1.
Twelfth Night
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Twelfth Night, or What You Will is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written around 1601–02 as a Twelfth Nights entertainment for the close of the Christmas season. The play centres on the twins Viola and Sebastian, who are separated in a shipwreck, Viola falls in love with Duke Orsino, who in turn is in love with the Countess Olivia. Upon meeting Viola, Countess Olivia falls in love with her thinking she is a man, the first recorded performance was on 2 February 1602, at Candlemas, the formal end of Christmastide in the years calendar. The play was not published until its inclusion in the 1623 First Folio, Illyria, the setting of Twelfth Night, is important to the plays romantic atmosphere. Illyria was an ancient region of the Western Balkans whose coast covered the coasts of modern-day Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and it included the city state of the Republic of Ragusa which has been proposed as the setting. Illyria may have suggested by the Roman comedy Menaechmi, the plot of which also involves twins who are mistaken for each other. Illyria is also referred to as a site of pirates in Shakespeares earlier play, Henry VI, the names of most of the characters are Italian but some of the comic characters have English names. Oddly, the Illyrian lady Olivia has an English uncle, Sir Toby Belch and it has been noted that the plays setting also has other English allusions such as Violas use of Westward ho. Viola is shipwrecked on the coast of Illyria and she comes ashore with the help of a captain and she loses contact with her twin brother, Sebastian, whom she believes to be drowned. Disguising herself as a man under the name Cesario, she enters the service of Duke Orsino through the help of the sea captain who rescues her. Duke Orsino then uses Cesario as an intermediary to profess his love before Olivia. Olivia, however, forgetting about the seven years in his case, falls in love with Cesario, in the comic subplot, several characters conspire to make Olivias pompous steward, Malvolio, believe that Olivia has fallen for him. This involves Olivias uncle, Sir Toby Belch, another suitor, a silly squire named Sir Andrew Aguecheek, her servants Maria and Fabian. Sir Toby and Sir Andrew engage themselves in drinking and revelry, thus disturbing the peace of Olivias house until late into the night, Sir Toby famously retorts, Dost thou think, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale. Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, and Maria are urged to plan revenge on Malvolio and they convince Malvolio that Olivia is secretly in love with him by planting a love letter, written by Maria in Olivias handwriting. It asks Malvolio to wear yellow stockings cross-gartered, to be rude to the rest of the servants, Malvolio finds the letter and reacts in surprised delight. He starts acting out the contents of the letter to show Olivia his positive response, Olivia is shocked by the changes in Malvolio and leaves him to the contrivances of his tormentors. Pretending that Malvolio is insane, they lock him up in a dark chamber, Feste visits him to mock his insanity, both disguised as a priest and as himself
2.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
3.
Steward (office)
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It was also a term used to refer to the chief servant of a landed estate. From Old English stíweard, stiȝweard, from stiȝ hall, household + weard warden, keeper, corresponding to Dutch, stadhouder, German Statthalter place holder, the Old English term stíweard is attested from the 11th century. Its first element is most probably stiȝ- house, hall, Old French estuard and Old Norse stívarðr are adopted from the Old English. The German and Dutch term is a parallel but independent formation corresponding to obsolete English stead holder, in medieval times, the steward was initially a servant who supervised both the lords estate and his household. However over the course of the century, other household posts arose. This meant that in the 13th century, there were two stewards in each house—one who managed the gang estate and the other, the majordomo. Stewards commonly earned up to 3 to 4 pounds per year, Stewards took care of their lords castles when they were away. Also, stewards checked on the taxes of the serfs on his lords manor, the Lord High Steward of England held a position of power in the 12th to 14th centuries, and the Lord Steward is the first dignitary of the court. The Stewart family traces its appellation to the office of the High Steward of Scotland, Lord High Steward of Ireland is a hereditary office held since the 15th century. In the Netherlands, it developed into a type of de facto hereditary head of state of the thus crowned Dutch Republic. Stadtholders were appointed by feudal lords to govern parts of their territory, in the Low Countries from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, this was originally an essentially honorary title awarded by the Spanish Habsburg kings to major noblemen in each province. During the latter, the office was known as Rigsstatholder. The Statholder governed Norway on behalf of the King, as Norway was a separate kingdom with its own laws and institutions, it was arguably the most influential office in both Denmark-Norway and in the Swedish-Norwegian realm second to that of the king. The office was held by the Crown Prince, who was styled as Viceroy. The term Statholder means place holder, i. e. the one governing on behalf of the king, the modern Norwegian spelling is stattholder. The Croatian office of the Ban was equivalent of a viceroy, Ban was appointed by the monarch with a mandate to govern a part of country, or whole country, in the name of the King of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia. Bosnia was a banate of the Kingdom of Hungary 1136–1377, during that period Bosnia was governed by an autonomous hereditary viceroy, called ban. The last of them, Tvrtko, became the first king of the Kingdom of Bosnia, the Russian equivalent of stadtholder is posadnik, the term sometimes occurs as stadtholder in English-language literature
4.
Olivia (Twelfth Night)
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Olivia is a fictional character from William Shakespeares play Twelfth Night, believed to have been written around 1600 or 1601. She is at the center of the plots, both the comedic and the romantic. Olivia is a lady of noble birth who lives in Illyria. Before the play begins, she has recently lost her brother who was her guardian after her father died. This loss has made her grief-stricken and she has refused to see anyone who does not reside in her household, because of her wealth and beauty Olivia attracts various men who wish to marry her. The play begins with the Duke of Illyria, Orsino, pining away over his love for Olivia while she refuses to him as a suitor. Sir Andrew has been invited to her household by Sir Toby, Malvolio uses his position as steward to gain her affections. Despite all of the going on at her home, Olivia refuses all visitors until Orsino sends his new page. Viola has been shipwrecked and she has taken on the disguise of a boy so that she may work for Orsino with no one knowing her true identity. During the shipwreck, Viola lost her brother, Sebastian, Olivia quickly descends in love with the witty Cesario because Cesario is unafraid of saying what he/she is thinking, even though Cesario never says anything nice to Olivia. Cesario also compliments Olivia on her beauty, something that helps heal Olivias heart from the losses she has recently incurred, Olivia attempts to woo the young Cesario/Viola and repeatedly asks/lures him to come back to her estate by using various tricks and problems. Olivia eventually comes to the conclusion that she must marry him, however, in a case of mistaken identity, she marries Violas twin brother, Sebastian. All ends well however, because Sebastian and his sister are extremely similar, the climax of the play takes place at Olivias estate. It is here that Olivia and Sebastian are hastily married, Viola and Sebastian rediscover each other, Malvolio is rescued, Olivia falls in love with Cesario very quickly and decides that, despite her previous declaration of mourning, she will marry him. This brings to question Olivias sexuality, as Duke Orsino notes Cesario is semblative a womans part, one of Shakespeares most popular plays, Twelfth Night has been produced for both the stage and film multiple times. In 2009, Shakespeare in the Park put on a production starring Anne Hathaway as Viola, in 2014, Mark Rylance played the role in an all-male production that ran in repertory with Richard III. He won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his performance as Olivia, in the first film version of the play, made in 1910, Julia Swayne Gordon depicted Lady Olivia. Helena Bonham Carter played Olivia in Trevor Nunns film, Twelfth Night, in 2006 the play was adapted into a modern retelling titled Shes the Man, starring Amanda Bynes as Viola and Laura Ramsey as Olivia
5.
Puritans
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Puritanism in this sense was founded as an activist movement within the Church of England. The founders, clergy exiled under Mary I, returned to England shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Puritanism played a significant role in English history during the first half of the 17th century. One of the most effective stokers of anti-Catholic feeling was John Pym, Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system and they largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. Consequently, they became a political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War. Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the Restoration of 1660, the nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England. Puritans by definition were dissatisfied with the extent of the English Reformation. They formed and identified with various groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology and, in sense, were Calvinists. In church polity, some advocated separation from all other established Christian denominations in favor of autonomous gathered churches. The Puritans were never a formally defined sect or religious division within Protestantism, the Congregationalist tradition, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, claims descent from the Puritans. Historically, the word Puritan was considered a term that characterized Protestant groups as extremists. According to Thomas Fuller in his Church History, the dates to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that used it and precisian with the sense of the modern stickler. In modern times, the word puritan is often used to mean against pleasure, in this sense, the term Puritan was coined in the 1560s, when it first appeared as a term of abuse for those who found the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 inadequate. The term Puritan, therefore, was not intended to refer to strict morality, a common modern misunderstanding, the word Puritan was applied unevenly to a number of Protestant churches from the late 16th century onwards. Puritans did not originally use the term for themselves, the practitioners knew themselves as members of particular churches or movements, and not by a single term. Precise men and Precisians were other early derogatory terms for Puritans, seventeenth century English Puritan preacher Thomas Watson used the godly to describe Puritans in the title of one of his more famous works The Godly Mans Picture
6.
Sir Toby Belch
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Sir Toby Belch is a character in William Shakespeares Twelfth Night, believed to have been written around 1600. He is considered one of William Shakespeares finest characters, a mix of high spirits. He first appears in the third scene, when he storms onto the stage the morning after a hard night out. What a plague means my niece to take the death of her brother thus, im sure cares an enemy to life. But it also raises the question of how far the audience is expected to sympathize with him, is his criticism of his niece a justified statement of the old truism that life must go on, or an insensitive blunder by a hungover old drunkard. At the beginning Sir Toby appears to be friends with another character, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, however as the play progresses, it transpires that Sir Toby is just taking advantage of Sir Andrews riches, one of the more sinister plots of the generally comedic play. His tormenting of the steward Malvolio is similarly double-edged in its tone of sportful malice, the plot against Malvolio is generally considered a comic highlight of the play, but critics have often complained of its cruelty. The play ends with the still unresolved, and Olivia warning that Malvolio hath been most notoriously abused. Whatever his faults, no study can accuse Sir Toby of snobbishness. Though he taunts Malvolio with the demand Art any more than a steward and he only does so after Malvolio has threatened him with being turned out if he doesnt reform his ways. Indeed part of Malvolios complaint is that Sir Toby and his companions are not acting like noblemen by drinking and singing, in the words of his enemy widow, Sir Toby Belch has no respect of place, persons, nor time. He cannot, or will not, change his behaviour to conform to anything, thus Shakespeare offers him to the audience not as an answer to the problems of love and melancholy in Twelfth Night, but as an alternative spirit, with its own rude energy and boorish flaws
7.
Sir Andrew Aguecheek
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Sir Andrew Aguecheek is a comic character in William Shakespeares play Twelfth Night, or What You Will. One of the characters, Sir Andrew is a stereotypical fool, who is goaded into unwisely duelling with Cesario. He is dim-witted, vain and clownish and his role in the play not only provides comedy through his pathetic situation and his long speech, but also by his distinct, long-faced appearance and garish dress sense. The role has been a favorite for noted actors such as Alec Guinness, Christopher Plummer, Paul Scofield, Sir Andrew Aguecheek first appears in the third scene of Act I, as the so-called friend of Sir Toby Belch. Sir Andrew is a guest at the home of Sir Tobys niece Lady Olivia, where Sir Toby, ineptly, Sir Andrew attempts to court Olivia, and her rejection of him, in favour of dashing Cesario, prompts Sir Andrew to challenge Cesario to a duel. Sir Andrew fancies himself a dancer and swordsman, and the scenes where he ineptly engages in these activities are points of physical comedy in the play. Sir Andrews age is not made clear, but it is assumed that he is a number of years younger than Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Malvolio are probably the only characters whose situation at the end of the play is not as favourable as in the beginning. Amongst three happy couples and a humiliated Malvolio in the scene, Sir Andrew has already made his closing exit. Friendless and deep in debt, this ending echoes one of Sir Andrews better known lines, from the scene of the second act. The negative outcome for Sir Andrew, combined with his having been the subject of jokes, as one of the central supporting roles in Twelfth Night, Sir Andrews character speaks a total of 152 lines and appears in seven of the eighteen scenes. The Elizabethan actor John Sinklo has been associated with the role of Sir Andrew, actors who have distinguished themselves in the role of Sir Andrew include Alec Guinness, Paul Scofield, Juan Garibay, and Christopher Plummer. When Maria tricks Malvolio into wearing yellow stockings, she reveals to her fellow conspirators that tis a colour abhors and they then turn to Sir Andrew who is wearing a yellow waistcoat, tie and stockings. Like the others, however, he is allowed some dignity by kissing the hand of Olivia before leaving her estate, but I am a great eater of beef, and I believe that does harm to my wit. Nay, let me alone for swearing Sir Andrews boast that he is an expert at cursing and he does it with a better grace, but I do it more natural Sir Andrew Aguecheek compares his fooling with that of Sir Toby Belch. I was adored once too The reference of this quote is unclear, Sir Andrew Aguecheek is the first part of Hans Werner Henzes Second Sonata on Shakespearean Characters for guitar, known as Royal Winter Music. Twelfth Night, The Critical Edition of Shakespeare
8.
Feste
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Feste is a fool in the William Shakespeare comedy Twelfth Night. He is attached to the household of the Countess Olivia and he has apparently been there for some time, as he was a fool that the Lady Olivias father took much delight in. He is referred to by name only once during the play, curio responds Feste, the jester, my lord, a fool that the lady Olivias father took much delight in. Throughout the rest of the play, he is addressed only as Fool, Feste seems to leave Olivias house and return at his pleasure, rather too freely for a servant. His habit of roaming gets him into trouble with Lady Olivia and he succeeds, and once back in his ladys good graces, he weaves in and out of the action with the sort of impunity that was reserved for a person nobody took seriously. There are instances in the play where Feste is believed to be an almost omniscient presence and he is then shown watching Viola arrive in Illyria and the film ends with him watching the various supporting players leave Olivias estate. When Viola removes her Cesario disguise he gives her a necklace which she discarded when first shipwrecked on Illyrias shores. Kingsleys Feste dresses in old clothes and appears to be a wanderer of no fixed abode, though he slips in and he plays a number of musical instruments and, like most of the cast, displays a mixture of comedy and pathos. Feste, as a fool, has a repertoire of songs, O Mistress mine and your true loves coming, That can sing both high and low. Trip no further, pretty sweeting, Journeys end in lovers meeting, Every wise mans son doth know, present mirth hath present laughter, Whats to come is still unsure. In delay there lies no plenty, Then come kiss me, sweet, youths a stuff will not endure. Come away, come away, death, And in sad cypress let me be laid, Fie away, fie away, breath and my shroud of white, stuck all with yew, O prepare it. My part of death, no one so true O did share it, when that I was and a little tiny boy, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, A foolish thing was but a toy, For the rain it raineth every day. But when I came to mans estate, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, Gainst knaves and thieves men shut their gate, For the rain, it raineth every day. But when I came, alas, to wive, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, By swaggering could I never thrive, For the rain, it raineth every day. But when I came unto my beds, With hey, ho, the wind, a great while ago the world begun, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain. But thats all one, our play is done, And well strive to please you every day I am gone, and anon, sir, Ill be with you again, In a trice, Like to the old Vice, Your need to sustain. Who with dagger of lath, In his rage and his wrath, like a mad lad, Pare thy nails, dad
9.
Garter (stockings)
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Garters are articles of clothing, narrow bands of fabric fastened about the leg, used to keep up stockings, and sometimes socks. In the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, they were tied just below the knee, the advent of elastic has made them less necessary from this functional standpoint, although they are still often worn for fashion. Garters have been worn by men and women, depending on fashion trends. Garters were popular in the 1930s and 1940s, and were a convenient way for ladies to carry small valuables, in Elizabethan fashions, men wore garters with their hose, and colorful garters were an object of display. In Shakespeares Twelfth Night, cross braced garters are an object of some derision, in male fashion, a type of garter for holding up socks has continued as a part of male dress up to the present, although its use may be considered somewhat stodgy. There is a Western wedding tradition for a bride to wear a garter to her wedding and this garter is not normally used to support stockings. This practice is interpreted as symbolic of deflowering, though some sources attribute its origin to a superstition that taking an article of the brides clothing will bring good luck. In the Middle Ages, the groomsmen would rush at the new bride to take her garters as a prize, today, the practice of removing the brides garter is traditionally reserved to the groom, who will then toss the garter to the unmarried male guests. This is performed after the tossing of the bouquet, in which the bride tosses her bouquet over her shoulder to be caught by the female guests. According to superstition, the lady who catches the bouquet and the man who catches the garter will be the man and woman among those in attendance to be married. The ceremony often continues with the man who catches the garter obliged to place it on the leg of the lady who caught the bouquet, traditionally, the pair are obliged to share the next dance. Prom garters were common in the 1960s & 70s, and often conferred on the date as a souvenir, if the date received the garter, it was typically hung from his rear-view mirror. The prom garter may be throughout the evening and is sometimes given to the young womans date as a souvenir. A young woman may choose to keep the garter rather than give it away. In cases like this where the garter is given early in the evening, the suspenders are typically clipped to the stockings with metal clips into which a rubber disc is inserted through the stocking material effectively locking the stocking in place. These are normally attached to a length of elastic allowing for adjustment and these clips, also known as suspender slings, are best attached to stockings with a simple welt that do not have lace, or hold-ups with a silicon rubber lining. Suspender belts for men do exist, usually worn when there is a need to wear support hosiery for medical reasons, suspender belts are usually worn at the waist or just slightly below. If worn too low on the hips, there is a chance of the sliding down
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