1.
Marburger Schloss
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Landgrafenschloss Marburg, is a castle in Marburg, Hesse, Germany, located on top of Schlossberg. Built in the 11th century as a fort, it became the first residence of Landgraviate of Hesse, Marburg Colloquy had been held here in 1529. The building is used partly as a museum and as an event site. The landmark is located West of the city, begleitband zur Ausstellung im Marburger Landgrafenschloß vom 1. Kleine Schriften aus dem Vorgeschichtlichen Seminar Marburg, Marburg 1996, S. 183–201, ISBN 3-8185-0219-6 Elmar Brohl, Sicherungs- und Wiederherstellungsmaßnahmen an der Festung Marburg. Wiesbaden 1999,2, S. 2–9, ISSN 1436-168X Dieter Großmann, mit Ergänzungen von G. Ulrich Großmann. Veränderte Auflage, Deutscher Kunstverlag, München, Berlin 1999, burgen, Schlösser und Wehrbauten in Mitteleuropa
2.
Marburg
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Marburg is a university town in the German federal state of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district. The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has a population of approximately 72,000, having been awarded town privileges in 1222, Marburg served as capital of the landgraviate of Hessen-Marburg during periods of the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. The University of Marburg was founded in 1527 and dominates the life in the town to this day. The settlement was protected and customs were raised by a castle built during the ninth or tenth century by the Giso. Marburg has been a town since 1140, as proven by coins, from the Gisos, it fell around that time to the Landgraves of Thuringia, residing on the Wartburg above Eisenach. In 1228, the widowed princess-landgravine of Thuringia, Elizabeth of Hungary, chose Marburg as her seat, as she did not get along well with her brother-in-law. The countess dedicated her life to the sick and would become after her death in 1231, aged 24. In 1264, St Elizabeths daughter Sophie of Brabant, succeeded in winning the Landgraviate of Hessen, hitherto connected to Thuringia, Marburg was one of the capitals of Hessen from that time until about 1540. Following the first division of the landgraviate, it was the capital of Hessen-Marburg from 1485 to 1500, Hessen was one of the more powerful second-tier principalities in Germany. Its old enemy was the Archbishopric of Mainz, one of the prince-electors, after 1605, Marburg became just another provincial town, known mostly for the University of Marburg. It became a backwater for two centuries after the Thirty Years War, when it was fought over by Hessen-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel. The Hessian territory around Marburg lost more than two-thirds of its population, Marburg is the seat of the oldest Protestant-founded university in the world, the University of Marburg, founded in 1527. It is one of the university towns in Germany, Greifswald, Erlangen, Jena, and Tübingen, as well as the city of Gießen. In 1529, Philipp I of Hesse arranged the Marburg Colloquy, to propitiate Martin Luther, when Romanticism became the dominant cultural and artistic paradigm in Germany, Marburg became interesting once again, and many of the leaders of the movement lived, taught, or studied in Marburg. They formed a circle of friends that was of importance, especially in literature, philology, folklore. Most famous internationally, however, were the Brothers Grimm, who collected many of their fairy tales here, the original building inspiring his drawing Rapunzels Tower stands in Amönau near Marburg. Across the Lahn hills, in the area called Schwalm, the costumes of little girls included a red hood, in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Prince-elector of Hessen had backed Austria. Prussia won and took the opportunity to invade and annex the Electorate of Hessen north of the Main River, however, the pro-Austrian Hesse-Darmstadt remained independent
3.
Hesse
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Hesse or Hessia is a federal state of the Federal Republic of Germany, with just over six million inhabitants. The state capital is Wiesbaden, the largest city is Frankfurt am Main, the English name Hesse originates in the Hessian dialects. The variant Hessia comes from the medieval Latin Hassia, the German term Hessen is used by the European Commission because their policy is to leave regional names untranslated. The term Hesse ultimately derives from a Germanic tribe called the Chatti, an inhabitant of Hesse is called a Hessian. The synthetic element hassium, number 108 on the table, is named after the state of Hesse. As early as the Paleolithic period, the Central Hessian region was inhabited, due to the favorable climate of the location, people lived there about 50,000 years ago during the last glacial period, as burial sites show from this era. Finds of paleolitical tools in southern Hesse in Rüsselsheim suggest Pleistocene hunters about 13,000 years ago, the Züschen tomb is a prehistoric burial monument, located between Lohne and Züschen, near Fritzlar, Hesse, Germany. Classified as a grave or a Hessian-Westphalian stone cist, it is one of the most important megalithic monuments in Central Europe. Dating to the fourth millennium BC, it belongs to the Late Neolithic Wartberg culture. An early Celtic presence in what is now Hesse is indicated by a mid-fifth-century BC La Tène style burial uncovered at Glauberg, the region was later settled by the Germanic Chatti tribe around the first century BC, and the name Hesse is a continuation of that tribal name. The ancient Romans had a camp in Dorlar, and in Waldgirmes directly on the eastern outskirts of Wetzlar was a civil settlement under construction. Presumably, the government for the occupied territories of the right bank of Germania was planned at this location. The governor of Germania, at least temporarily, likely had resided here, the settlement appears to have been abandoned by the Romans after the devastating Battle of the Teutoburg Forest failed in the year 9 AD. The Chatti were also involved in the Revolt of the Batavi in 69 AD, Hessia occupies the northwestern part of the modern German state of Hesse, its borders were not clearly delineated. Its geographic center is Fritzlar, it extends in the southeast to Hersfeld on the Fulda river, in the north to past Kassel and up to the rivers Diemel, to the west, it occupies the valleys of the rivers Eder and Lahn. It measured roughly 90 kilometers north-south, and 80 north-west, the area around Fritzlar shows evidence of significant pagan belief from the first century on. Excavations have produced a horse burial and bronze artifacts, a possible religious cult may have centered on a natural spring in Geismar, called Heilgenbron, the name Geismar itself may be derived from that spring. By 650, the Franks were establishing themselves as overlords, which is suggested by evidence of burials
4.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
5.
Disputation
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In the scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages, disputations offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences. Fixed rules governed the process, they demanded dependence on traditional written authorities, a significant category of disputations took place between Christian and Jewish theologians as a form of both theological and philosophical debate and proselytization. Often, the Christian side was represented by a recent convert from Judaism, the only way for the Jewish side to win was to force a draw by drawing the Christian side into a position in which it was necessary to deny the Old Testament to win, committing heresy. The commission of Christian theologians condemned the Talmud to be burned and on June 17,1244,1263 – the Disputation of Barcelona before King James I of Aragon, between the monk Pablo Christiani and Rabbi Moses ben Nachman. At the end of disputation, king awarded Nachmanides a monetary prize, nevertheless, the Dominicans claimed the victory and Nachmanides was exiled and his report of the proceedings was condemned and burned. A committee appointed by the king censored the passages from the Talmud they deemed offensive,1375 – public disputations held at Burgos and Avila by Moses Cohen de Tordesillas with converts from Judaism John of Valladolid and Abner of Burgos. 1413 – the Disputation of Tortosa in Spain, staged by the Antipope Benedict XIII, as a result, the Pope gave instructions by which all books of the Talmud would be handed over to his functionaries for censorship. Martin Luther opened the Protestant Reformation by demanding a disputation upon his 95 theses,31 October 1517, although presented as a call to an ordinary scholastic dispute, the oral debate never occurred. During a convention held at Heidelberg in April,1518, Luther directed a dispute on 28 theological and 12 philosophical theses and he was successful in winning over Johannes Brenz and the Dominican Martin Bucer. Johann Eck became involved in a literary contest with Andreas Karlstadt, Eck came to Leipzig with one attendant, Luther and Karlstadt entered the city accompanied by an army of adherents, mostly students. From 27 June to 4 July Eck and Karlstadt debated the subject of free will, Eck forced his antagonist to make admissions which stultified the new Lutheran doctrine, whereupon Luther himself came forward to assail the dogma of Roman supremacy by divine right. The debate on papal primacy was succeeded by discussions of purgatory, indulgences, penance, on 14 and 15 July, Karlstadt resumed the debate on free will and good works. Finally, Duke George declared the disputation closed, and each of the departed, as usual. Luther gained the support of Melanchthon, the Leipzig Disputation was the last occasion on which the ancient custom of swearing to advance no tenet contrary to Catholic doctrine was observed. In all subsequent debates between Catholics and Protestants, the text of Holy Writ was taken as the authority. This placed the Catholics in a disadvantageous position and this was particularly the case in Switzerland, where Zwingli and his lieutenants organized a number of one-sided debates under the presidency of town councils already won over to Protestantism. Such were the disputations of Zurich,1523, of Swiss Baden,1526, in all of these the result was the abolition of Catholic worship and in their opinion the desecration of churches and religious institutions. The Emperor Charles V tried to bring the religious troubles of Germany to a speedy, as the plague was raging in that city the conference took place in Hagenau
6.
Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
7.
Huldrych Zwingli
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Huldrych Zwingli or Ulrich Zwingli was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, in 1519, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent, in his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. In 1525, Zwingli introduced a new liturgy to replace the Mass. Zwingli also clashed with the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution, historians have debated whether or not he turned Zurich into a theocracy. The Reformation spread to parts of the Swiss Confederation, but several cantons resisted. Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines, in 1529, a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment. Meanwhile, Zwinglis ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers and they met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In 1531 Zwinglis alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons, the cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was ill prepared. Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47 and his legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today. The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwinglis time consisted of thirteen states as well as affiliated areas, unlike the modern state of Switzerland, which operates under a federal government, each of the thirteen cantons was nearly independent, conducting its own domestic and foreign affairs. Each canton formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation and this relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various cantons divided between different confessional camps. Military ambitions gained an additional impetus with the competition to new territory and resources. The wider political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile, for centuries the relationship with the Confederations powerful neighbour, France, determined the foreign policies of the Swiss. Nominally, the Confederation formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire, however, through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War in 1499, the Confederation had become de facto independent. During this time the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement, the religious factions of Zwinglis time debated vociferously the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities. At the same time, Renaissance humanism, with its universal values, within this environment, defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism, Zwingli was born in 1484. Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus, in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland, to a family of farmers and his father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of the community
8.
Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist
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By contrast, the doctrine is rejected by the Radical Reformers and their followers. Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of beliefs led in the 1980s to consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and these consultations included the Catholic Church. Contrary positions were taken by Paschasius Radbertus and Ratramnus, Ratramnus held that the body of Christ was present spiritually but not physically, while Paschasius emphasized the true presence of the body of Christ. This caused a controversy which led to the clarification of the doctrine of the Eucharist. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council used the word transubstantiated in its profession of faith, scholasticism cast Christian theology in the terms of Aristotelianism. Medieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms, for Aristotle, a substance is an individual thing, which may possess accidental forms as non-essential properties. During the later period, the question was debated within the Western Church. Following the Protestant Reformation, it became a topic of division between the various emerging confessions. The Lutheran doctrine of the presence, known as the Sacramental Union, was formulated in the Augsburg Confession of 1530. Luther decidedly supported the doctrine, publishing The Sacrament of the Body, zwinglis view became associated with the term Memorialism, suggesting an understanding of the Eucharist held purely in memory of Christ. Eastern Orthodoxy did not become involved in the prior to the 17th century. It became virulent in 1629, when Cyril Lucaris denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, to counter the teaching of Lucaris, Metropolitan Petro Mohyla of Kiev drew up in Latin an Orthodox Confession in defense of transubstantiation. This Confession was approved by all the Greek-speaking Patriarchs in 1643, and again by the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem. One hymn of the Church, Ave Verum Corpus, greets Christ in the Eucharist as follows, Hail, true body, born of Mary Virgin, nor does its use in the Orthodox Church commit theologians to the acceptance of Aristotelian philosophical concepts. 10.16,11. 23-29 or the discourse in John 6. 26-58, in light of this fact, it teaches that the gifts should be treated with reverence throughout the entirety of the service. We dont know the time in which the change takes place. The Eastern Orthodox Church Synod of Jerusalem declared, We believe the Lord Jesus Christ to be present, not typically, nor figuratively, nor by superabundant grace, the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence is more accurately and formally known as the Sacramental Union. For Lutherans, there is no Sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christs institution and this was first articulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula, Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum
9.
Eucharist
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The Eucharist /ˈjuːkərɪst/ is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches. Through the Eucharistic celebration Christians remember Christs sacrifice of himself on the cross, the elements of the Eucharist, bread and wine, are consecrated on an altar and consumed thereafter. Communicants may speak of receiving the Eucharist, as well as celebrating the Eucharist, Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. While all agree there is no perceptible change in the elements, Catholics believe that they actually become the body. Some Protestants view the Eucharist as an ordinance in which the ceremony is not as a specific channel of divine grace. Do this in remembrance of me, the term Eucharist is that by which the rite is referred by the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr. Today, the Eucharist is the still used by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholics, Anglicans, Presbyterians. Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring either Communion, one remains hungry, another gets drunk. Communion or Holy Communion are used by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation to mean the entire Eucharistic rite. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio, which translates Greek κοινωνία in 1 Corinthians 10,16, the bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ. The phrase appears five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some and it is the term used by the Plymouth Brethren. The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans for the consecrated elements, Sacrament of the Altar is in common use also among Lutherans. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term The Sacrament is used of the rite. Among the many terms used in the Catholic Church are Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. The term Mass is probably derived from the fact that the Roman rite celebrates the Eucharist with unleavened bread and this explains why the Eastern Catholic Liturgies are never referred to as the Mass. Eastern rite Liturgies are celebrated with leavened bread, although the prevailing theory is that it is derived from the Latin word missa, a word used in the concluding formula of Mass in Latin, Ite, missa est. The reverse is more likely. The word dismissal probably came about because the Mass signaled the time for the Catechumens to leave, thus, the term Misa came to imply a mission, because at the end of the Mass the congregation are sent out to serve Christ
10.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
11.
Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse
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Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, nicknamed der Großmütige was a leading champion of the Protestant Reformation and one of the most important of the early Protestant rulers in Germany. Philip was the son of Landgrave William II of Hesse and his second wife Anna of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His father died when Philip was five years old, and in 1514 his mother, after a series of struggles with the Estates of Hesse, the struggles over authority continued, however. To put an end to them, Philip was declared of age in 1518, the power of the Estates had been broken by his mother, but he owed her little else. His education had been imperfect, and his moral and religious training had been neglected. Despite all this, he developed rapidly as a statesman, the first meeting of Philip of Hesse with Martin Luther took place in 1521, at the age of 17, at the Diet of Worms. There he was attracted by Luthers personality, though he had at first little interest in the elements of the gathering. Philip embraced Protestantism in 1524 after a meeting with the theologian Philipp Melanchthon. He then helped suppress the German Peasants War by defeating Thomas Müntzer at the Battle of Frankenhausen, Philip refused to be drawn into the anti-Lutheran league of George, Duke of Saxony, in 1525. At the same time, he united political motives with his religious policy, as early as the spring of 1526, he sought to prevent the election of the Catholic Archduke Ferdinand as Holy Roman Emperor. Although there was no strong popular movement for Protestantism in Hesse, the University of Marburg was founded in the summer of 1527 to be, like the University of Wittenberg, a school for Protestant theologians. Their activities, along with other circumstances, including rumors of war and his suspicions were confirmed to his own satisfaction by a forgery given him by an adventurer who had been employed in important missions by George of Saxony, one Otto von Pack. Both Luther and the chancellor, Gregor Brück, though convinced of the existence of the conspiracy. Nevertheless, he took a part in uniting the Protestant representatives. Before leaving the city he succeeded in forming, on 22 April 1529, Philip was especially anxious to prevent division over the subject of the Eucharist. Through him Huldrych Zwingli was invited to Germany, and Philip thus prepared the way for of the celebrated Marburg Colloquy, the result was that Philip was suspected of a tendency toward Zwinglianism. Philip eagerly embraced Zwinglis plan of a great Protestant alliance to extend from the Adriatic to Denmark to keep the Holy Roman Emperor from crossing into Germany, the arrival of the emperor put an end to these disputes for the time being. Moreover, Bucer fully agreed with the landgrave on the importance of compromise measures in treating the controversy surrounding the Eucharist and this effort resulted in the foundation of, the League of Gotha, then the League of Torgau, and finally the Schmalkaldic League
12.
Diet of Worms
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The Diet of Worms 1521 was an imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire held at the Heylshof Garden in Worms, then an Imperial Free City of the Empire. An imperial diet was a deliberative assembly of the whole Empire. This one is most memorable for the Edict of Worms, which addressed Martin Luther and it was conducted from 28 January to 26 May 1521, with the Emperor Charles V presiding. Other imperial diets took place at Worms in the years 829,926,1076,1122,1495, and 1545, but unless plainly qualified, Luther was summoned by the emperor. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony obtained an agreement that if Luther appeared he would be promised safe passage to and this guarantee was essential after the treatment of Jan Hus, who was tried and executed at the Council of Constance in 1415 despite a promise of safe conduct. Emperor Charles V commenced the Imperial Diet of Worms on 23 January 1521, Luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views. When he appeared before the assembly on 16 April, Johann Eck, the main events of the Diet of Worms relating to Luther took place from 16 to 18 April 1521. On 16 April, Luther arrived in Worms, Luther was told to appear the following day before the Diet at 4 p. m. Dr. Jeromee Schurff, Wittenberg professor in Canon Law, was to act as Luther’s lawyer before the Diet, on 17 April, the imperial marshal, Ulrich von Pappenheim, and the herald, Caspar Sturm came for Luther. Pappenheim reminded Luther that he should speak only in answer to questions from the presiding officer. Eck asked if a collection of books was Luther’s and if he was ready to revoke their heresies, dr. Schurff said, Please have the titles read. Luther requested more time for an answer, so he was given until the next day at 4 p. m. On 18 April, Luther, stating hed prayed for long hours, consulted with friends and mediators, when the counselor put the same questions to him, Luther first apologized that he lacked the etiquette of the court. Then he answered, They are all mine, but as for the second question, Luther went on to place the writings into three categories, Works which were well received by even his enemies, those he would not reject. Books which attacked the abuses, lies and desolation of the Christian world and the papacy, to retract them would be to open the door to further oppression. If I now recant these, then, I would be doing nothing but strengthening tyranny. Luther concluded by saying Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by reason, I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience, according to tradition, Luther is said to have declared, Here I stand, I can do no other, before concluding with God help me
13.
Stephan Agricola
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Stephan Agricola was a Lutheran church reformer. Born in Abensberg, at an age he joined the Augustinian order. As a monk, he studied Augustine deeply, as a student, he went to the universities in Bologna and Venice, where in 1519 he became a Doctor of Theology. He began to preach on whole books of the Bible in 1520 and he was led to Lutheranism through his study of Augustines works on the scriptures. He was accused of Lutheranism as a heresy, although he claimed his independence of Luther, he was arrested and imprisoned in Mühldorf on November 17,1522. In 1523 he escaped and came to Augsburg, where with Urbanus Rhegius he fully accepted the Reformation and translated Johannes Bugenhagens tract ag. He was on the Lutheran side during the Marburg Colloquy, became pastor in Hof in 1532, took part in the meeting at Schmalkalden in 1537 and he was instrumental in introducing the Reformation in the Upper Palatinate, as he was pastor at Sulzbach beginning in 1542. During the Schmalkaldic War, he had to flee to Eisleben, Stephen Agricola was a staunch uncompromising Lutheran, earnest and devoted. His son, Stephen, translated some of Luthers commentaries on the minor prophets
14.
Johannes Brenz
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Johann Brenz was a German theologian and the Protestant Reformer of the Duchy of Württemberg. Brenz was born in the then Imperial City of Weil der Stadt,20 miles west of Stuttgart and he received his education at Heidelberg, where, shortly after becoming magister and regent of the Realistenbursa in 1518, he delivered philological and philosophical lectures. In 1522 Brenz was threatened with a trial for heresy, in the spring of 1524 he received a strong ally in his activity as a Reformer in Johann Isenmann, who became pastor of the parish-church at Hall. The feast of corpus Christi was the first to be discarded, in the German Peasants War, on the other hand, Brenz deprecated the abuse of evangelical liberty by the peasants, pleading for mercy to the conquered and warning the magistracy of their duties. At Christmas the Lords Supper was administered in both kinds, and at Easter of the year the first regulations were framed for the church. Brenz himself prepared in 1528 a larger and a catechism for the young. Henceforth Brenz took part in all the important conferences on the religious situation, in February 1537 he was at Schmalkald, and two months later undertook the difficult but successful task of the reformation of the University of Tübingen. He likewise attended the conference on the use of images held at Urach in September 1537 and he devoted himself with great zeal to his pastoral duties, and side by side with his sermons was evolved a valuable series of expositions of Biblical writings. After the last remnants of the ancient regulations of the church of Hall had been abolished, calls to Leipzig in 1542, to Tübingen in 1543, and to Strasbourg in 1548 were declined in favor of his position at Hall. Brenz had long opposed the adherence of Hall and the margrave to the Schmalkaldic League, gradually, however, his views changed, through the hostile attitude of the emperor. The new Augsburg Interim of the emperor, which Brenz called interitus, recalled him to the scene of action, and he earnestly opposed its adoption. The imperial chancellor, Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, demanded his surrender, escaped on the evening of his forty-ninth birthday,24 June 1548. He hastened to Duke Ulrich, who concealed him in the castle of Hohenwittlingen near Urach, where, under the pseudonym of Joannes Witlingius, he prepared an exposition of Ps. xciii and cxxx. As the emperor was everywhere searching for him, Ulrich sent him by way of Strasbourg to Basel, Duke Christopher called him to Montbéliard, where, in January 1549, Brenz was notified of the death of his wife. The condition of his children induced him to go to Swabia, but owing to the pursuit of the emperor, he was often in danger. There he spent eighteen months under the name of Huldrich Engster, always active for the welfare of the Church and he declined calls to Magdeburg, Königsberg, and England. In the autumn of 1550 he married his second wife Catherine, great was the surprise of the fathers of the council, but they refused to be instructed by those who were to obey them. He was now the right hand of duke Christoph in the reorganization of ecclesiastical and educational affairs in Württemberg, the great church order of 1553–59, containing also the confessio Wirtembergica, in spite of its dogmatism, is distinguished by clearness, mildness, and consideration
15.
Martin Bucer
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Martin Bucer was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order, but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his vows to be annulled. He then began to work for the Reformation, with the support of Franz von Sickingen, Bucers efforts to reform the church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church, and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg. There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell, Wolfgang Capito and he acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli, who differed on the doctrine of the eucharist. Later, Bucer sought agreement on common articles of such as the Tetrapolitan Confession. Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation, through a series of conferences organised by Charles V, he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome. He did not achieve this, as political events led to the Schmalkaldic War, in 1548, Bucer was persuaded, under duress, to sign the Augsburg Interim, which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship. However, he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim, in 1549, Bucer was exiled to England, where, under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer, he was able to influence the second revision of the Book of Common Prayer. He died in Cambridge, England, at the age of 59, although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination, many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own. He is remembered as a pioneer of ecumenism. In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Empire was a state in name only. The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor. The division of power between the emperor and the states made the Reformation in Germany possible, as individual states defended reformers within their territories. In the Electorate of Saxony, Martin Luther was supported by the elector Frederick III, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse—whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine—also supported the Reformation, and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer. The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects, at the same time, he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy. The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the developments within the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It was in an imperial city, Strasbourg, that Martin Bucer began his work
16.
Caspar Hedio
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Caspar Hedio, also written as Kaspar Hedio, Kaspar Heyd, Kaspar Bock or Kaspar Böckel was a German historian, theologian and Protestant reformer. He was born into a family and attended a famous school in Pforzheim. He began his studies in Fribourg and later studied theology in Basel, at that time, he began his relationship with Ulrich Zwingli and corresponded with Martin Luther. He took his doctorate in Mainz and obtained a position as a preacher at the Strasbourg Cathedral in 1523 and his Protestant convictions were made clear when he married Margarete Trenz. In Strasbourg, he collaborated with Wolfgang Capito and Martin Bucer and his influence extended to Alsace, the Margraviate of Baden and the Palatinate. When Philipp Melanchthon went to France, Hedio was asked to accompany him, in 1541, he moved to Regensburg to join Bucer and others in developing Protestant doctrine. As a representative of Strasbourg, he participated in the debate at the Diet of Worms of 1545, Hedio translated many tracts by the Church Fathers, published a chronicle of the early Christian church based on the works of Eusebius and Sozomen and compiled a world history. T. W. Röhrich, Mitteilungen aus der Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche des Elsasses, varrentrapp, Hermann von Wied und sein Reformationsversuch in Köln. F. Roth, Friedrich II. von der Pfalz und die Reformation, J. Adam, Versuch einer Bibliographie Kasper Hedio’s. J. Adam, Evangelische Kirchengeschichte der Stadt Straßburg, U. ö. J. Adam, Evangelische Kirchengeschichte der elsässischen Territorien. Kleine Beiträge zur Geschichte der Grafschaft Hanau-Lichtenberg
17.
Justus Jonas
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Justus Jonas was a German Lutheran theologian and reformer. He was a Jurist, Professor and Hymn writer and he is best known for his translations of the writings of Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon. He accompanied Martin Luther in his final moments, Jonas was born at Nordhausen in present-day Thuringia where he was the son of the burgermeister. His birth name was Jodokus Koch, which he changed according to the custom of German scholars in the sixteenth century. He entered that university in 1506, studied law and the humanities, in 1511 he went to University of Wittenberg, where he took his bachelors degree in law. He returned to Erfurt in Thuringia during 1514 or 1515 was ordained priest In 1518, in 1519, he became Rector of the University of Erfurt. In 1521, he was appointed Probst of All Saints Church at Wittenberg, from 1541 to 1546, he served as superintendent and chief pastor at Halle. It was not, however, until after the Leipzig Disputation with Johann Eck that Martin Luther won his allegiance and he accompanied Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, and there was appointed professor of canon law at Wittenberg. During Luthers stay in the Wartburg, Jonas was one of the most active of the Wittenberg reformers, Jonas also assisted Luther with his translation of the Bible into the German language. One of the eight hymns in the first Lutheran hymnal is attributed to him, In Jesu Namen wir heben an and his hymn Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält, a paraphrase of Psalm 124, was published in the Erfurt Enchiridion in 1524. It was used by composers as a base for organ and choral music. Jonas was busied in conferences and visitations during the twenty years. Martin Luther became severely ill and visited his friend during Christmas in 1545, Jonas was present at Luthers deathbed at Eisleben, and preached the funeral sermon, in a procession Luthers body was taken to Halle and buried in Wittenberg. In the same year Jonas was banished from the duchy by Maurice, from that time until his death, Jonas was unable to secure a satisfactory living. He wandered from place to place preaching, and finally went to Eisfeld, Thuringia, christian humanism Briefwechsel des Justus Jonas, gesammelt und bearbeitet von G. Kawerau. Justus Jonas & Apology of the Augsburg Confession, G. Kaweraus article, Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, ed.3, with bibliography. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Jonas
18.
Philip Melanchthon
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He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. Along with Luther, he is the founder of Lutheranism. Both rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, but not the belief that the body and blood of Christ are present with the elements of bread and wine in the Lords Supper. The Lutheran view of sacramental union contrasts with the understanding of the Roman Church that the bread and wine cease to be bread, Melanchthon made the distinction between law and gospel the central formula for Lutheran evangelical insight. By the law, he meant Gods requirements both in Old and New Testament, the meant the free gift of grace through faith in Jesus Christ. He was born Philipp Schwartzerdt on 16 February 1497, at Bretten, near Karlsruhe and his birthplace, along with almost the whole city of Bretten, was burned in 1689 by French troops during the War of the Palatinate Succession. The towns Melanchthonhaus was built on its site in 1897, in 1507 he was sent to the Latin school at Pforzheim, where the rector, Georg Simler of Wimpfen, introduced him to the Latin and Greek poets and to Aristotle. He and a brother were brought to Pforzheim to live with his maternal grandmother, the next year he entered the University of Heidelberg, where he studied philosophy, rhetoric, and astronomy/astrology, and became known as a scholar of Greek. Denied the masters degree in 1512 on the grounds of his youth, he went to Tübingen, where he continued humanistic studies but also worked on jurisprudence, mathematics, while there he was also taught the technical aspects of astrology by Johannes Stöffler. After gaining a degree in 1516 he began to study theology. Under the influence of Reuchlin, Erasmus, and others, he convinced that true Christianity was something different from the scholastic theology as taught at the university. He became a conventor in the contubernium and instructed younger scholars and he also lectured on oratory, on Virgil and on Livy. His first publications were an edition of Terence and a Greek grammar and he studied the Scriptures, especially of Paul, and Evangelical doctrine. Attending the disputation of Leipzig as a spectator, he participated with his comments. After his views were attacked by Johann Eck, Melanchthon replied based on the authority of Scripture in his Defensio contra Johannem Eckium and he married Katharina Krapp, daughter of Wittenbergs mayor, on 25 November 1520. In the beginning of 1521 in his Didymi Faventini versus Thomam Placentinum pro M. Luthero oratio and he argued that Luther rejected only papal and ecclesiastical practises which were at variance with Scripture. But while Luther was absent at Wartburg Castle, during the disturbances caused by the Zwickau prophets, the appearance of Melanchthons Loci communes rerum theologicarum seu hypotyposes theologicae was of subsequent importance for Reformation. Melanchthon presented the new doctrine of Christianity under the form of a discussion of the thoughts of the Epistle to the Romans
19.
Johannes Oecolampadius
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Johannes Oecolampadius, IPA, or Oekolampad was a German Reformed theologian religious reformer from the Electorate of the Palatinate. He worked with Erasmus and Zwingli, and also influenced a generation of Protestants, including Heinrich Bullinger. Theologically he was considered to be close to Zwingli, with whom he shared a friendly attitude towards Mary and Marian veneration. His real name was Hussgen or Heussgen, a name first changed to Hausschein and then into the Greek equivalent, which is derived from οίκο- oiko-, house and he was born in Weinsberg, then part of the Electorate of the Palatinate. He attended school at Weinsberg and Heilbronn, and then, intending to study law, he went to Bologna, enthusiastic about the new learning, he passed from the study of Greek to that of Hebrew, taking his bachelors degree in 1503. He became cathedral preacher at Basel in 1515, serving under Christoph von Utenheim, in Basel, Oecolampadius became an editorial assistant and Hebrew consultant to Erasmus first edition of the Greek New Testament, and wrote that editions epilogue in praise of his master. From the beginning the sermons of Oecolampadius centred on the atonement, in 1518 he published his Greek Grammar. Two years later, he received an invitation to become preacher in the church in Augsburg. Oecolampadius returned to Basel in November 1522, as vicar of St Martins, lecturing on Isaiah, he condemned current ecclesiastical abuses, and in a public disputation gained such success that Erasmus writing to Zürich said, Oecolampadius has the upper hand amongst us. At last Oecolampadius was able to refrain from some practices he believed to be superstitious, in the midst of these hopes and difficulties Oecolampadius married, in the beginning of 1528, Wibrandis Rosenblatt, the widow of Ludwig Keller, who proved a suitable wife. After his death she married Wolfgang Fabricius Capito, and, when Capito died, in 1529 he became officially the Antistes of the Reformed Church in Basel. The Anabaptists claimed Oecolampadius for their views, but in a disputation with them he dissociated himself from most of their positions and he died on 24 November 1531. Oecolampadius was considered to be a brilliant Protestant theologian, who conversed with Johannes Eck, as a theologian, he did not have the glamour of Luther, Zwingli or John Calvin, but he became a trusted religious leader. He was respected even among Catholic scholars of his time and was quoted over forty years after his death by the Jesuit St. Peter Canisius in his work De Maria Virgine, with Zwingli he represented the Swiss at the Marburg Colloquy. To Luthers doctrine of the ubiquity of Christs body he opposed that of the presence and his views on the Eucharist prompted Luther to publish several sermons on the subject in his 1526 The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ—Against the Fanatics. He did not minutely analyse the doctrine of predestination as Luther, Calvin and Zwingli did, contenting himself with the summary Our Salvation is of God, theologically he was considered to be close to Zwingli, with whom he shared a friendly attitude towards Mary and Marian veneration. He is considered an example of Protestant Marian piety of his time and he calls Mary the mediatrix or mediator of all graces, to whom the Lord had entrusted the treasure of Grace Thesaurus gratiarum. Oecolampadius borrowed from Radulfus Ardens and others the image of Mary as the neck who mediates all graces of Christ to his mystical body, the church
20.
Andreas Osiander
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Andreas Osiander was a German Lutheran theologian. Born at Gunzenhausen, Ansbach, in the region of Franconia, in the same year he began work at an Augustinian convent in Nuremberg as a Hebrew tutor. In 1522, he was appointed to the church of St. Lorenz in Nuremberg, during the First Diet of Nuremberg, he met Albert of Prussia, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, and played an important role in converting him to Lutheranism. He also played a prominent role in the debate led to the city of Nurembergs adoption of the Reformation in 1525. Osiander attended the Marburg Colloquy, the Diet of Augsburg and the signing of the Schmalkalden articles, Osiander lived and worked in Königsberg until his death in 1552. Osianders son Lukas, and grandsons Andreas and Lukas also worked as theologians and his niece married the future Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Osiander published an edition of the Vulgate Bible, with notes, in 1522. In 1533, Brandenburg-Nuernbergische Kirchenordnung vom Jahre 1533 was published, with Osiander assisting in both the material the final editing. This combined order of worship and catechism was the first work to include the Keys section of Luthers Small Catechism, in 1543, Osiander oversaw the publication of the book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Copernicus. He added a preface suggesting that the model described in the book was not necessarily true, or even probable and this was certainly not the opinion of Copernicus, who was probably unaware of the addition. As a result, many readers, unaware that Osiander was the author of the preface, Osiander also did not sign the preface added to Copernicus book, therefore many readers at the time assumed that this is what Copernicus had actually thought himself. In 1550 Osiander published two controversial disputations, De Lege et Evangelio and De Justificatione and these beliefs were maintained after his death by Johann Funck but disappeared after 1566. Osianders view has been described as similar to Eastern Orthodox teachings on theosis, Osiander was a Christian mystic and his theology incorporated the idea of mystical union with Christ and the Word of God. He believed that justification for a Christian believer resulted from Christ dwelling in a person, calvin rejected these views of Osiander, as did Melanchthon and Flacius. Flacius opposing view was that God justifies us by Christs work of obedience on the cross and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Osiander, Andreas. Osiander – a Man for All Churches in an Ecumenical Age by Edward C
21.
Sacramental union
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In Protestant sacramental theology, sacramental union is the relationship between the outward substance or sign of a sacrament and the thing signified by the sacrament. Lutherans believe the sign and thing signified to be locally united, Reformed Christians believe the sign and thing signified to be inseparable, but to be united spiritually rather than locally and bodily. Lutherans maintain that what they believe to be the doctrine of the manducatio indignorum supports this doctrine as well as any other doctrine affirming the Real Presence. The manducatio indignorum is the contention that even unbelievers eating and drinking in the Eucharist really eat and drink the body and blood of Christ. Here, too, out of two kinds of objects a union has taken place, which I shall call a sacramental union, because Christ’s body and this is not a natural or personal union, as is the case with God and Christ. It is also perhaps a different union from that which the dove has with the Holy Spirit, and the flame with the angel and it is asserted in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 and in the Formula of Concord. The Formula of Concord couples the term with the circumlocution used among Lutherans to further define their view, For the reason why, in addition to the expressions of Christ and St. The term consubstantiation has been associated with such a local inclusion of the Body and Blood of Christ in the sacramental bread, Martin Luther distinguished this doctrine from that of transubstantiation and impanation in this way. We do not make Christs body out of the bread, nor do we say that his body comes into existence out of the bread. We say that his body, which long ago was made and came into existence, is present when we say, for Christ commands us to say not, Let this become my body, or, Make my body there, but, This is my body. The Lutheran doctrine of the union is also distinct from the Reformed view. The Calvinistic view of Christs presence in the Lords Supper is that Christ is truly present at the meal and this is in line with their general belief that the finite is not capacious for the infinite. Lutherans, on the hand, describe the Personal Union of the two natures in Christ as sharing their predicates or attributes more fully. The doctrine of the union is more consistent with this type of Christology. Confession Concerning Christs Supper Crypto-Calvinism Eucharistic theologies contrasted Marburg Colloquy Martin Luther Real Presence Luther, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nochfolger, 1883-, pelikan, and Helmut T. Lehmann, gen. eds.55 vols. St. Louis, Concordia Publishing House, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, triglot Concordia, The Symbolical Books of the Ev
22.
Diet of Augsburg
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The Diet of Augsburg were the meetings of the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire held in the German city of Augsburg. Both an Imperial City and the residence of the Augsburg prince-bishops, Emperor Charles V could not bring himself to openly discuss the matters of religious dispute and cause for division throughout Europe so he often stayed away from the sessions of the Diet. Instead he sent his younger brother Ferdinand I to have authority over discussions, the Diet was organized into three separate colleges, Prince-electors, ecclesiastical and secular sovereigns, and imperial cities. However, unlike other diets, the Diet did not possess fixed rules or methods to conduct, tradition for the Diet of Augsburg began to emerge in the 1530s and the sessions were to be conducted under these guidelines. Either the emperor or the estates organized day-to-day business of the diet, the business of the Diet was conducted on three levels, the committees, the colleges, and the plenary session. The plenary sessions or colleges created the committees, this level was staffed by members and/or experts of the Diet, the issue would continue to be discussed independently then collectively by the College of Electors and College of Sovereigns. Once they were able to confer on a decision the College of Cities would be informed, if they also agreed to the decision this would become a final decision and passed to the Emperor. If the Emperor approved this recommendation he could adopted it but if there were any issues or concerns he would send it back, the climate during this time was vastly different from what we see today when the Lutheran church moved to reformation at the assembly of Augsburg. The Diet was inaugurated by the emperor on June 20 and it produced numerous outcomes, most notably the 1530 declaration of the Lutheran estates known as the Augsburg Confession, a central document of Lutheranism that was presented to the emperor. The Ninety-five Theses, published by Martin Luther in 1517, had sparked the Reformation in the German lands, in 1529, however, the emperor signed a successful peace treaty with France. After these successes, Charles aimed to assert his control over what he saw as German religious heresies, at the Diet of Speyer, the Edict of Worms was affirmed, resulting in the Protestation at Speyer enacted by the Lutheran princes. The Augsburg Confession was intended “to be an expression of the faith of the universal Church, “No minister, however, considers himself bound to believe every sentiment contained in these 21 articles, only the fundamental doctrines. 2) Do you believe, that the doctrines of the word of God, are taught in a manner substantially correct. During the Diet, Melanchthon withstood a variety of attacks while formulating the text, according to Joachim Camerarius, his first biographer, he “did not bend the truth to win favor or meet objections, at the same time he avoided unnecessary conflict”. Camerarius also mentions that during the diet, Melanchthon cried when hearing his work during this time of negotiations. There has been a dispute regarding the Augsburg Confession and what type of confession it truly is. One suggestion is that it is a political and theological confession, a second view is that it is a catholic confession that dispensed with minor teachings such as penance. During the 16th century the tensions and relationship that existed between the Emperor, the Pope, the German Princes and the Protestants were quite complex, the confessions of the early centuries of the church were evoked by the Protestant Reformation and of the tensions that existed in the Church
23.
First War of Kappel
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The First War of Kappel was an armed conflict in 1529 between the Protestant and the Catholic cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy during the Reformation in Switzerland. It ended, without any battle having been fought, with the first peace of Kappel, the Catholic cantons in response had formed an alliance with Ferdinand of Austria. Several mediation attempts failed, such as the disputation of Baden in 1526, the last straw was the installation of a Catholic vogt at Baden. Zürich declared war on 8 June, occupied the Thurgau and the territories of the Abbey of St. Gall, by mediation at the Federal Tagsatzung, open war was barely avoided. While the armies were on the field and negotiations were ongoing, johannes Salat of Lucerne, who was an eye-witness, records how the men from both camps fraternised, drinking and talking together. This became a symbol of reconciliation and compromise between confederates. The peace agreement was not exactly favourable for the Catholic party, the tensions remained essentially unresolved, and would flare again in the Second War of Kappel two years later. Second War of Kappel First War of Villmergen Toggenburg War of Second War of Villmergen Sonderbund War
24.
Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available
25.
Christian History
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Christianity Today magazine is an evangelical Christian periodical that was founded in 1956 and is based in Carol Stream, Illinois. The Washington Post calls Christianity Today, evangelicalism’s flagship magazine, Christianity Today magazine has a print circulation of approximately 118,000, of which approximately 36,000 is free, and readership of 260,000, as well as a website at ChristianityToday. com. The New York Times describes Christianity Today as a mainstream evangelical magazine, the first issue of Christianity Today was mailed October 15,1956, and the opening editorial, Why Christianity Today. Stated Christianity Today has its origin in a desire to express historical Christianity to the present generation. Neglected, slighted, misrepresented—evangelical Christianity needs a voice, to speak with conviction and love. A generation has grown up unaware of the truths of the Christian faith taught in the Scriptures. Its first editor was Carl F. H. Henry, notable contributors in its first two decades included contributions from F. F. Bruce, Edward John Carnell, Frank Gaebelein, Walter Martin, John Warwick Montgomery, and Harold Lindsell. Lindsell succeeded Henry as editor and during his editorial administration much attention centered on debates about biblical inerrancy, later editorial leadership came from Kenneth Kantzer, Terry Muck, and David Neff. The current editor is Mark Galli, and the publication now includes print, online, katelyn Beaty is managing editor of the print edition, and Richard Clark is managing editor of news and online journalism. Contents of print and online include feature stories, news ranging from cultural issues from a Christian viewpoint to the church, opinion, reviews. Its presence on the Internet began in October 1994 when it became one of the top 10 content providers on all of AOL, then, in 1996, their website was launched. It was originally named ChristianityOnline. com before becoming ChristianityToday. com, Today ChristianityToday. com serves as the web home for Christianity Today magazine, which now has distinct sections for Local Church Pastors, Reporting, Women, History, and Spanish readers. At the ministrys web home, ChristianityToday, additional web resources include Men of Integrity and Preaching Today. All Christianity Today brands together reach more than 2.5 million people every month when print and digital views are combined, the ministry offers access, both premium and free, to over 100,000 articles and other content on their various websites. A Korean-language edition, Christianity Today Korea, was launched in June 2008, a Portuguese-language edition, Christianity Today Brazil, was launched in October/November 2007. Two international editions of Leadership Journal were launched in 2012, an African edition in September, Books & Culture is published six times a year and is a book review and intellectual journal modeled after the New York Review of Books and New York Times Book Review. According to its page, the magazines circulation is 11,000. It is edited by John Wilson, and notable recent contributors include Mark Noll, Lauren Winner, Alan Jacobs, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Christian History was a journal of the history of Christianity, first issued in January 1982 by the Christian History Institute
26.
Resources about Martin Luther
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This is a list of works by and about Martin Luther, the German theologian. Twelve volumes of German and seven volumes of Latin works, Volume 7,1558, Wittenberg, Thomam Klug Thirteen volumes published between 1555-1558. Eight volumes of German and four of Latin works, two supplementary volumes were published at Eisleben, 1564-1565. Volume 11556, Christians Rhodius Volume 2, Volume 41557, Christians Rhodius D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883-, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe,3 Band. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger,1885, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe,13 Band. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger,1889, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe,25 Band. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger,1902, ed. and trans. by Adolph Spaeth, L. D. Reed, Henry Eyster Jacobs, et al. Select works Vol. II, tr. Henry Cole, London, W. Simkin and R. Marshall,1826. Select works Vol. III, tr. Henry Cole, London, W. Simkin and R. Marshall,1826. St. Louis, Minneapolis, Concordia Publishing House, Fortress Press, D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nochfolger, 1906-61, kolorierte Faksimileausgabe,2 Bände und Begleitband, Taschen Verlag,2002 Biblia Germanica. Faksimilierte Handausgabe nach dem im Besitz der Deutschen Bibelgesellschaft befindlichen Originaldruck, mit zahlreichen Initialen und Holzschnitten des Meisters MS, an deren Gestaltung Luther selbst mitgewirkt hat. Der komplette Originaltext von 1545 in modernem Schriftbild, hrsg. von Hans Volz unter Mitarbeit von Heinz Blanke, Textredaktion Friedrich Kur. Rogner & Bernhard, München 1972, ISBN 3-933070-56-2 Die Luther-Bibel. de D. Martin Luthers Werke, weimar, Verlag Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1930-85. Luthers Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters,2 vols. tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Vol.1 and Vol.2 from Google Books. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers, ISBN 1-59752-601-0 The Letters of Martin Luther, tr. Luthers Letters to Women, ed. K. Zimmermann, tr, a Simple Rite for the Ministry of a Pastor with a Demonically-Afflicted Person from Luther, Letters of Spiritual Counsel
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Ninety-five Theses
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In the Theses, Luther claimed that the repentance required by Christ in order for sins to be forgiven involves inner spiritual repentance rather than merely external sacramental confession. He argued that indulgences lead Christians to avoid true repentance and sorrow for sin and they also, according to Luther, discourage Christians from giving to the poor and performing other acts of mercy, believing that indulgence certificates were more spiritually valuable. Luther may have posted the Theses on the door of All Saints Church. The Theses were quickly reprinted, translated, and distributed throughout Germany and they initiated a pamphlet war with indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel, which spread Luthers fame even further. Luthers ecclesiastical superiors had him tried for heresy, which culminated in his excommunication in 1521 and his breakthrough on these issues would come later, and he did not see the writing of the Theses as the point at which his beliefs diverged from those of the Catholic Church. Martin Luther, professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg and town preacher. In the Catholic Church, practically the only Christian church in Europe at the time, in this system, when Christians sin and confess, they are forgiven and will no longer receive eternal punishment in hell, but may still be liable to temporal punishment. This punishment could be satisfied by the penitent performing works of mercy, if the temporal punishment is not satisfied during life, it would need to be satisfied in purgatory. With an indulgence, this temporal punishment could be lessened, under abuses of the system of indulgences, clergy benefited by selling indulgences and the pope gave official sanction in exchange for a fee. This led to the saying, As soon as the coin in the coffer rings. Theologians at the University of Paris had criticized this saying late in the fifteenth century, earlier critics of indulgences included John Wycliffe, who denied that the pope had jurisdiction over purgatory. Jan Hus and his followers had advocated a more severe system of penance, johannes von Wesel had also attacked indulgences late in the fifteenth century. Political rulers had an interest in controlling indulgences because local economies suffered when the money for indulgences left a given territory, rulers often sought to receive a portion of the proceeds or prohibited indulgences altogether, as Duke George did in Luthers Electoral Saxony. In 1515, Pope Leo X granted a plenary indulgence intended to finance the construction of St. Peters Basilica in Rome and it would apply to almost any sin, including adultery and theft. All other indulgence preaching was to cease for the eight years in which it was offered, indulgence preachers were given strict instructions on how the indulgence was to be preached, and they were much more laudatory of the indulgence than those of earlier indulgences. Luther also had experience with the connected to All Saints Church. By venerating the large collection of relics at the church, one could receive an indulgence and he had preached as early as 1514 against the abuse of indulgences and the way they cheapened grace rather than requiring true repentance. After hearing what Tetzel had said about indulgences in his sermons, Luther began to study the more carefully
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Sermon on Indulgences and Grace
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Martin Luthers Sermon on Indulgences and Grace is a pamphlet written in Wittenberg in the latter part of March,1518 and published in April of that year. The sermon itself was written as Luther directly addressing his audience, the pamphlet was an instant hit and was reprinted 14 times in 1518 alone, in print runs of at least 1,000 copies. It is regarded by many as the starting point of the Reformation. Luther wrote the sermon in German, unlike his 95 Theses and this helped the work quickly reach a wide audience. The sermon swept through the centres of the Holy Roman Empire. It has been described as the worlds first printed bestseller, wolfgang Capito thought highly of Luthers sermon. The sermon was countered by Johann Tetzel in his Vorlegung condemning twenty errors of Luther
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On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church
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It was a theological treatise, and as such was published in Latin as well as German, the language in which the treatises were written. In this work Luther examines the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church in the light of his interpretation of the Bible, as for penance, its essence consists in the words of promise received by faith. Luther claimed that Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Orders, and Extreme Unction are not sacraments, the work is angry in tone, attacking the papacy. Although Luther had made a link tentatively in the address To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation and it certainly heralded a radicalisation of Luthers views — only a year before he had defended the validity of the sacraments, yet was now attacking them fiercely. Although published in Latin, a translation of work was quickly published in German by Luther’s opponent. He hoped that by making people aware of the nature of Luther’s beliefs. In fact, the opposite proved true, and Murner’s translation helped to spread Luther’s views across Germany, the virulence of Luthers language however, was off-putting to some. Pelikan, Jaroslav and Lehmann, Helmut T, Luther’s Works,55 vols, Vol 36 Another source of the full text On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church public domain audiobook at LibriVox
30.
Luther Bible
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The Luther Bible is a German language Bible translation from Hebrew and ancient Greek by Martin Luther. The New Testament was first published in 1522 and the complete Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments and Apocrypha, the project absorbed Luthers later years. Thanks to the recently invented printing press, the result was widely disseminated and contributed significantly to the development of todays modern High German language. He translated from the Greek text, using Erasmus second edition of the Greek New Testament, Luther did not translate from the Latin Vulgate translation, which is the Latin translation officially used by the Roman Catholic Church. Like Erasmus, Luther had learned Greek at the Latin schools led by the Brethren of the Common Life and these lay brothers added Greek as a new subject to their curriculum in the late 15th century. At that time Greek was seldom taught even at universities, to help him in translating into contemporary German, Luther would make forays into nearby towns and markets to listen to people speaking. He wanted to ensure their comprehension by translating as closely as possible to their contemporary language usage and his translation was published in September 1522, six months after he had returned to Wittenberg. It was a republication of the gospel and he made the Bible the peoples book in church, school, and house. Luther worked on refining the translation up to his death in 1546, there were 117 original woodcuts included in the 1534 edition issued by the Hans Lufft press in Wittenberg. They reflected the recent trend of including artwork to reinforce the textual message, apologist James Swan lists numerous Catholic sources that also translated Romans 3,28 with the word alone, or testified to others doing so before Luther. He called the Letter of James an epistle of straw, finding little in it pointed to Christ. He also had harsh words for the Revelation of John, saying that he could in no way detect that the Holy Spirit produced it, the four which follow have from ancient times had a different reputation. His views on some of these books changed in later years, Luther chose to place the Biblical apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments. These books and addenda to Biblical canon of the Old Testament are found in the ancient Greek Septuagint, Luther left the translating of them largely to Philipp Melanchthon and Justus Jonas. See also Biblical canon, Development of the Christian Biblical canon, the Luther Bible was not the first German Bible translation, but it was the most influential. It is also considered a landmark in German literature, with Luthers vernacular style often praised by modern German sources for the forceful vigor with which he translated the Holy Scripture, a large part of Luthers significance was his influence on the emergence of the German language and national identity. This stemmed predominantly from his translation of the Bible into the vernacular, which was potentially as revolutionary as canon law, although Luther was not the first to attempt such a translation, his was superior to all its predecessors. Previous translations had contained poor German, and had been from the Vulgate Latin translation, i. e. translations of a translation rather than a direct translation into German from the originals
31.
First Lutheran hymnal
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The First Lutheran hymnal, published in 1524 as Etlich Cristlich lider / Lobgesang und Psalm, often also often referred to as the Achtliederbuch, was the first Lutheran hymnal. The hymnal was created by Martin Luther and Paul Speratus working in collaboration and it contains eight hymns, four by Luther, three by Speratus, and one anonymous, which has been attributed to Justus Jonas. The hymnal is rather eine lose buchhändlerische Zusammenfassung, a collection of songs which existed as broadsheets. It was printed around the turn of the year 1523/1524 in Nuremberg by Jobst Gutknecht, the title page showed Wittenberg as the location of print. The booklet of twelve pages contained eight songs on five different melodies, the little hymnal was distributed in Europe. Luthers adversaries complained that the people are singing themselves into his doctrines. Because of the demand, another collection was published the same year. Crist Video- An Introduction to the Achtliederbuch, held by Pitts Theology Library at Emory University Achtliederbuch Portal zu Bibliotheken, Archiven, Museen 2011
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Erfurt Enchiridion
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The Erfurt Enchiridion is the second Lutheran hymnal. It appeared in 1524 in Erfurt in two competing editions, one of them contains 26 songs, the other 25,18 of them by Martin Luther, others by Elisabeth Cruciger, Erhard Hegenwald, Justus Jonas and Paul Speratus. While the songs of the Enchiridion could be used in churches, they were intended primarily for singing elsewhere, such as at home, at court, the songs of the reformer Luther and others were first sold as broadsheets, and contributed to the spreading of Protestant ideas. They were printed in collections, beginning with the First Lutheran hymnal, called the Achtliederbuch, the Erfurt Enchiridion appeared the same year, in two almost equal editions by two different printers, Johannes Loersfeld and Matthes Maler. Both books are identical except for one song, the double appearance suggests that there was a great demand. Probably the edition printed by Loersfeld came first, to be copied by Maler, the version of Loersfeld was printed in octavo, and includes 48 pages,47 of them printed. It contains 25 songs, the German version of the creed, the version of Maler contains one song more. Sixteen different choral melodies are used, and eighteen of the songs are by Luther, three of the hymns were written by Paul Speratus, one or two by Justus Jonas, one by Elisabeth Cruciger, and one is attributed to Jan Hus. The arrangement of the songs is not systematic, and only seven paraphrases of psalms form a cohesive group, five songs are German rhymed versions of Latin liturgical chants. The song Ein neues Lied wir heben an describes the execution in Brussels of two monks who were martyrs of the Reformation, Hendrik Vos and Johannes van Esschen, the title describes, Eyn Enchiridion oder Handbüchlein. Eynem ytzlichen Christen fast nutzlich bey sich zuhaben / zur stetter vbung vnd trachtung geystlicher gesenge vnd Psalmen / Rechtschaffen vnd kunstlich verteutscht. The author of the preface describes the former ecclesiastical chant as shouting like the priests of Baal in unintelligable cries and cry like the forest-donkeys to a deaf God. While the songs of the Enchiridion could be used in churches, they were intended primarily for singing elsewhere, such as at home, at court, five of the hymns are part of the Catholic hymnal Gotteslob. Full digital facsimile and diplomatic transcription of the hymnbook in the Deutsches Text Archiv Brodersen, Christiane, Brodersen, Ein Enchiridion oder Handbüchlein geistlicher Gesänge und Psalmen. Pp.163,164 & footnote 15 on p.191, Ein Unikat in der Marktkirchen-Bibliothek Goslar, Das Erfurter Färbefaß-Enchiridion von 1524. Goslar, Goslarsches Forum 6, ed. Otmar Hesse, the Erfurt Enchiridion, A Hymn Book of 1524. Die Drucker der Erfurter Enchiridien, Mathes Maler u. Johannes Loersfelt in Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie, die evangelische Lied von 1524, Festschrift zum 400-jährigen Gesangbuch-Jubiläum
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Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn
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It contains 32 sacred songs, including 24 by Luther, in settings by Walter for three to five parts with the melody in the tenor. Luther wrote a preface for the part books, the collection has been called the root of all Protestant song music. Martin Luther used hymns in German to affirm his ideas of reformation, eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn was published in Wittenberg and is often referred to as the first Wittenberg hymnal. It came with a foreword by Martin Luther, That it is good, and pleasing to God, for us to sing songs is, I think. Auf daß dadurch Gottes Wort und christliche Lehre auf allerlei Weise getrieben und geübt werden, the collection was the first German collection of hymns for choir and was published in Wittenberg in 1524 by Johann Walter, who collaborated with Luther. The hymnal comprised originally 32 songs,24 of which were written by Luther, including Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, the settings are for three, four, and five parts, with the melody in the tenor. Nine of the songs are psalms paraphrased in metric stanzas, such as Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, Luther continued to revise and enlarge the 1524 Wittenberg hymnal, adding more songs, and it was reprinted in 1529,1531,1533,1535, and 1543. This culminated in an edition titled Geystliche Lieder, prefaced by Luther, contemporaneous editions of hymnals for lay people followed the organization of Luthers choral Wittenberg hymnal rather closely. For example, the Wittenberg Enchiridion of 1526, contained ten more songs, with seven of them placed at the end and two others following a song with the same melody. This edition was copied in hymnals in Zurich in 1528 and in Leipzig in 1530
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