1.
Counties of Romania
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A total of 41 counties, along with the municipality of Bucharest, constitute the official administrative divisions of Romania. They represent the countrys NUTS-3 statistical subdivisions within the European Union, most counties are named after a major river, while some are named after notable cities within them, such as the county seat. The earliest organization into județe of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia dates back to at least the late 14th century, for most of the time since modern Romania was formed in 1859, the administrative division system has been similar to the French departments one. The system has changed several times since then, and the number of counties has varied over time. The current format has largely been in place since 1968 as only small changes have made since then. The average countys land area is 5,809 square kilometres, with Timiș County the largest and Ilfov County the smallest. The municipality of Bucharest, which has the administrative level as that of a county, is both more populous and much smaller than any county, with 1,883,425 people and 228 square kilometres. The earliest organization into județe, and ținuturi, dates back at least to the late 14th century, inspired from the organization of the late Byzantine Empire, each județ was ruled by a jude, a person officially appointed with administrative and judicial functions. Transylvania was divided into counties headed by comes with administrative. Aside from the 1950–1968 period, this system has remained in place until today, until 1948, each județ was further divided into several plăși, each administered by a pretor. County borders were largely intact, with few adjustments, and the total number of counties was raised to 71. In 1938, King Carol II modified the law on the administration of the Romanian territory according to the fascist model, ten ținuturi were created, ruled by Rezidenți Regali, appointed directly by the Monarch. The ținuturi represented another layer of administration between counties and the country, as the county borders were not erased, due to the territorial changes during World War II, this style of administration did not last, and the administration at the județ level was reintroduced after the war. Between 1941–1944, Romania administered the territory between the Dniester and Southern Bug rivers known as Transnistria, which consisted of 13 separate counties. After taking over the administration of the country in 1945, the Communist Party changed the model to that of the Soviet Union in 1950. Nevertheless, the county borders set then were different from those present during the interbellum. The county borders set in 1968 are still largely in place today, at present, Romania is divided into 41 counties and one municipality, these are assigned as the NUTS-3 geocode statistical subdivision scheme of Romania within the European Union. Each of the counties is further divided into cities and communes, the territorial districts of the Romanian judicial system overlap with county borders, thus avoiding further complication in the separation of powers on the government
2.
Romania
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Romania is a sovereign state located in Southeastern Europe. It borders the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia and it has an area of 238,391 square kilometres and a temperate-continental climate. With over 19 million inhabitants, the country is the member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city, Bucharest, is the sixth-largest city in the EU, the River Danube, Europes second-longest river, rises in Germany and flows in a general southeast direction for 2,857 km, coursing through ten countries before emptying into Romanias Danube Delta. The Carpathian Mountains, which cross Romania from the north to the southwest are marked by one of their tallest peaks, Moldoveanu, modern Romania was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the sovereign Kingdom of Romania. Romania lost several territories, of which Northern Transylvania was regained after the war, following the war, Romania became a socialist republic and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began a transition back towards democracy and it has been a member of NATO since 2004, and part of the European Union since 2007. A strong majority of the population identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox Christians and are speakers of Romanian. The cultural history of Romania is often referred to when dealing with artists, musicians, inventors. For similar reasons, Romania has been the subject of notable tourist attractions, Romania derives from the Latin romanus, meaning citizen of Rome. The first known use of the appellation was attested in the 16th century by Italian humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia, after the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the word rumân gradually fell out of use and the spelling stabilised to the form român. Tudor Vladimirescu, a leader of the early 19th century. The use of the name Romania to refer to the homeland of all Romanians—its modern-day meaning—was first documented in the early 19th century. The name has been officially in use since 11 December 1861, in English, the name of the country was formerly spelt Rumania or Roumania. Romania became the predominant spelling around 1975, Romania is also the official English-language spelling used by the Romanian government. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the region of the earliest European civilization. Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture extracted salt from salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage
3.
Nord-Vest (development region)
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Nord-Vest is a development region in Romania, created in 1998. As other development regions, it not have any administrative powers, its main function being to co-ordinate regional development projects. There are also several mining centres in Maramureș county and in the Apuseni Mountains. 5%, many mining areas have been classified by the government as defavourised zones, with incentives given to investors who plan to create jobs in these areas and diversify the economy. The regions GDP per capita is slightly below the Romanian average, despite the fact that the major cities – Cluj-Napoca, the region is crossed by five European roads – E60, E81, E79, E671 and E58. Additionally, the A3 freeway is currently in construction and will cross Cluj, Sălaj, Nord-Vest also it has an extensive railway infrastructure connecting most of the important towns. The region has four airports – Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, Satu Mare, currently, Cluj-Napoca, Oradea and Baia Mare airports have international flights, while Satu Mare airport only handles domestic flights. Romanias Nord-Vest development region has a population of 2,600,132. The region is one of the most ethnically-diverse in Romania, with 25% of the coming from a minority group. After Romanians, who make up 75% of the population, the largest minority group are Hungarians, Hungarians are mainly concentrated in urban centres, especially those near the Hungarian border, such as Oradea and Satu Mare. The third largest minority are Romani people, who make up 3. 5%, Romani people are spread relatively evenly throughout the region, even though the highest proportions are in Bihor county, where approximately 5% of the population is Romani. Romanian is the most widely spoken language, spoken as a first language by 76. 6% of the inhabitants of the region, the other important languages are Hungarian, spoken by 19. 9% of the population, Romani and Ukrainian. Religion is mainly based on groups, with the largest religion being Romanian Orthodoxy, observed by 68. 38% of the population. Other important religions are the Reformed Church, Roman Catholicism and Greek Catholicism. 9% of the population of Nord-Vest region has Romanian citizenship, development regions of Romania Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
4.
Baia Mare
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Baia Mare is a municipality along the Săsar River, in northwestern Romania, it is the capital of Maramureș County. The city is situated about 600 kilometres from Bucharest,70 km from the border with Hungary, located south of Igniș and Gutâi Mountains, Baia Mare had a population of 123,738 at the 2011 census, and a metropolitan area home to 215,932 residents. The city administers four villages, Blidari, Firiza, Valea Borcutului, the citys development on the middle course of Săsar River, in the middle of a plateau with a warm Mediterranean-like climate, has facilitated living conditions since the Palaeolithic. During the Bronze Age the region was inhabited by Thracian tribes, later, it was included in the Dacian Kingdom formed by the King Burebista when the mining exploration began, as the area is rich in gold and silver. Baia Mare is first mentioned in documents released by Charles I of Hungary in 1328 under the name of Rivulus Dominarum. In 1347 the town was identified in documents by Louis I of Hungary as an important medieval town with a mining industry. Its rules of organisation were characteristic of the towns of that time. The town entered into a period of prosperity, during which the St. Stephen Cathedral was built, today the cathedral tower is one of the best-known of the towns historic landmarks. The first school, named Schola Rivulina, was opened in Baia Mare in 1547 by the Reformed Church following the Protestant Reformation. In 1703 Pintea Viteazul and his band managed to free the town for a period of time from the German Imperial rule. Since then Pintea is considered an important figure in the towns history, the Budești Church has Pinteas chain mail shirt and a helmet, reportedly worn by him in his battles. The Museum of Baia Mare displays his weapons and their harness, in 1748 the citys mining industry made a leap forward when the Austrian authorities created the headquarters of Superior Mining. Simon Hollósy, the young Hungarian painter, was teaching in his studio new western European techniques, some of those young painters decided to settle down together in Baia Mare, then called Nagybánya, to work on art. They persuaded Hollósy to join them and founded the Nagybánya Artists Colony, working on naturalism, the artists colony became known later on for influencing the development of twentieth-century Hungarian and Romanian art. In addition, in 1966 the museum held an exhibition of their work. Centennial Exhibition in Celebration of the Artists Colony in Nagybánya, following World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved, and in 1919, Baia Mare became part of the Kingdom of Romania. It was re-occupied by Hungary between 1940-1944 under the Second Vienna Award between Hungary and Germany, during World War II, near the end of that period, the city hosted the Baia Mare ghetto. After the war, the city was returned to Romania, shortly after World War II in postwar development, the town of Baia Mare started to grow both in population and inhabited area
5.
Telephone numbers in Romania
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The dialling plan for mobile networks and new landline operators is closed, all subscriber numbers must be dialled in full. For landline numbers starting with 02, the plan used to be open. However, starting May 3,2008, all landline numbers must be dialled in full, during the Communist years, there was no direct international access. Numbers had 5 digits except for Bucharest, where numbers were 6 digits long, area code started with 9 and were 2 digits long for Bucharest and 3 digits long for the rest of the country. The Bucharest surrounding area had the area code 909, followed by 5 digits number, somewhere in the end of the 80s, some big cities area codes were upgraded, including the last digit of the area code into the local number, thus making it 6-digits long. However, calling between non-local areas always required dialling the area code, even when the called partys code was the same as the callers, for example, a number from Iași was 981-xx-xxx, then it became 98-1xx-xxx. A number from Suceava was 982-xx-xxx, but then it became 98-2xx-xxx, apart from Bucharest, Brașov was the first city to have 6-digit numbers. Many smaller town or rural area calling implied using manual commutation circuits operated by humans, short numbers for special services, like cab companies, were three digits long, starting with 0,00 used for checking the phone line. In 1992, it started increasing the size of a number to 7 digits in Bucharest and 6 digits in the rest of the country and by changing the prefixing scheme. The long distance code was changed from 9 to 0, the code for Bucharest became 01. For a short period, the surrounding of Bucharest had the area code 0179, the 02 code was used for calls to the Republic of Moldova. In 1993, the counties were given new area codes. The previous area code system did not follow the country administrative regions, outside county dialing required a national access code 0. In-county calling could be done without prefixes at all, calling from outside meant +40-1-xxx-xxxx for Bucharest and +40-pp-xxx-xxx for the rest of the country. An international access code for calling abroad,00, was adopted, the short numbers for special services started with 9 and were three digits long. Each town or county has its own services, callable with the same number throughout the country. The first mobile company was Telemobil and it started its service in 1993 using the analogue NMT technology, the numbers for this network were using the prefix 018-5xx-xxx and 018-6xx-xxx. As 01 was the code for Bucharest, the mobile numbers had to be dialed with the prefix included
6.
Hungarian language
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Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is spoken by communities of Hungarian people in neighbouring countries. Like Finnish and Estonian, it belongs to the Uralic language family, its closest relatives being Mansi and it is one of several European languages not part of the Indo-European languages, and the most widely-spoken European language that does not belong to the Indo-European family. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar or magyar nyelv, the word Magyar is used as an English and Hungarian word to refer to Hungarian people as an ethnic group. Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family, the name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur, there are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian /aː/ corresponds to Khanty /o/ in certain positions, for example, Hungarian ház house vs. Khanty xot house, and Hungarian száz hundred vs. Khanty sot hundred. The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular, during the later half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian. Following an academic debate known as Az ugor-török háború, the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, foremost based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz. The traditional view argues that the Hungarian language separated from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium b. c. e. in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from settled hunters to nomadic pastoralists, in Hungarian, Iranian loans date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include tehén ‘cow’, tíz ‘ten’, tej ‘milk’, increasing archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan found in the previous decades confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and Ural Mountains. The Onogurs later had a influence on the language, especially between the 5th-9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied, and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic, e. g. borjú ‘calf’, dél ‘noon, many words related to agriculture, to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a dramatic way during these 300 years. After the arrival of the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin the language came into contact with different speech communities, Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians who settled in Hungary during the 12th-13th centuries, e. g. koboz ‘cobza’, komondor ‘mop dog’. Hungarian borrowed many words from especially the neighbouring Slavic languages, in exchange, these languages also borrowed words from Hungarian, e. g. Serbo-Croatian ašov from Hung ásó ‘spade’. Approximately 1. 6% of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin, on the basis of the growing genetic evidence, the accepted origin theory is contested by geneticists too
7.
Ukrainian language
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Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
8.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
9.
Union of Transylvania with Romania
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The Union of Transylvania with Romania was declared on December 11918 by the assembly of the delegates of ethnic Romanians held in Alba Iulia. The national holiday of Romania, the Great Union Day occurring on December 1, the holiday was established after the Romanian Revolution, and marks the unification not only of Transylvania, but also of the provinces of Banat, Bessarabia and Bukovina with the Romanian Kingdom. These other provinces had all joined with the Kingdom of Romania earlier in 1918, the planned border followed a line some 20-40 kilometres west of the present Hungarian-Romanian border, but joined river Tisza in the South, thus granting the whole of Banat to Romania. The offensive is soon halted by Austrian-Hungarian and German forces, in return, with a combined push from Transylvania and from Bulgaria, the Central Powers occupy Wallachia, including Bucharest. The Romanian capital temporarily moves to Iaşi, December 1916 - The German offensive is stopped along the Mărăşeşti-Galaţi line. May–July 1917 - Romanian troops halt a German offensive and push back to the last trench line. December 9,1917 - Romania sign armistice with Central Powers January 1918 - US President Woodrow Wilson condemns any secret treaties, March 26–28,1918 - A Congress of Nationalities of Austria-Hungary takes place in Rome. A motion is passed, demanding the recognition of the right of nation to constitute into a national state. April 91918 - Bessarabia, after an independence from Russia. Romanian and some minority deputies vote for, while the majority of the minorities representatives abstain,2 Ukrainian and 1 Bulgarian deputies vote against. The declaration is co-signed by the prime-minister Alexandru Marghiloman for the Romanian government, may 181918 - A Peace Treaty is signed between the Central Powers and the Kingdom of Romania, to replace the five-month-old armistice. Romania recovers its pre-war territory occupied by the Central Powers in December 1916, except for Dobruja, the treaty is not ratified by Romania, in the hope that the tide of the war would turn the other way. The Central Powers, in accordance to the treaty, begin to pull out its troops from the occupied Wallachia. It is recognized as the exponent of the interests of the Romanian nation of Austria-Hungary by France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Italy, the four powers of the Entente. September 2,1918 - A Congress of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Romanians, Serbs, Croatians, a resolution demanding the division of the Austria-Hungary and the liberation of its peoples is passed. October 12,1918 - The Executive Committee of the National Romanian Party of Austria-Hungary, to this end the National Romanian Party forms an Action Committee, seated in Arad, and presided by Vasile Goldiş. The Manifesto fails to achieve its goal, being regarded as a step that comes way too late, National Councils spring up throughout Austria-Hungary, and prefer to negotiate directly with the Entente powers, rather than with the failing Central Government. Iuliu Maniu, a preeminent Transylvanian politician, gathers in Vienna 70,000 Transylvanian soldiers from the Austrian-Hungarian Army, october 31,1918 - A new government, led by Károlyi Mihály, is formed in Budapest, with the democrat Oszkár Jászi as Minister of Nationalities
10.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
Second Vienna Award
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The Second Vienna Award was the second of two territorial disputes arbitrated by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Rendered on 30 August 1940, it reassigned the territory of Northern Transylvania from Romania to Hungary, the new Magyar nation-state of Hungary was about a third the size of former Hungary, and millions of ethnic Magyars were to be left outside the Hungarian borders. Many historically important areas of Hungary were assigned to countries. The Treaty and its consequences dominated Hungarian public life and political culture in the inter-war period, the alliance with Nazi Germany made possible Hungarys regaining of southern Czechoslovakia in the First Vienna Award of 1938 and Subcarpathia in 1939. But neither that nor the subsequent military conquest of Carpathian Ruthenia in 1939 satisfied Hungarian political ambitions and these awards allocated only a fraction of the territories lost by the Treaty of Trianon, anyway the loss that the Hungarians resented the most was that of Transylvania ceded to the Romanians. However, the Hungarian government interpreted the fact that Romania gave up some areas finally as an admission that it no longer insisted on keeping its national territory intact under pressure. Thus, the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina inspired Budapest to escalate its efforts to resolve the question of Transylvania, Hungary hoped to gain as much of Transylvania as possible, but the Romanians would have none of that and submitted only a small region for consideration. Eventually, the Hungarian-Romanian negotiations fell through entirely, after this, the Romanian government asked Italy and Germany to arbitrate. Meanwhile, the Romanian government had acceded to Italys request for territorial cessions to Bulgaria, on 7 September, under the Treaty of Craiova, the Cadrilater was ceded by Romania to Bulgaria. On 1 July 1940, Romania repudiated the Anglo-French guarantee of 13 April 1939, the next day Carol II addressed a letter to Hitler suggesting Germany send a military mission to Romania and renew the alliance of 1883. Germany used Romanias new desperation to force a settlement of the territorial disputed produced by the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 in favour of Germanys old allies, Hungary, the Romanian foreign minister at the time was Mihail Manoilescu and the German minister plenipotentiary in Bucharest was Wilhelm Fabricius. In accordance with German wishes, Romania began negotiations with Hungary at Turnu Severin on 16 August, the initial Hungarian claim was 69,000 km² of territory with 3,803,000 inhabitants, almost two thirds Romanian. Talks were broken off on 24 August, the Romanians accepted and Foreign Ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop of Germany and Galeazzo Ciano of Italy met on 30 August 1940 at the Belvedere Palace in Vienna. The two powers reduced the Hungarian demands to 43,492 km² with a population of 2,667,007, a Romanian crown council met overnight on 30–31 August to accept the arbitration. At the meeting, Iuliu Maniu demanded that Carol II abdicate, the population statistics in Northern Transylvania and the changes following the award are presented in detail in the next section. The rest of Transylvania, known as Southern Transylvania, with 2,274,600 Romanians and 363,200 Hungarians remained Romanian, the territory in question covered an area of 43,104 km². The 1930 Romanian census registered for this region a population of 2,393,300, in 1941 the Hungarian authorities conducted a new census which registered a total population of 2,578,100. Both censuses asked separately about language and nationality, the results of the two censuses are summarized in the following table
12.
Stephen I of Hungary
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Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen, was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first King of Hungary from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038. The year of his birth is uncertain, but many details of his life suggest that he was born in or after 975 in Esztergom, at his birth, he was given the pagan name Vajk. The date of his baptism is unknown and he was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife, Sarolt, who was descended from the prominent family of the gyulas. Although both of his parents were baptized, Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian and he married Gisela of Bavaria, a scion of the imperial Ottonian dynasty. After succeeding his father in 997, Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative, Koppány and he defeated Koppány mainly with the assistance of foreign knights, including Vecelin, Hont and Pázmány, but also with help from native lords. He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II, in a series of wars against semi-independent tribes and chieftains—including the Black Hungarians and his uncle, Gyula the Younger—he unified the Carpathian Basin. He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing the troops of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor. Stephen established at least one archbishopric, six bishoprics and three Benedictine monasteries, thus the Church in Hungary developed independently of the archbishops of the Holy Roman Empire and he encouraged the spread of Christianity with severe punishments for ignoring Christian customs. His system of administration was based on counties organized around fortresses. Hungary, which enjoyed a period of peace during his reign, became a preferred route for pilgrims. He survived all of his children and he died on 15 August 1038 and was buried in his new basilica, built in Székesfehérvár and dedicated to the Holy Virgin. His death caused civil wars which lasted for decades and he was canonized by Pope Gregory VII, together with his son, Emeric, and Bishop Gerard of Csanád, in 1083. Stephen is a saint in Hungary and the neighboring territories. In Hungary, his feast day is also a holiday commemorating the foundation of the state. Stephens birth date is uncertain because it was not recorded in contemporaneous documents, Hungarian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three different years,967,969 and 975. Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force, however, this identification is not unanimously accepted, historian György Györffy states that it was not Sarolts father, but his younger brother, who was baptized in the Byzantine capital. Stephen was born as Vajk, a derived from the Turkic word baj, meaning hero, master. Stephens Greater Legend narrates that he was baptized by the saintly Bishop Adalbert of Prague, however, Saint Adalberts nearly contemporaneous Legend, written by Bruno of Querfurt, does not mention this event
13.
Knyaz
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The female form transliterated from Bulgarian and Russian is knyaginya, kniahynia in Ukrainian, kneginja in Slovene, Croatian and Serbian. In Russian, the daughter of a knyaz is knyazhna, in Ukrainian is kniazivna, in Russian, the son of a knyaz is knyazhich. The title is pronounced and written similarly in different European languages, in Croatian, Bosnian and West Slavic languages, such as Polish, the word has later come to denote lord, and in Czech, Polish and Slovak also came to mean priest as well as duke. In Sorbian it means simply Mister, today the term knez is still used as the most common translation of prince in Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian literature. Knez is also found as a surname in former Yugoslavia, in Finnish knyaz is translated more like the word ruhtinas. Ruhtinas comes from Proto-Germanic word druhtinaz, what can be translated as warlord, in Finland tsar was officially called as suuriruhtinas after the Grand Principality of Finland. Suuriruhtinas in English means grand prince, in Russian velikiy knyaz, the meaning of the term changed over the course of history. Initially the term was used to denote the chieftain of a tribe, later, with the development of feudal statehood, it became the title of a ruler of a state, and among East Slavs, for example, of Kievan Rus. In medieval Latin sources the title was rendered as either rex or dux, in Bulgaria, Simeon took the title of tsar in 913. In Kievan Rus, as the degree of centralization grew, the acquired the title Velikii Knyaz. He ruled a Velikoe Knyazivstvo, while a ruler of its vassal constituent was called udelny knyaz or simply knyaz, as noted above, the title knyaz or kniaz became a hereditary noble title in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Following the union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, notable holders of the title kniaź include Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. As the Tsardom of Russia gained dominion over much of former Kievan Rus, from the mid-18th century onwards, the title Velikii Kniaz was revived to refer to sons and grandsons of Russian Emperors. See titles for Tsars family for details, Kniaz continued as a hereditary title of Russian nobility patrilineally descended from Rurik or Gediminas. Members of Rurikid or Gedyminid families were called princes when they ruled tiny quasi-sovereign medieval principalities, after their demesnes were absorbed by Muscovy, they settled at the Moscow court and were authorised to continue with their princely titles. After 1801, with the incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire, similarly, many petty Tatar nobles asserted their right to style themselves kniazes because they descended from Genghis Khan. See also Velikiy Knyaz article for more details, finally, within the Russian Empire of 1809-1917, Finland was officially called Grand Principality of Finland. In the 19th century, the Serbian term knez and the Bulgarian term knyaz were revived to denote semi-independent rulers of countries, such as Alexander Karađorđević
14.
Bogdan I of Moldavia
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Bogdan I, or Bogdan the Founder, was the first independent ruler, or voivode, of Moldavia in the 1360s. He had initially been the voivode, or head, of the Vlachs in Maramureș in the Kingdom of Hungary, however, when the first certain record was made of him in 1343, he was mentioned as a former voivode who had become disloyal to Louis I of Hungary. He invaded the domains of a Vlach landowner who remained loyal to the king in 1349, four years later, he was again mentioned as voivode in a charter, which was the last record of his presence in Maramureș. Bogdan and his retainers left Maramureș for Moldavia between 1359 and 1365, Moldavia had been under the rule of Sas of Moldavia, a vassal of Louis I of Hungary, but the local Vlachs were opposed to the Hungarian suzerainty. Bogdan expelled Sass son, Balc, by force and seized the throne, in retaliation, Louis I confiscated Bogdans estates in Maramureș in 1365. Bogdan reigned as the first voivode of Moldavia and he did not accept the overlordship of Louis I of Hungary, transforming Moldavia into the second independent Romanian principality. Bogdans early life is subject to scholarly debates, according to a theory, Bogdan was descended from a Vlach family, native to Maramureș. His ancestral estates formed a valley knezate with its center in Cuhea, according to a concurrent theory, Bogdan was identical with one Voivode Bogdan, son of Mikola. Historian Pál Engel says that Voivode Bogdan led a group of Vlachs from Serbia to Hungary on this occasion. The royal charter neither referred to Bogdans ethnicity, nor mentioned large groups of Vlachs, historian Victor Spinei emphasizes that the similitude of the names is insufficient to identify Bogdan, son of Mikola, with Bogdan, the future voivode of Moldavia. At Cuhea, the ruins of a church and a house were unearthed. The church was dedicated to King St Stephen, the oldest parts of the manor house were built in the late 13th century, but it was enlarged in the middle of the next century. Bogdans domain in Maramureș was described in a charter, issued on 2 February 1365. It listed Ieud, Bachkow, two Vișeus, Moisei, Borșa and Keethzeleste among Bogdans villages, the list shows that Bogdans domain was situated along the upper courses of the rivers Iza and Vișeu. When Charles Is son, Louis I of Hungary, ascended the throne in July 1342, at that time, the Vlach knezes, or chiefs, of Maramureş elected their voivodes from among their number. The document referred to a debate between Bogdan and János Kölcsei, the castellan of Visk, but the causes and exact circumstances of the debate are unknown. According to historians Radu Carciumaru and Victor Spinei, Louis Is attempts to limit the voivodes privileges caused the conflict. Spinei writes that the king exploited the conflicts between the leading Vlach families to depose Bogdan with the assistance of local knezes, thus hindering him from rising up in open rebellion
15.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
16.
Romanians
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Romanians are natives of Romania that share a common Romanian culture, ancestry, and speak the Romanian language as a mother tongue, as well as by citizenship or by being subjects to the same country. Just under 89% of Romanias population identified as Romanian in the 2011 Romanian Census, in one interpretation of the census results in Moldova, Moldovans are counted as Romanians, which would mean that the latter form part of the majority in that country as well. Romanians are also a minority in several nearby countries. Inhabited by the ancient Dacians, todays territory of Romania was conquered by the Roman Empire in 106, the Roman administration withdrew two centuries later, under the pressure of the Goths and Carpi. Two theories account for the origin of the Romanian people, according to the first theory, the Romanians are descended from indigenous populations that inhabited what is now Romania and its immediate environs, Thracians and Roman legionnaires and colonists. This process was concluded by the 10th century when the assimilation of the Slavs by the Daco-Romanians was completed. The south-of-the Danube theory usually favours northern Albania and/or Moesia as the specific places of Romanian ethnogenesis. Small genetic differences were found among Southeastern European populations and especially those of the Dniester–Carpathian region. The genetic affinities among Dniester–Carpathian and southeastern European populations do not reflect their linguistic relationships, according to the report, the results indicate that the ethnic and genetic differentiations occurred in these regions to a considerable extent independently of each other. The entire Balkan peninsula was annexed by the Ottoman Empire, however, Moldavia and Wallachia were allowed a certain degree of temporary autonomy. Transylvania, a region inhabited by a slight majority of Romanian speakers had been part of the Austro-Hungarian empire until 1918. The three principalities were united for several months in 1600 under the authority of Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave and this area fell to the Ottoman Turks by the 15th century. Up until 1541, Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary, in 1699 it became a part of the Habsburg lands. By the 19th century, the Austrian Empire was awarded by the Ottomans with the region of Bukovina and, in 1812, in 1821 and 1848, two rebellions occurred, and both failed, but they had an important role in the spreading of the liberal ideology. In 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same ruler – Alexander John Cuza and were thus unified de facto, the newly founded Kingdom of Romania—led by the Hohenzollern prince Carol I—fought a War of Independence against the Ottomans, and was recognised in 1878. Although allied with Austria-Hungary, Romania refused to go to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers, in 1916, Romania joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente. As a result, at the end of the war, Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina were awarded to Romania, resulting in Greater Romania. As of 1920, Romanian people were believed to number over 15 million in the Romania region, larger than the populations of Sweden, Denmark, the eastern territory losses were facilitated by the Molotov-Ribbentrop German-Soviet non-aggression pact
17.
Hungarians
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Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin
18.
Ukrainians
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Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term Ukrainians to all its citizens, also among historical names of the people of Ukraine Rusyns, Cossacks, etc. can be found. According to some definitions, a descriptive name for the inhabitants of Ukraine is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered among the bloodline of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are another closely related group, the ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century after their territory obtained distinctive statehood in 1917. People of these territories were usually called Rus or Rusyns, the Ukrainian language appeared in the 14th – 16th centuries, but at that time, it was mostly known as Ruthenian, like its brothers. In the 16th – 17th centuries, with the establishment of the Zaporizhian Sich, however, the ethnonym Ukrainians and the linguonym Ukrainian were used only occasionally, and the people of Ukraine usually continued to call themselves and their language Ruthenian. This official name did not spread widely among the peasantry constituted the majority of the population. Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as Ukraine and to themselves, in areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century, Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer. The modern name derives from Ukrayina, a name first documented in 1187. Several scientific theories attempt to explain the etymology of the term, according to some new alternative Ukrainian historians such as Hryhoriy Pivtorak, Vitaly Sklyarenko and other scholars, translate the term u-kraine as in-land, home-land or our-country. The name in this context derives from the word u-kraina in the sense of domestic region, in the last few centuries the population of Ukraine experienced periods of Polonization and Russification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity. Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where make up over three-quarters of the population. The inhabitants of the Kuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities, Ukrainian, Russian, and Cossack, approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in the Russian Far East in an area known historically as Green Ukraine. According to some assumptions, an estimated number of almost 2.1 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America. Large numbers of Ukrainians live in Brazil, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Argentina, Belarus, Portugal, there are also Ukrainian diasporas in the UK, Australia, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Ireland, Sweden and the former Yugoslavia. Today, large ethnic Ukrainian minorities reside in Russia, Canada, Ukrainians have one of the largest diasporas in the world. The East Slavs emerged from the undifferentiated early Slavs with the Slavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the East Slavs were united in the Kievan Rus during the 9th to 13th centuries. East Slavic tribes cited as proto-Ukrainian include the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, the Gothic historian Jordanes and 6th-century Byzantine authors named two groups that lived in the south-east of Europe, Sclavins and Antes
19.
Romani people
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The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym Gypsies, which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity. Romani are dispersed, with their populations in Europe – especially Central, Eastern and Southern Europe including Turkey, Spain. Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas, there are an estimated one million Roma in the United States, and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes some Romani descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the Inquisition in the colonial era, in migrations since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and to Canada. In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora, the Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large, many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two, those varieties are sometimes called Para-Romani. French bohème, bohémien, from the Kingdom of Bohemia, whence they came, Rom means man or husband in the Romani, it has the variants dom and lom, related with the Sanskrit words dam-pati, dama, lom, lomaka loman, roman. Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma, Sanskrit सिनधु is a river or stream of water in general. In particular, it denotes the river Indus and the country around it, in the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning man of the Roma ethnic group or man, husband, with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni, however, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for people of all genders. Romani is the adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as a name, while others do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a r, i. e. rrom. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/, the rr spelling is common in certain institutions, or used in certain countries, e. g. Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians. In the English language, Rom is a noun and an adjective, while Romani is also a noun, both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was initially spelled Rommany, then Romany, while today the Romani spelling is the most popular spelling, occasionally, the double r spelling mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered during recent decades, as a term for the Romani people
20.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
21.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
22.
Divisions of the Carpathians
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Divisions of the Carpathians are categorization of the Carpathian mountains system. Below is an overview of the major subdivisions and ranges of the Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathians are a subsystem of a bigger Alps-Himalaya System that stretches from the western Europe all the way to southern Asia, the last level of the division, i. e. the actual mountain ranges and basins, is usually classified as units. The main divisions are shown in the map on the right, to generalize, there are three major provinces, Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians, and Southern Carpathians. The division is largely undisputed at the lowest level, but various divisions are given for the higher levels, a geomorphological division has been used as much as the data was available, other new physiogeographic divisions were used in other cases. Where the classification of a higher title is known/sure, it is added at the end of the name in brackets. Their geologic features are distinct, but multiple traditions, languages and nationalities have developed overlapping variants for the divisions. In Romania, it is usual to divide the Eastern Carpathians in Romanian territory into three groups, instead in Outer and Inner Eastern Carpathians. But it is not a region and its inclusion is disputed in some sources. The Serbian Carpathians are sometimes considered part of the Southern Carpathians, with the difficulty of finding their exact subdivisions, they are given only as a list of the final units from the west to the east and south, in a separate listing at the end. In Poland Central Beskidian Piedmont and Lower Beskids belongs to Western Carpathians province, note that there are many variants for the divisions and names of these ranges. Wooded Beskids, Bieszczady or Western Bieszczady + Bukovské vrchy Mts. e. e, the term Bihor Massif is sometimes used for the Apuseni Mountains and Poiana Ruscă. Trascău Mountains RO, Munții Poiana Ruscă Poiana Ruscă Lipova Plateau Bega-Timiș Groove Orăștie Groove, hațeg Depression RO, Munții Banatului Banat Mountains sensu stricto, i. e. Semenic Mountains, Locva Mountains, Anina Mountains and Dognecea Mountains Almăj Mountains Timiș-Cerna Gap, incl. Almăj Depression Caraș Hills RO, Depresiunea Transilvaniei, i. e. Transylvanian Depression, some authors do not consider it to be part of the Carpathians. Mureș-Turda Depression Sibiu Depression Făgăraș Depression Transylvanian Plateau, Târnava Plateau, hârtibaci Plateau and Secașe Plateau Transylvanian Plain, or Transylvanian Plateau sensu stricto Someș Plateau Serbian, Karpatske planine, i. e. Carpathian Mountains. Sometimes considered part of the Southern Carpathians, sometimes not considered part of the Carpathians at all, origin and growth of the Western Carpathian orogenetic wedge during the mesozoic. Geologica Carpathica Special Issues,53, Proceedings of XVII, congress of Carpathian-Balkan Geological Association Bratislava, September 1 -42002 Mazúr, E. Lukniš M. Geomorphological division of SSR and ČSSR. Moravo-Silesian Beskids, Collection of tourist maps 1,50000, geology of the Carpathian Region, pp.106,108,109,172,554, etc
23.
Tisza
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The Tisza or Tisa is one of the main rivers of Central Europe. Once, it was called the most Hungarian river because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary, today, it crosses several national borders. The Tisza begins near Rakhiv in Ukraine, at the confluence of the White Tisa, from there, the Tisza flows west, roughly following Ukraines borders with Romania, then Hungary, and finally Serbia. It traverses Hungary from north to south, a few kilometers south of the Hungarian city of Szeged, it enters Serbia. Finally, it joins the Danube near the village of Novi Slankamen in Vojvodina, the Tisza drains an area of about 156,087 km2 and has a length of 965 km —the largest catchment and greatest length of any of the Danubes tributaries. Its mean annual discharge is 792 m3/s and it contributes about 13% of the Danubes total runoff. Attila the Hun is said to have been buried under a section of the river Tisza. The river was known as the Tisia in antiquity, other ancient names for it included Tissus and Pathissus and it may be referred to as the Theiss in older English references, after the German name for the river, Theiß. It is known as the Tibisco in Italian, and in older French references it is referred to as the Tibisque. Modern names for the Tisza in the languages of the countries it flows through include, Romanian, Tisa, Ukrainian, Тиса, Slovak, Tisa, Hungarian, Tisza, Serbian, Тиса, the length of the Tisza in Hungary used to be 1419 km. It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with curves and turns. After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the regulation of the Tisza which started on August 27,1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was 966 km, in the 1970s, the building of the Tisza Dam at Kisköre started with the purpose of helping to control floods as well as storing water for drought seasons. However, the resulting Lake Tisza became one of the most popular tourist destinations in Hungary since it had similar features to Lake Balaton at drastically cheaper prices and was not crowded, the Tisza is navigable over much of its course. The river opened up for international navigation only recently, before, Hungary distinguished national rivers and international rivers, after Hungary joined the European Union, this distinction was lifted and vessels were allowed on the Tisza. Conditions of navigation differ with the circumstances, when the river is in flood, it is often unnavigable, the Tisza has a rich and varied wildlife. Over 200 species of birds reside in the reserve of Tiszafűred
24.
Alba County
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Alba is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, its capital city being Alba-Iulia with a population of 63,536. Alba means white in Latin and is derived from the name of the city Alba Iulia, in Hungarian, it is known as Fehér megye, and in German as Kreis Karlsburg. In October 31,2011, it had a population of 327,224 and the population density was 52/km². Romanians -89. 9% Hungarians -4. 8% Romani -4. 7% Germans -0. 2% This county has an area of 6,242 km². In the northwestern part there are the Apuseni Mountains, in the part there is the northeastern side of the Parâng group - Șureanu. In the east there is the Transylvanian Plateau with deep but wide valleys, the three main elements are separated by the Mureș River valley. The main rivers are the Mureș River and its tributaries, the Târnava, the Sebeș, sibiu County and Mureș County in the East. Bihor County and Arad County in the West, the predominant industries in the county are, Food industry. The mineral resources exploited in Alba county are metals, salt and construction materials, marble, granite, mining began 2000 years ago on Mt. Kirnik, with well-preserved Roman galleries. A Canadian company attempted an open-pit mine, but abandoned the project around 2007, roșia Montană is a famous locality among mineral collectors for fine native gold specimens. The main tourist attractions in the county are, The city of Alba Iulia, maidens Fair on the Găina Mountain. The Hill With Snails west of Vidra, barren Detunata and Shaggy Detunata The Câlnic Castle and the Castle of Gârbova. The Towns and Churches of Sebeș and Aiud, situated in the Apuseni Mountains, Țara Moților is a region with strong Romanian traditions. The Alba County Council, elected at the 2016 local government elections, is made up of 33 counselors, with the party composition. Notable natives include, Ion Agârbiceanu Lucian Blaga Avram Iancu Alba County on memoria. ro
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Arad County
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Arad is an administrative division of Romania roughly translated into county in the western part of the country on the border with Hungary, mostly in the region of Crișana and few villages in Banat. The administrative center of the county lies in the city of Arad, the Arad County is part of the Danube–Criș–Mureș–Tisa Euroregion. In Hungarian, it is known as Arad megye, in Serbian as Арад / Arad, the county was named after its administrative center, Arad. The county has an area of 7,754 km². The terrain of Arad County is divided into two units that cover almost half of the county each. The eastern side of the county has a hilly to low terrain and on the western side its a plain zone consisting of the Arad Plain, Low Mures Plain. Taking altitude into account we notice that it follows a pattern as it drops as we go from the east to the west of the county from 1489 m to below 100 m. In the east there are the Zarand Mountainsnand the Codru Moma Mountains, all subdivisions of the Apuseni Mountains, alba County and Hunedoara County to the East. Hungary to the West - Békés and Csongrád Counties, average annual temperatures range from 10 °C in the lowlands, the hills and piedmonts 9 °C,8 °C and 6 °C in the low mountains in the area of greatest height. Average amounts of precipitation fall in values between 565–600 mm annually in the lowlands, 700–800 mm annually in the hills and piedmonts, the hydrographic network is composed of the two main rivers plus their tributaries and channels. The main ethnic composition was, as follows, Romanians -83. 88% Hungarians -9. 06% Roma -4. 04% Along with Timiș County it forms one of the most developed regions in Romania. Due to its proximity to the border, it attracts a number of foreign investments. The agricultural potential is greatly put into value, Arad plains being considered one of the most important cereal, the predominant industries in the county are, Machine and automotive components. Municipalities Arad - capital city, population,172,827 Towns Communes www. virtualarad. net
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Bihor County
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Bihor is a county of Romania, in Crișana, with capital city at Oradea. Bihor In 2002, Bihor had a population of 600,246,48. 6% of its population lives in urban areas, lower than the Romanian average. In the East side of the County there are the Apuseni Mountains with heights up to 1,800 m, the heights decrease westwards, passing through the hills an ending in the Romanian Western Plain – the eastern side of the Pannonian plain. The county is mainly the Criș hydrographic basine with the rivers Crișul Repede, Crișul Negru, sălaj County, Cluj County and Alba County in the East. Hungary in the West – Hajdú-Bihar County, satu Mare County in the North. Bihor is one of the wealthiest counties in Romania, with a GDP per capita well above the national average, recently, the economy has been driven by a number of construction projects. Bihor has the lowest unemployment rate in Romania and among the lowest in Europe, with only 2. 4% unemployment, the predominant industries in the county are, Textile industry. In the west side of the county there are mines for extracting coal, the main tourist attractions in the county are, The city of Oradea. The Apuseni Mountains, The Stâna de Vale Resort and the Iada valley, the Caves around Padiș and on the Sighiștel River Valley. Municipalities Beiuș Marghita Oradea – capital city,206,614 Salonta Towns Aleșd Nucet Săcueni Ștei Valea lui Mihai Vașcău
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Cluj County
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Cluj is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Cluj-Napoca. In Hungarian, it is known as Kolozs megye, and in German as Kreis Klausenburg, during Austro-Hungarian administration, before 1918, there was a county with similar name. At the 2011 census, Cluj County had a population of 691,106 inhabitants,66. 3% of the population lives in urban areas, having the fourth highest rate of urbanization in the country, after Hunedoara, Brașov and Constanța. At the 2011 census, the composition was as follows. Hold the majority of the population in Sic, Izvoru Crișului, Sâncraiu, Unguraș, Moldovenești, large ethnic Roma communities are in Cămărașu, Bonțida, Recea-Cristur, Fizeșu Gherlii, Sânpaul, Panticeu, Săcuieu, Frata, Huedin, Mociu, Luna. Cluj County lies in the half of the country, between parallels 47°28 in north and 46°24 in south, meridians 23°39 in west and 24°13 in east. It covers an area of 6,674 km2 unfolded in the zone of three representative natural units, Apuseni Mountains, Someș Plateau and Transylvanian Plain. Cluj County is the 12th largest in the country and occupies 2. 8% of Romanias area. It is bordered to the northeast with Maramureș and Bistrița-Năsăud counties, to the east with Mureș County, to the south with Alba County, and to the west with Bihor and Sălaj counties. The relief is rugged, constituted mostly of units belonging to Someș Plateau and, to a lesser extent. Fields are missing on the territory of Cluj County, being replaced, as step of relief, by well developed terraces and floodplains in the sectors of Someșul Mic. The hydrographic network is represented by rivers, natural lakes and ponds, in the northeastern part of Cluj County, Someșul Mic joins Someșul Mare, upstream of Dej, forming Someș River, which flows into the Tisza to the west. The deep waters are less represented and are characterized by high mineralization, relatively rich mineral springs, with sulphates, calcium and sodium chloride, can be found in Dezmir, Cojocna, Gădălin, Sic, Gherla, Leghia, Someșeni, Turda, etc. Through its location, Cluj County benefits from a continental climate. In the mountain sector, mean annual air temperature is 2 °C, annual thermal amplitudes have values between 17–19 °C in the mountains and grow at 23–25 °C in hilly areas, plateaus and plains. Rainfall is distributed unevenly, with amounts in Turda–Câmpia Turzii. On average, annual values of rainfall reach 600–650 mm in the Transylvania Plain, 650–700 mm in the Someș Plateau, Cluj County has rich and varied natural resources. Iron ores came into use in 1962, by exploitations in Căpușu Mic and Băișoara, being conducted over the years a series of explorations in Vlaha, Săvădisla
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Covasna County
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Covasna is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Sfântu Gheorghe. In 2011, it had a population of 206,261, making it the least populous of Romanias 41 counties, the Hungarians of Covasna are primarily Székelys. Covasna county has an area of 3,710 km². The main part of the consists of mountains from the Eastern Carpathians group. Most localities can be found in the valleys and depressions located along the different rivers crossing the county, the main river is the Olt River, along its banks lies the capital city Sfântu Gheorghe. Vrancea County and Bacău County in the East, Covasna county’s Industry’s main sectors are food industry, ready-made garment and textile, wood and wooden products, metals, machines and automotive suppliers, building materials. Other sectors of industry are chemicals, toys, water, printing, energy, jewelry, industry in Covasna county’s economy is representing 42. 53%. Other privately owned companies in the field of textiles, producing different articles, some of them have their own brand, in 2015 started the Schweighoffer Holzindustrie after investing 150 million EUR in a new plant for primary wood processing. With the rich forested areas, Covasna has a tradition of sawn timber export and production of furniture. Recently created the ProWood Cluster in the interest of the industry, a few years ago automotive industry suppliers were established, with two new plants producing steering wheels and electric circuits for vehicles. This industry can build up its workforce with new students from the technical university in Brasov. Covalact is a nationwide well-known dairy product brand, now owned by Dutch investors, another milk processing plant under brand Olympus, with Greek investors, establishing it’s HQ in the county. Dunapack, a member of the Austrian Prizhorn, supplies corrugated cardboard boxes to almost all branches, from FMCG to fruit, vegetable. While IT&C as a sector is in emerging state, Covasna county’s Strategy for Development plans to use this field of activity as one pillar for development. Many new start-ups are in the area successful deploying large projects for international companies. A large number of young technicians arrive from universities, agriculture represents 4. 83% of Covasna county’s economy, mainly producing varieties of potatoes, several companies being able to supply selected and packaged crops for hyper-markets. Other agricultural products are rapeseed, grains, cabbage, Covasna county, with a large number of mineral water springs, have developed during history a network of spas for treating different health problems, mainly cardio-vascular. There is a potential for development of this field of health
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Dolj County
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Dolj is a county of Romania on the border with Bulgaria, in Oltenia, with the capital city at Craiova. In 2011, it had a population of 660,544, romanians – over 96% Romani – 3% Others almost 1%. This county has an area of 7,414 km2. The entire area is a plain with the Danube on the forming a wide valley crossed by the Jiu River in the middle. Other small rivers flow through the county, each one forming a small valley, There are some lakes across the county and many ponds and channels in the Danube valley. 6% of the area is a desert. Gorj County and Vâlcea County to the north, Bulgaria – Vidin Province to the southwest, Montana and Vratsa provinces to the south. Agriculture is the main industry. The county has a land that is ideal for growing cereals, other industries are mainly located in the city of Craiova, the largest city in southwestern Romania. The countys main industries, Automotive industry – Ford has a factory, heavy electrical and transport equipment – Electroputere Craiova is the largest factory plant in Romania. Aeronautics Chemicals processing Foods and beverages Textiles Mechanical parts and components There are two ports on the shore of the Danube river – Bechet and Calafat
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Giurgiu County
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Giurgiu is a county of Romania on the border with Bulgaria, in Muntenia, with the capital city at Giurgiu. In 2011, it had a population of 265,494, romanians – over 96% Romani –3. 5%, and others. This county has an area of 3,526 km². The county is situated on a plain – the Southern part of the Romanian Plain, the landscape is flat, crossed by small rivers. The southern part is the valley of the Danube which forms the border with Bulgaria, in the North, the Argeş River and Dâmboviţa River flow. Ilfov County and Dâmboviţa County in the North, Bulgaria in the South – Ruse Province and Silistra Province. The county has two big areas of development, one close to the city of Giurgiu – The Free Trade Zone Giurgiu, the predominant industries in the county are, Food and beverages industry. Agriculture is the occupation in the county. Both extensive agriculture, and small scale – for Bucharest markets, is practiced, 59% of the cultivated surface is irrigated. The county recently became famous for its lăutari, especially the group Taraful Haiducilor
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Gorj County
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Gorj is a county of Romania, in Oltenia, with its capital city at Târgu Jiu. In 2011, it had a population of 334,238, romanians – over 98% Roma, others. This county has an area of 5,602 km². The North side of the county consists of mountains from the Southern Carpathians group. In the West there are the Vulcanului Mountains, and in the East there are the Parâng Mountains, the two groups are split by the Jiu River. To the South, the heights decrease through the hills to a plain at the Western end of the Romanian Plain. The main river, which all the smaller rivers, is the Jiu River. Mehedinţi County and Caraş-Severin County to the west, the predominant industries in the county are, Mining equipment industry. In the North of the county coal is extracted, near Motru, there are two big thermo electrical power plants at Rovinari and Turceni, and some hydro-electrical power plants. The county is the biggest electricity producer in Romania with 36% af the countrys electricity, due to the decrease in mining activity, the county has one of the highest unemployment levels in the country. The main touristical destinations are, The city and the area around Târgu Jiu, The Brâncuși monuments, The Tismana Monastery
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