Act 1832. From an early age Beatrice was self-taught and cited as important influences the cooperative movement, after her mothers death in 1882 she acted as a hostess and companion for her father. In 1882, she began a relationship with twice-widowed Radical politician Joseph Chamberlain and he would not accept her need for independence as a woman and after four years of storm and stress their relationship failed. Marriage in 1892 to Sidney Webb established a partnership of shared causes. At the beginning of 1901 Beatrice wrote that she and Sidney were still on our honeymoon and every year makes our relationship more tender, Beatrice Webb left unfinished a planned autobiography, under the general title My Creed and My Craft. At her death, aged 85, the only work she had published was My Apprenticeship. The posthumously issued Our Partnership covered the first two decades of her marriage to Sidney Webb between 1892 and 1911 and their collaboration on a variety of public issues, one of Beatrices older sisters, Catherine, became a well-known social worker. After Catherine married Leonard Courtney, Beatrice took over her work as a voluntary rent-collector in the dwellings at Katharine Buildings, Wapping. These experiences stimulated a critical attitude to current ideas of philanthropy, in 1890 Beatrice Potter was introduced to Sidney Webb, whose help she sought with her research. They married in 1892, and until her death 51 years later shared political and professional activities. When her father died in January 1892, leaving Potter an endowment of £1,000 pounds a year, she had an income for life with which to support herself. The Webbs became active members of the Fabian Society, with the Fabians support, Beatrice Webb co-authored books and pamphlets on socialism and the co-operative movement including The History of Trade Unionism and Industrial Democracy. In 1895, the Fabians used part of a legacy of £10,000 from Henry Hutchinson. Beatrice Webb made a number of important contributions to the political, in her 1891 book The Cooperative Movement in Great Britain, based on her experiences in Lancashire, she distinguished between co-operative federalism and co-operative individualism. She identified herself as a co-operative federalist, a school of thought which advocates consumer co-operative societies and she argued that consumers co-operatives should be set up co-operative wholesale societies and that these federal co-operatives should then acquire farms or factories. Examples of successful worker cooperatives did of course exist, then as now, in some professions they were the norm
23.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
24.
Arthur Ransome
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Arthur Michell Ransome was an English author and journalist. He is best known for writing the Swallows and Amazons series of books about the school-holiday adventures of children, mostly in the Lake District. Many of the books involve sailing, fishing and camping are other common subjects, the books remain popular and Swallows and Amazons is the basis for a tourist industry around Windermere and Coniston Water, the two lakes Ransome adapted as his fictional North Country lake. He also wrote about the life of London, and about Russia before, during. Ransome was the son of Cyril Ransome and his wife Edith née Boulton, Arthur was the eldest of four children, two sisters Cicely and Joyce and a brother Geoffrey who was killed in the First World War in 1918. Arthur was born in Leeds, the house at 6 Ash Grove, Ransomes father was professor of history at Yorkshire College, Leeds. The family regularly holidayed at Nibthwaite in the Lake District, and his fathers premature death in 1897 had a lasting effect on him. His mother Edith did not want him to abandon his studies for writing and she urged him to publish The Picts and the Martyrs in 1943, although his wife Evgenia hated it, Genia was often discouraging about his books while he was writing them. Ransome was educated first in Windermere and then at Rugby School but did not entirely enjoy the experience, because of his eyesight, lack of athletic skill. He attended Yorkshire College, his fathers college, studying chemistry, after a year, he abandoned the college and went to London to become a writer. He took low-paying jobs as an assistant in a publishing company and as editor of a failing magazine, Temple Bar Magazine. Ransomes sister, Joyce married Hugh Ralph Lupton, the son of Leeds Lord Mayor Hugh Lupton, Joyce and Hugh Ralph had four children, giving one of their sons the name Arthur Ralph Ransome Lupton, in honour of the boys famous literary uncle. Hughs and Joyces children shared with their family a love of nature. When at home in Leeds, the children shared a governess with their second cousin, Peter Francis Middleton, grandfather of Catherine. Ransome married twice, first to Ivy Constance Walker in 1909 with whom he had a daughter Tabitha Ransome and his second marriage, in 1924, was to Evgenia Petrovna Shelepina who is buried in the same grave as Ransome. Ransome died in 1967 in a Greater Manchester hospital and he and his wife Evgenia lie buried in the churchyard of St Pauls Church, Rusland, Cumbria, in the southern Lake District. The Autobiography of Arthur Ransome, edited by Rupert Hart-Davis, was published posthumously in 1976 and it covers his life only to the completion of Peter Duck in 1931. Some of Ransomes early works were The Nature Books for Children, only three of the six planned volumes were published before the publisher went bankrupt
25.
The Manchester Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
26.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
27.
Holodomor
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The Holodomor was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine in 1932 and 1933 that killed an officially estimated 7 million to 10 million people. It was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1932–33, which affected the major grain-producing areas of the country, during the Holodomor millions of inhabitants of Ukraine, the majority of whom were ethnic Ukrainians, died of starvation in a peacetime catastrophe unprecedented in the history of Ukraine. Since 2006, the Holodomor has been recognized by Ukraine and 15 other countries as a genocide of the Ukrainian people carried out by the Soviet government. Early estimates of the toll by scholars and government officials varied greatly. Recent research has since narrowed the estimates to between 2.4 and 7.5 million, the exact number of deaths is hard to determine, due to a lack of records, but the number increases significantly when the deaths in heavily Ukrainian-populated Kuban are included. Older estimates are often cited in political commentary. Some scholars believe that the famine was planned by Joseph Stalin to eliminate a Ukrainian independence movement, the word Holodomor literally translated from Ukrainian means death by hunger, or to kill by hunger, to starve to death. Sometimes the expression is translated into English as murder by hunger or starvation, Holodomor is a compound of the Ukrainian words holod meaning hunger and mor meaning plague. The expression moryty holodom means to inflict death by hunger, the Ukrainian verb moryty means to poison somebody, drive to exhaustion or to torment somebody. The perfective form of the verb moryty is zamoryty – kill or drive to death by hunger, the word was used in print as early as 1978 by Ukrainian immigrant organisations in the United States and Canada. However, in the Soviet Union – of which Ukraine was a constituent republic – references to the famine were controlled, historians could speak only of food difficulties, and the use of the very word golod/holod was forbidden. Discussion of the Holodomor became more open as part of Glasnost in the late 1980s, the term may have first appeared in print in the Soviet Union on 18 July 1988, in his article on the topic. Holodomor is now an entry in the modern, two-volume dictionary of the Ukrainian language, the term is described as artificial hunger, organised on a vast scale by a criminal regime against a countrys population. The famine had been predicted as far back as 1930 by academics and advisers to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic government, between 1926 and 1939, the Ukrainian population increased by 6. 6%, whereas Russia and Belarus grew by 16. 9% and 11. 7%, respectively. From the 1932 harvest, Soviet authorities were able to procure only 4.3 million tons as compared with 7.2 million tons obtained from the 1931 harvest. Rations in town were cut back, and in the winter of 1932–33. The urban workers were supplied by a system, but rations were gradually cut, and by the spring of 1933. The first reports of malnutrition and deaths from starvation emerged from two urban areas of the city of Uman, reported in January 1933 by Vinnytsia and Kiev oblasts
28.
Caucasus
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The Caucasus /ˈkɔːkəsəs/ or Caucasia /kɔːˈkeɪʒə/ is a region at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black and the Caspian seas. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europes highest mountain, politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts. The southern parts consist of independent sovereign states, and the parts are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. The region is known for its diversity, aside from Indo-European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian. Pliny the Elders Natural History derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy-khasis, German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means ice. According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the South Caucasus region and southern Dagestan were the furthest points of Persian expansions, with areas to the north of Caucasus Mountains practically impregnable. The mythological mountain of Qaf, the worlds highest mountain that ancient lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region, therefore, the Caucasus might be associated with the legendary mountain. The Ciscaucasus contains the majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan, the Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands, all of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are in South Caucasus. The main Greater Caucasus range is generally perceived to be the line between Asia and Europe. The highest peak in the Caucasus is Mount Elbrus in the western Ciscaucasus in Russia, the Caucasus is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse regions on Earth. The nation states that comprise the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia, Armenia, three territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful or by no independent states, Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are recognised by the majority of independent states as part of Georgia, the Russian divisions include Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and the autonomous republics of Adygea, Karachay–Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan. The region has many different languages and language families, there are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region. Russian is used as a common language, today the peoples of the Northern and Southern Caucasus tend to be either Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians, or Sunni Muslims. Shia Islam has had many adherents historically in Azerbaijan, located in the part of the region. Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world
29.
Gareth Jones (journalist)
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Gareth Richard Vaughan Jones was a Welsh journalist who first publicized in the Western world the existence of the Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Jones was born in Barry, Glamorgan and his father Major Edgar Jones was headmaster of Barry County School which Gareth attended. In January 1930 he began work as Foreign Affairs Advisor to former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, in the summer of 1931 he toured the Soviet Union with H. J. In 1932 Jones returned to work for Lloyd George and helped the wartime Prime Minister write his War Memoirs, during the 1930s, he was a reporter for the Western Mail. In late January and early February 1933 Jones was in Germany covering the accession to power of the Nazi Party and he wrote that if the Richthofen would have crashed, the history of Europe would be changed. The next month, he travelled to the Soviet Union and eluded authorities to slip into Ukraine, everywhere was the cry, There is no bread. This cry came from part of Russia, from the Volga, Siberia, White Russia, the North Caucasus. I tramped through the earth region because that was once the richest farmland in Russia. In the train a Communist denied to me there was a famine. I flung a crust of bread which I had been eating from my own supply into a spittoon, a peasant fellow-passenger fished it out and ravenously ate it. I threw an orange peel into the spittoon and the peasant again grabbed it, I stayed overnight in a village where there used to be two hundred oxen and where there now are six. The peasants were eating the cattle fodder and had only a months supply left and they told me that many had already died of hunger. Two soldiers came to arrest a thief and they warned me against travel by night, as there were too many starving desperate men. We are waiting for death was my welcome, but see, many houses are empty of people already dead, they cried. This report was unwelcome in a many of the media. On 31 March the New York Times published a denial of Jones statement by Walter Duranty under the headline RUSSIANS HUNGRY, BUT NOT STARVING. In the article, Kremlin sources denied the existence of a famine, on 13 May, Jones published a strong rebuttal to Duranty in the New York Times, standing by his report, My first evidence was gathered from foreign observers. But they are not allowed to express their views in the press, journalists, on the other hand, are allowed to write, but the censorship has turned them into masters of euphemism and understatement
30.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
31.
Walter Duranty
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Walter Duranty was a Liverpool-born, Anglo-American journalist who served as the Moscow Bureau Chief of The New York Times for fourteen years following the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War. In 1932 Duranty received a Pulitzer Prize for a series of reports about the Soviet Union,11 of them published in June 1931 and he was criticized then and later for his denial of widespread famine in the USSR, most particularly the mass starvation in Ukraine. Duranty was born in a middle-class Liverpool family, the son of Emmeline and he studied at Harrow, one of Britains most prestigious public schools, but a sudden collapse in his fathers business led to a transfer to Bedford College. Nevertheless, he gained a scholarship to study at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. After completing his education, Duranty moved to Paris, during the Great War, he first worked as a reporter for The New York Times. A story Duranty filed about the Paris Peace Conference,1919 gained him notice as a journalist. He then moved to Riga to cover events in the newly independent Baltic States, Duranty moved to the Soviet Union in 1921. On holiday in France in 1924, Durantys left leg was injured in a train wreck, after the operation, the surgeon discovered gangrene, and the leg was removed. Once he had recovered, Duranty resumed his career as a journalist in the Soviet Union, during the New Economic Policy with its mixed economy, Durantys articles from Moscow did not draw wide attention. It was after the advent of the First Five-Year Plan, which aimed to transform Soviet industry and agriculture, in 1929, he was granted an exclusive interview with Joseph Stalin that greatly enhanced his reputation as a journalist. Duranty was to remain in Moscow for twelve years, settling in the United States in 1934, thereafter, he remained on retainer for The New York Times, which required him to spend several months a year in Moscow. It was in this capacity that Duranty reported on the trials of Stalins political opponents in 1936–1938. Failed attempts, since the time of Peter the Great, to apply Western ideals in Russia were a form of European colonialism, he wrote, vladimir Lenin and his New Economic Policy were both failures tainted by Western thought. Duranty felt that Stalin scrapped the New Economic Policy because he had no political competition, Stalin succeeded in doing what Lenin could only attempt to do, i. e. he “re-established a dictator of the imperial idea and put himself in charge” by means of intimidation. “Stalin didn’t look upon himself as a dictator, but as a ‘guardian of a sacred flame’ that he called Stalinism for lack of a better name. ”Stalin’s five-year plan was an attempt to effect a new way of life for the Russian people. Duranty argued that the Soviet Union’s mentality in 1931 greatly differed from the created by Karl Marxs ideas. In one of the articles submitted for the Pulitzer Prize Duranty gives his views of the Soviet actions in the countryside that eventually led to the famine. Here, when you get right down to it, is the supreme justification from the Bolshevik angle of the cruel, however, he also said that, for those who could not accept the system, the final fate of such enemies is death
32.
Pulitzer Prize
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The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
33.
Joseph Stalin
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Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
34.
The Statesman
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The Statesman is an Indian English-language broadsheet daily newspaper founded in 1875 and published simultaneously in Kolkata, New Delhi, Siliguri and Bhubaneswar. It incorporates and is descended from The Friend of India. It is owned by The Statesman Ltd and headquartered at Statesman House, Chowringhee Square, Kolkata, with its editorial office at Statesman House, Connaught Place. It is a member of the Asia News Network, the Statesman has an average weekday circulation of approximately 180,000, and the Sunday Statesman has a circulation of 230,000. This ranks it as one of the leading English newspapers in West Bengal, the Statesman is a direct descendant of two newspapers, The Englishman and The Friend of India, both published in Calcutta. The Englishman was started by Robert Knight, who was previously the principal founder, Knight founded The Statesman and New Friend of India on 15 January 1875, which later adopted the current name. The Statesman was managed by a British corporate group until it transferred ownership to a consortium of companies with N A Palkhivala as Chairman in the mid-1960s, the first editor assigned under this new ownership was Pran Chopra. The Statesman is characterized by its reporting style. It holds an independent anti-establishment position and it opposed the shifting of Indias capital from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911, stating that he British have gone to the city of graveyards to be buried there. It also strenuously opposed Indira Gandhis Emergency in 1975-77, the Statesman Award for Rural Reporting is presented to outstanding journalists every year, irrespective of affiliation, to further the social uplifting of indigents from India. Once the most widely read English dailies in West Bengal, The Statesman has now lost some ground to The Telegraph, The Times of India, but it is widely regarded as the paper to read for serious news reportage and incisive analytical articles. The Statesman is a member of the Asia News Network. This allows The Statesman to offer coverage of all Asian regions. The Statesman carries a Thursday feature supplement called Section 2 which is published from New Delhi, the four-page supplement provides in-depth analysis on art, dance, literature, drama, fashion, lifestyle and entertainment. In Kolkata, the supplement Voices focuses on schools and schoolchildren and it started in 1995, providing the opportunity for school children to showcase their writing skills with research articles, poems and short news clips. Among other activities every year, Voices hosts a 2-day long festival called Vibes in Calcutta, marquee, published every Saturday, covers the film and entertainment scene. Supplement of Dainik Statesman - every Saturday publishes Binodan where the news of art, culture, music, entertainment, food, fashion, every Sunday publishes Bichitra where the sunday special articles, short stories, travel, children special issues are available. Ravindra Kumar is Editor of The Statesman, usha Mahadevan is Resident Editor of The Statesman, Delhi
35.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
36.
Chowringhee
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Chowringhee is a neighbourhood in central Kolkata, earlier known as Calcutta, in the Indian state of West Bengal. Jawaharlal Nehru Road runs on its western side, a neighbourhood steeped in history, it is a business district, as well as a shopper’s destination and entertainment-hotel centre. The name ‘Chowringhee’ has defied etymologists, there is, however, the legend of a yogi, Chourangi Giri, who discovered an image of the goddess Kali’s face and built the first and founded the original Kalighat temple. In the seventeenth century or prior to it, the now occupied by the Maidan. At the eastern end of it was an old road, which had once built by the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family from Barisha to Halisahar. Beyond it there were “pools, swamps and rice-fields, dotted here and there with the huts of fishermen. In that region were three small hamlets – Chowringhee, Birjee and Colimba, in 1717, Chowringhee was a hamlet of isolated hovels, surrounded by water-logged paddy-fields and bamboo-groves separated from Gobindapur by the jungle. Tradition has it that Warren Hastings, hunted with elephants in the jungle, Birjee occupied the south-eastern end of later day Maidan, Victoria Memorial and Rabindra Sadan area. Colimba took its name from the Bengali word for musk melon, the strengthening of British power, subsequent to their victory in the Battle of Plassey was followed by the construction of the new Fort William, in 1758. The European inhabitants of Kalikata gradually forsook the narrow limits of the old palisades, in the mid eighteenth century Englishmen began to build magnificent houses on the Chowringhee that earned Kolkata the title of ‘City of Palaces’. The first road in Kolkata to be macadamised was Chitpur Road in 1839, in the evening of 6 July 1857 Chowringhee was lit up with gas lights provided by the Oriental Gas Company. Building of pavements started in 1858, first in Chowringhee and then elsewhere, the pavements were built to facilitate the erection of gas lamps. The traders objected as their customers were forced to park their carriages some distance from the shops, the ‘road to Chowringhee’ ran from Lower Circular Road in the south to Dharmatala in the north. According to old maps, Chowringhee is a locality, not a road, in Colonel Mark Wood’s map of 1784 while the road is marked ‘Road to Chowringhee’, the name ‘Chowringhee’ is given to the locality immediately south of Park Street. Travelling along the ‘Road to Chowringhee’ from south to north, the first crossing was with Theatre Road, at that corner was the Theatre of Calcutta from 1813 to 1839. It was destroyed in a fire, the next turning is that of Harrington Street named after John Herbert Harrington, a judge of the Sadar Adalat. The next crossing Middleton Street was named after Dr. Thomas Fanshaw Middleton, further down the road was Bengal Club. The building was once the residence of Thomas Babington Macaulay, behind Bengal Club ran Russel Street, named after Sir Henry Russel, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1806-1813
37.
Maidstone
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Maidstone is the county town of Kent, England,32 miles south-east of London. The River Medway runs through the centre of the town, linking it with Rochester, historically, the river was a source and route for much of the towns trade as the centre of the agricultural county of Kent, known as the Garden of England. There is evidence of a settlement in the area dating back to before the Stone Age, the town is in the borough of Maidstone. In 2011, the town had a population of 113,137, maidstones economy has changed over the years from being involved in heavy industry, to more light industry and service industries. Saxon charters show the first recorded instances of the name, de maeides stana and maegdan stane. The latter meaning may refer to the nearby megalith around which took place. The name evolved through medestan/meddestane in the Domesday Book with possible variation Mayndenstan, the modern name appeared by 1610. It has been suggested that the name derives from stones set into the river to allow clothes to be rinsed in the water away from the banks. Neolithic finds have revealed the earliest occupation of the area, the Normans set up a shire moot, and religious organisations established an abbey at Boxley, hospitals and a college for priests. Today’s suburb of Penenden Heath was a place of execution in medieval times, maidstones charter as a town was granted in 1549, although briefly revoked, a new charter in 1551 created the town as a borough. The charter was ratified in 1619 under James I, and the coat of arms was designed, bearing a golden lion, recently to these arms were added the head of a white horse, a golden lion and an iguanodon. The iguanodon relates to the discovery in the 19th century of the remains of that dinosaur. Maidstone has had the right to a town gaol since 1604, during the English Civil War, the Battle of Maidstone took place in 1648, resulting in a victory for the Parliamentarians. Paper mills, stone quarrying, brewing and the industry have all flourished here. The paper maker James Whatman and his son invented wove paper at Turkey Mill from 1740, a permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of cavalry barracks in 1798. Invicta Park Barracks is now home to the 36 Engineer Regiment, Maidstone Prison is north of the town centre and was completed in 1819. Modern Maidstone incorporates a number of outlying villages and settlements, the county council offices to the north of the town centre were built of Portland stone between 1910 and 1913. On 29 September 1975 a local pub serving Invicta Park Barracks, The Hare, Maidstone General Hospital opened on the outskirts of the town in 1983, replacing West Kent General Hospital, which opened 150 years earlier in Marsham Street
38.
Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Information, headed by the Minister of Information, was a United Kingdom government department created briefly at the end of the First World War and again during the Second World War. Located in Senate House at the University of London during the 1940s, it was the government department responsible for publicity. In the Great War, several different agencies had been responsible for propaganda, except for a period when there had been a Department of Information. The Ministry’s function was ‘To promote the case to the public at home and abroad in time of war’ by issuing ‘National Propaganda’ and controlling news. It was initially responsible for censorship, issuing official news, home publicity and overseas publicity in Allied and these functions were matched by a responsibility for monitoring public opinion through a network of Regional Information Offices. Responsibility for publicity in enemy territories was organized by Department EH, secret planning for a Ministry of Information had started in October 1935 under the auspices of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Draft proposals were accepted on 27 July 1936 and Sir Stephen Tallents was appointed as Director General Designate, Tallents drew together a small group of planners from existing government departments, public bodies and specialist outside organizations. The MOI’s planners sought to experience gained during the First World War with new communications technology. Their work reflected a concern that a future war would exert huge strain on the civilian population. The shadow Ministry of Information came into being briefly between 26 September-3 October 1938 after the Nazi annexation of the Sudetenland heightened international tensions, the seventy one officials who were assembled in temporary accommodation had responsibility for censoring press reports surrounding the Munich Agreement. The week-long experiment was not regarded as a success, instead it highlighted the extent to which questions over appointments, accommodation, links to the media and the relationship with other government departments had been left unresolved. The confusion had been made worse by tensions between the shadow MOI and the Foreign Office News Department and this tension spilled over into the Committee for Imperial Defence which considered proposals to abandon plans for the Ministry of Information. Tallents left his post as Director General Designate on 2 January 1939, planning efforts would increase again after Nazi troops moved into Prague on 15 March 1939. The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain publicly announced his government’s intentions for the MOI in a speech on 15 June 1939. Home Office officials were given until 31 December 1939 to complete their plans. The Ministry of Information was formed on 4 September 1939, the day after Britains declaration of war, the MOI’s headquarters were housed within the University of Londons Senate House and would remain in place until the end of the war. The MOI was initially organized in four groups, a ‘Press Relations’ group was responsible for both the issue of news and censorship. A ‘Publicity Users’ group was responsible for propaganda policy, a ‘Publicity Producers’ group was responsible for design and production
39.
Royal Military Police
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Members of the RMP are often known as Redcaps because of the scarlet covers on their peaked caps, or scarlet coloured berets. The RMP origins can be traced back to the 13th Century but it was not until 1877 that a corps of military police was formed. This was followed by the Military Foot Police in 1885, although technically two independent corps, the two effectively functioned as a single organisation. In 1926, they were amalgamated to form the Corps of Military Police. In recognition of their service in the Second World War, they became the Corps of Royal Military Police on 28 November 1946, on 6 April 1992 the RMP amalgamated into the Adjutant Generals Corps, under whose overall command they form part of the AGCs Provost Branch. Non-commissioned members of the RMP receive their training as soldiers. They then receive further training at the Defence School of Policing and Guarding, RMP commissioned officers are trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, as are all other British Army officers. The regimental march of the RMP is The Watchtower or Hoch Heidecksburg originally a German Army marching tune from 1912 by Rudolf Herzer, the RMP motto is Exemplo Ducemus, Latin for By example, shall we lead. The Provost Marshal is a post which goes back to the 13th century and was originally an under-officer of the Earl Marshal, in 1685 the role of Provost Marshal General became a permanent post. The Military Mounted Police was formed in 1877 and the Military Foot Police was formed in 1885, during the First World War the Military Police grew from 508 all ranks to over 25,000 all ranks by the end of the War. During the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915 the Military Police served the Army as a rather than just individual units. On 27 February 1926 the Corps of Military Police was formed by merging the Military Mounted Police, Provost Wing – Responsible for general policing. Provost Companies were included in the order of battle of Home Commands, Armoured, Infantry and Airborne Divisions, as well as at Army and Corps level and with independent Brigades. From 1942, Ports Provost Companies were raised, consisting of a mix of Provost and Vulnerable Points Sections, Vulnerable Points Wing – Formed in 1941 to provide security of static locations and establishments. They were known as blue caps from the Oxford blue cloth covers worn on their service dress caps, originally intended to act as static Companies and detachments, VP Coys were later deployed in North West Europe, guarding prisoner of war camps and other static installations. The VP Wing was quickly phased out at the end of the war, traffic Control Wing – Formed in 1941, TC Coys were deployed throughout the United Kingdom, releasing Provost Companies from the tasks of traffic control. TC Coys were later deployed in the Middle East, Italy, the Wing was phased out of the Corps by 1946. Field Security Wing – First formed in 1937, personnel of the F. S. W, wore Lincoln green cap covers and brass shoulder titles on their tunics with the letters FSP, to distinguish them from the rest of the Corps
40.
Intelligence Corps (United Kingdom)
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The Intelligence Corps is one of the corps of the British Army. It is responsible for gathering, analysing and disseminating military intelligence and also for counter-intelligence, the Director of the Intelligence Corps is a brigadier. In the 19th century, British intelligence work was undertaken by the Intelligence Department of the War Office, an important figure was Sir Charles Wilson, a Royal Engineer who successfully pushed for reform of the War Offices treatment of topographical work. Although the first proposals to create an intelligence corps came in 1905 and it left for France on 12 August 1914. The Royal Flying Corps was formed to monitor the ground, during the Irish War of Independence, Intelligence Corps operatives were used in an unsuccessful battle to defeat the Irish Republican Army. The Cairo Gang were overwhelmingly Intelligence Corps operatives, on Bloody Sunday,1920, twelve of these agents were assassinated at their lodgings by Michael Collins Squad. Due to this and similar failures, the Intelligence Corps was disbanded in 1929, on 19 July 1940 a new Intelligence Corps was created by Army Order 112 and has existed since that time. The Army had been unprepared for collecting intelligence for deployment to France, the Corps trained its operatives to parachute at RAF Ringway, who were then dropped over France as part of the Special Operations Executive. Intelligence Corps officers were involved in forming the highly-effective Long Range Desert Group, around 40% of British Army personnel at Bletchley Park were in the Intelligence Corps. The Corps gained its regimental march in 1956, first played at Kneller Hall, from August 1957, the Corps first had a permanent cadre of officers, previously all personnel serving in the corps were officers from other parts of the army, on occasional tours. Many members of the Intelligence Corps served in Northern Ireland during the Troubles, units such as the Military Reaction Force, Special Reconnaissance Unit, Force Research Unit and 14 Intelligence Company contained Corps soldiers and officers. On 1 February 1985 the corps was declared an Arm instead of a Service. Intelligence Corps personnel wear a distinctive green beret with a cap badge consisting of a union rose between two laurel branches and surmounted by a crown. Their motto is Manui Dat Cognitio Vires, the corps quick march is The Rose & Laurel while its slow march is Henry Purcells Trumpet Tune & Ayre. DISC was renamed as Joint Intelligence Training Group in January 2015, the corps has a particularly high proportion of commissioned officers, many of them commissioned from the ranks, and also a high percentage of female members. Non-commissioned personnel join as an Operator Military Intelligence or Operator Military Intelligence and they do basic 14-week military training at either the Army Training Centre, Pirbright, or the Army Training Regiment, Winchester. Forearmed, History of the Intelligence Corps, live and Let Spy, Brixmis the Last Cold War Mission
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Secret Intelligence Service
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The Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6, is the foreign intelligence agency of the British government. The SIS Chief is held accountable to the Foreign Secretary, SIS is bound by the Intelligence Services Act 1994. The name MI6 was used as a flag of convenience during the First World War when it was known by many names, the existence of the SIS was not officially acknowledged until 1994. It forms a part of the UKs intelligence machinery alongside GCHQ, MI5, in late 2010, the head of SIS delivered what he said was the first public address by a serving chief of the agency in its then 101-year history. The remarks of Sir John Sawers primarily focused on the relationship between the need for secrecy and the goal of maintaining security within the UK and his remarks acknowledged the tensions caused by secrecy in an era of leaks and pressure for ever-greater disclosure. Since 1995, the SIS headquarters have been at Vauxhall Cross on the South Bank of the River Thames, the service derived from the Secret Service Bureau, which was founded in 1909. The bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign espionage and internal counter-espionage activities and this specialisation was because the Admiralty wanted to know the maritime strength of the Imperial German Navy. This specialisation was formalised before 1914 and its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming, who often dropped the Smith in routine communication. He typically signed correspondence with his initial C in green ink and this usage evolved as a code name, and has been adhered to by all subsequent directors of SIS when signing documents to retain anonymity. The services performance during the First World War was mixed, because it was unable to establish a network in Germany itself, most of its results came from military and commercial intelligence collected through networks in neutral countries, occupied territories, and Russia. After the war, resources were reduced but during the 1920s. In August 1919, Cumming created the new passport control department, the post of Passport Control Officer provided operatives with diplomatic immunity. Circulating Sections established intelligence requirements and passed the intelligence back to its consumer departments, mainly the War Office, the debate over the future structure of British Intelligence continued at length after the end of hostilities but Cumming managed to engineer the return of the Service to Foreign Office control. In the immediate post-war years under Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming and throughout most of the 1920s, SIS was focused on Communism, in particular, Russian Bolshevism. Smith-Cumming died suddenly at his home on 14 June 1923, shortly before he was due to retire, an economic intelligence section, Section VII, to deal with trade, industrial and contraband. A clandestine radio communications organisation, Section VIII, to communicate with operatives, Section N to exploit the contents of foreign diplomatic bags Section D to conduct political covert actions and paramilitary operations in time of war. Section D would organise the Home Defence Scheme resistance organisation in the UK, with the emergence of Germany as a threat following the ascendence of the Nazis, in the early 1930s attention was shifted in that direction. Sinclair died in 1939, after an illness, and was replaced as C by Lt Col. Stewart Menzies, the extensive double-cross system run by MI5 to feed misleading intelligence to the Germans Imagery intelligence activities conducted by the RAF Photographic Reconnaissance Unit
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Maputo
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Maputo, known as Lourenço Marques before independence, is the capital and largest city of Mozambique. It is known as the City of Acacias, in reference to acacia trees commonly found along its avenues, today, it is a port city, with its economy centered on the harbour. According to the 2007 census, the population is 1,766,184, cotton, sugar, chromite, sisal, copra, and hardwood are the chief exports. The city manufactures cement, pottery, furniture, shoes, the city is surrounded by Maputo Province, but is administered as its own province. They explored the lower courses of the rivers emptying their waters into Delagoa Bay, the forts and trading stations that the Portuguese established, abandoned and reoccupied on the north bank of the river, were all called Lourenço Marques. The existing town dates from about 1850, the settlement having been entirely destroyed by the natives. The town developed around a Portuguese fortress completed in 1787, on the 9th of December 1876, Lourenço Marques was elevated to the category of village and on the 10th of November 1887 it became a city. The Luso-British conflict for the possession of Lourenço Marques ends on the 24th of July 1875 with the ruling by the French President Patrice Mac-Mahon in favor of Portugal. The growing importance of the Transvaal led, however, to greater interest being taken back in Portugal in the development of a port. A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876 to drain the land near the settlement, to plant the blue gum tree, and to build a hospital. A city since 1887, it superseded the Island of Mozambique as the capital of Mozambique in 1898, in 1895, construction of a railroad to Pretoria, South Africa, caused the citys population to grow. It was served by British, Portuguese, and German liners, and the majority of its goods were shipped at Southampton, Lisbon. Portuguese, Islamic, Indian and Chinese communities managed to achieve great prosperity —, before Mozambiques independence in 1975, thousands of tourists from South Africa and Rhodesia frequented the city and its scenic beaches, high-quality hotels, restaurants, casinos, and brothels. The Mozambique Liberation Front, or FRELIMO, formed in Tanzania in 1962 and led by Eduardo Mondlane, the Mozambican War of Independence lasted over 10 years, ending only in 1974 when the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in Lisbon by a leftist military coup — the Carnation Revolution. The new government of Portugal granted independence to all Portuguese overseas territories, the words Aqui é Portugal were once inscribed on the walkway of its municipal building. The Peoples Republic of Mozambique was proclaimed on 25 June 1975 in accordance with the Lusaka Accord signed in September 1974, however, after independence, the citys name was changed to Maputo. After the independence, the statues to Portuguese heroes in the city were removed. Black soldiers carrying Russian rifles replaced Portuguese Army soldiers with arms in city barracks
