1.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
2.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
3.
University of Applied Arts Vienna
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The University of Applied Arts Vienna is an institution of higher education in Vienna, the capital of Austria. It has had university status since 1970, the predecessor of the Angewandte was founded in 1867 as the k. k. It was closely associated with the Österreichischen Museums für Kunst und Industrie and it was the first school of its kind on the continent. In 1941 it became an institution of higher education, in 1970 it was awarded the title of a university and in 1998 the school was renamed the Universität für angewandte Künste. Today its faculty includes many distinguished artists and teachers, such as Judith Eisler, Erwin Wurm, Hartmut Esslinger, Greg Lynn, Wolf D Prix, the university has currently c.1,800 students and c.340 faculty. The students come from 49 different countries to study in the 29 disciplines of the school and they form their creative ideas in 56 different languages. The outcome of their processes is made public in 200 exhibitions a year, Applied arts live art and technology as symbiosis. Applied arts live art and society in interaction, Applied arts live art as an experimental approach towards science
4.
Frankfurt kitchen
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It was designed in 1926 by Austrian architect Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky for architect Ernst Mays social housing project New Frankfurt in Frankfurt, Germany. Some 10,000 units were built in the late 1920s in Frankfurt, German cities after the end of World War I were plagued by a serious housing shortage. Various social housing projects were built in the 1920s to increase the number of rental apartments and these large-scale projects had to provide affordable apartments for a great number of typical working class families and thus were subject to tight budget constraints. As a consequence, the apartments designed were comfortable but not spacious and her design departed from the then common kitchen-cum-living room. Firstly, it is work, and secondly it is relaxing, company, — Margarethe Schütte-Lihotzky in Schlesisches Heim 8/1921 Schütte-Lihotzkys design was strongly influenced by the ideas of Taylorism, which was in vogue at the beginning of the 20th century. These ideas were received well in Germany and Austria and formed the base of German architect Erna Meyers work and were instrumental in Schütte-Lihotzkys design of the Frankfurt kitchen. The problem of rationalising the work is equally important to all classes of the society. — Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky in Das neue Frankfurt, 5/1926-1927 This quote succinctly sums up the reasons for the appeal of Taylorism at the time. On the one hand, the trend to rationalise the household was reinforced by the intention to reduce the time spent in unproductive housework, so that women had more time for factory work. On the other hand, emancipatory efforts to improve womens status, also in the home, called for rationalisation to relieve women, the Frankfurt kitchen was a narrow double-file kitchen measuring 1.9 m ×3.4 m. The entrance was located in one of the walls, opposite which was the window. Along the left side, the stove was placed, followed by a door connecting the kitchen to the dining and living room. On the right wall were cabinets and the sink, in front of the window a workspace, there was no refrigerator, but there was a foldable ironing board visible in the image folded against the left wall. The sliding door also helped minimise the distance between the kitchen and the table in the adjacent room. It was the first fitted kitchen, the wooden door and drawer fronts were painted blue because researchers had found that flies avoided blue surfaces. Lihotzky used oak wood for flour containers, because it repelled mealworms, and beech for table tops because beech is resistant to staining, acids, the seating was a revolving stool on castors for maximum flexibility. Schütte-Lihotzky actually designed three different variations of the Frankfurt kitchen, Type 1, the one described here, was the most common and least costly. She also designed Type 2 and Type 3, which were larger, had tables and these two latter types, however, did not have the impact her Type 1 model had
5.
Margareten
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Margareten is the fifth district of Vienna. It is near the center of Vienna and was established as a district in 1850, Margareten is a heavily populated urban area with many workers and residential homes. The district of Margareten was formed from six suburbs, the former city of Margareten itself developed from an estate with the same name and was later built into a castle. It was destroyed in both Turkish sieges of Vienna, but rebuilt each time, nearby lay Nikolsdorf, which was systemically laid out in the period 1555-1568 and named after the convent of St. Nikolai. Matzleinsdorf emerged in 1130 and was property of the Babenberger family, the name Laurenzergrund comes from an area in Matzleindorf with the Laurenzer gully. After the closing of the convent by Emperor Joseph II, it became an independent city, Reinprechtsdorf was a village in the Middle Ages, abandoned earlier, but the name remained as a path waypoint. In 1730, residential houses were built in the area. Nearby, a lodge was built, wherefrom the suburb Hundsturm gets its name. The hunting lodge was replaced with a fort, which was taken down by 1885. Those six areas, along with a number of others, were incorporated on March 5,1850, after a long debate over the different social circumstances of the population, in 1861 the fifth district was separated. In 1873 the district lost its area to the, much larger, 10th district. Since then, the rural district has become a thickly populated urban area with many workers. Margareten is in the southwest of Vienna and is bounded to the north by the Vienna River, in the west, the Vienna River is also the border to the district Mariahilf, while the belt is the boundary of the districts Favoriten and Meidling. The eastern district boundary with Wieden runs contrary to the inner districts in the transverse rather than longitudinal. Thus, the boundary follows the streets, Kettenbrückengasse, Margaretenstraße, Kleine Neugasse, Mittersteig. Margareten is the district within the Vienna Belt which is not within the Inner City borders. The district area is part of the Katastralgemeinde Margareten, which has a hectare of the territory of the neighboring district Mariahilf, the lowest point in Margareten is nearly 174 metres in the Wiental. In the south, the land rises slightly, Margareten has no sharp altitudes, or mountains, the total height difference is approximately 30 metres
6.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
7.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
8.
German resistance to Nazism
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German resistance to Nazism was the opposition by individuals and groups in Germany to the National Socialist regime between 1933 and 1945. Some of these engaged in plans to remove Adolf Hitler from power. The German resistance consisted of small and usually isolated groups and they were unable to mobilize political opposition. Approximately 77,000 German citizens were killed for one or another form of resistance by Special Courts, courts-martial, Peoples Court, the resistance in Germany included German citizens of non-German ethnicity, such as members of the Polish minority who formed resistance groups like Olimp. The Foreign Office and the Abwehr also provided support to the movement. But many of those in the military who ultimately chose to seek to overthrow Hitler had initially supported the regime, the Resistance members were motivated by such factors as the mistreatment of Jews, harassment of the churches, and the harsh actions of Himmler and the Gestapo. One strand was the networks of the banned Social Democrats and Communists, such as the SPD activist Julius Leber. There was also resistance from the anarcho-syndicalist union, the Freie Arbeiter Union that distributed anti-Nazi propaganda, another group, the Red Orchestra, consisted of anti-fascists, communists, and an American woman. The individuals in this group began to assist their Jewish friends as early as 1933, another strand was resistance coming from members of the Christian churches, Catholic and Protestant. Most notably, these included a significant number of Germans who helped Jews survive the Nazi Holocaust by hiding them, more than 300 Germans have been recognised for this. Finally, there was the network within the German Army, the Foreign Office and the Abwehr. These groups hatched conspiracies against Hitler in 1938 and again in 1939, active resisters in this group were frequently drawn from members of the Prussian aristocracy. Almost every community in Germany had members taken away to concentration camps, as early as 1935 there were jingles warning, Dear Lord God, keep me quiet, so that I dont end up in Dachau. Dachau refers to the Dachau concentration camp and this is a parody of a common German childrens prayer, Lieber Gott mach mich fromm, daß ich in den Himmel komm. There was almost no organized resistance to Hitler’s regime in the period between his appointment as chancellor in January 1933 and the crisis over Czechoslovakia in 1938. By July 1933 all other parties and the trade unions had been suppressed, the press and radio brought under state control. The July 1933 Concordat between Germany and the Holy See ended any possibility of resistance by the Catholic Church. The largest Protestant church, the German Evangelical Church, was generally pro-Nazi, all sources agree that Hitler’s regime was overwhelmingly popular with the German people during this period
9.
Bourgeoisie
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A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
10.
Chernivtsi
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Chernivtsi is a city in western Ukraine, situated on the upper course of the River Prut. Chernivtsi is the center of Chernivtsi Oblast – the northern. At the time of the 2001 Ukrainian Census, the population of the city was 240,600, Chernivtsi is currently viewed as one of Western Ukraines main cultural centers. The city is considered one of Ukraines important educational and architectural sites. Historically a cosmopolitan community, Chernivtsi was once dubbed Little Vienna, Chernivtsi is currently twinned with seven other cities around the world. The city is a regional rail and road transportation hub. In the times of Halych-Volyn Principality the citys name was Chern, archeological evidence discovered in the area surrounding Chernivtsi indicates that a population inhabited it since the Neolithic era. Later settlements included those of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, the Corded Ware culture, artifacts from the Bronze and Iron Ages were also found in the city. A fortified settlement located on the shore of the Prut dates back to the time of the Principality of Halych and is thought to have been built by Grand Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl. Legendary accounts refer to this fortress-city as Chern, or Black city, it is said to owe its name to the color of the city walls. This early stronghold was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of Europe by Boroldai in 1259, however, the remaining ramparts of the fortress were still used for defense purposes, in the 17th century they were augmented with several bastions, one of which is still extant. Following the destruction of the fortress, later settlements in the centered on the right shore of the Prut River, at a more strategically advantageous. It was part of a group of three fortifications, the two being the fortress of Hotin on the Dniester to the east, and a fort on the Kolachin River. The name Cernăuţi/Chernivtsi is first attested in a document by Alexandru cel Bun on 8 October 1408, in Ottoman sources, the city was mentioned as Çernovi, a phonetic transliteration of a Latin cognomen meaning new castle see French Castelnau or Welsh Carno. In 1775, the part of the territory of Moldavia was annexed by the Habsburg Empire. The city became the capital, which in 1849 was raised in status and became known as the Duchy of Bukovina. The city began to flourish in 1778 when Knight Karl von Enzenberg was appointed the chief of the Military Administration and he invited many merchants, craftsmen and entrepreneurs to help develop trade and other businesses. Saint Peters Fairs had given a new vibrant impulse to the development from 1786
11.
Duchy of Bukovina
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The Duchy of Bukovina was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1849 and a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria–Hungary from 1867 until 1918. Another German name for the region, das Buchenland, is used in poetry. In Romanian, in literary or poetic contexts, the name Țara Fagilor is sometimes used, in English, an alternative form is The Bukovina, increasingly an archaism, which, however, is found in older literature. After the Mongol invasion of Europe, the Bukovina lands since the 14th century had been part of the Principality of Moldavia, in the 16th century, Moldavia came under Ottoman influence, but still retaining its autonomy. During the early 18th century, Moldavia became the target of the Russian Empires southwards expansion, in 1769, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74, Moldavia was occupied by Russian troops. Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the Habsburg Monarchy had aimed at a connection from the Principality of Transylvania to the newly acquired Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. On 2 July 1776, at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a convention, Austria giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages. For opposing and protesting the annexation of the part of Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire. So far, the Moldavian nobility had traditionally formed the class in that territory. In the mid 19th century the town of Sadhora became the centre of the Hasidic Sadigura dynasty, the immigration process promoted the further economic development of the multi-ethnic country, though it remained a remote eastern outpost of the Danube Monarchy. In 1804, the became part of the newly established Austrian Empire. After the political turmoil of the 1848 revolutions, the estates urged the Vienna government to elevate the Bukovina to a separate Austrian Kronland. With effect of 4 March 1849, the former Kreis was declared the Herzogtum Bukowina and it was governed by a k. k. Statthalter appointed by the emperor, with his residence at Czernowitz from 1850. In 1860 the Bukovina was again amalgamated with Galicia, but reinstated as a province once again according to the 1861 February Patent issued by Emperor Franz Joseph I. The reinstated crown land received its own Landtag diet including a Landesausschuss executive authority, in 1867, with the re-organisation of the Austrian Empire as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it became part of the Cisleithanian territories. Nine delegates represented the Bukovina in the Austrian House of Deputies, the main military force in the region during peace time was the 22nd Infantry Regiment at Czernowitz, at that time the only k. k. Landwehr regiment with a Romanian majority, as soon as hostilities began, however, new units were formed from the locally-recruited population
12.
Wilhelm von Bode
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Wilhelm von Bode was a German art historian and curator. Born Arnold Wilhelm Bode in Calvörde, he was ennobled in 1913 and he was the creator and first curator of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, now called the Bode Museum in his honor, in 1904. Bode studied law at the Universities of Göttingen and Berlin, while practicing law in Braunschweig he systematically rearranged the ducal art collections, and visited a number of museums and private collections in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy. After studies in art history in Berlin and Vienna, he received his doctorate from the University of Leipzig in 1870 based on his dissertation Frans Hals und seine Schule. In 1872 he took a position as an assistant curator of sculpture in the museums in Berlin. He took over the Gemäldegalerie in 1890, and became director of what is now the Berlin State Museums in 1905. He was also in charge of rebuilding the museums of Strasbourg, bodes writings on a wide variety of topics in art history, particularly Italian Renaissance art, were widely influential, and remain key texts in the field. His autobiography, Mein Leben, was published posthumously in 1930, von Bode, the general manager of the Prussian Art Collections for the Berlin Museum, had spotted the bust in a London gallery and purchased it for a few pounds. Shortly afterwards, The Times ran an article claiming that the bust was the work of Lucas, lucass son, Albert, then came forward and swore under oath that the story was correct and that he had helped his father to make it. Albert was able to explain how the layers of wax had been built up from old candle ends, he described how his father would stuff various debris, including newspapers. When the Berlin museum staff removed the base they found the debris, just as Albert had described it, despite this evidence, Bode continued to claim that his original attribution was correct. Various claims and counter-claims have been put forward about the bust, scientific examination has been inconclusive and unhelpful in dating the bust, although it is accepted as having at least some connection with Lucas. The bust remains on display in what is now the Bode Museum labelled England, Leipzig Studien zur Geschichte der hollandischen Malerei, Braunschweig,1883 Geschichte der deutschen Plastik,1887 Rembrandt,8 volumes, with C. Hofstede de Groot, 1897–1905 Der Cicerone, Eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens von Jacob Burckhardt, 1900–1901 Kunst und Kunstgewerbe am Ende des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts. Die Meister der holländischen und vlämischen Malerschulen,1917, die italienischen Bronzestatuetten der Renaissance,1922. Catalogue of the Collection of Pictures and Bronzes in the Possession of Mr. Otto Beit, Introduction and Descriptions by Dr. Wilhelm Bode,1913. The Collection of Pictures of the Late Herr A. de Ridder in his Villa at Schönberg near Cronberg in the Taunus, Catalogued and Described by Wilhelm Bode, antique Rugs from the Near East, translated by R. M. Riefstahl,1922. Sandro Botticelli, translated by F. Renfield and F. L. Rudston Brown,1925, florentine sculptors of the Renaissance, translated by Jessie Haynes,1928
13.
Civil service
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A civil servant or public servant is a person so employed in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the service varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants whereas county or city employees are not, many consider the study of service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in non-departmental public bodies may also be classed as servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms. Collectively a states civil servants form its service or public service. An international civil servant or international staff member is an employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation but are governed by internal staff regulations, All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO. Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission of the United Nations and its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. The origin of the modern civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the states bureaucracy and this system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit, after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system. This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty, which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations, the first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui. The examination tested the candidates memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms, the system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package. The Chinese system was admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. In the 18th century, in response to changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase, by the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. The origins of the British civil service are better known, during the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806, in that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College, near London to train and examine administrators of the Companys territories in India
14.
Pacifism
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Pacifism is opposition to war, militarism, or violence. The word pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud, a related term is ahimsa, which is a core philosophy in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, in Christianity, Jesus Christs injunction to love your enemies and asking for forgiveness for his crucifiers for they know not what they do have been interpreted as calling for pacifism. In modern times, interest was revived by Leo Tolstoy in his late works, Mohandas Gandhi propounded the practice of steadfast nonviolent opposition which he called satyagraha, instrumental in its role in the Indian Independence Movement. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to Martin Luther King Jr. James Lawson, James Bevel, Thich Nhat Hanh and many others in the Civil Rights Movement. Pacifism was widely associated with the much publicized image of Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 with the Tank Man, historians of pacifism Peter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas as an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare. Philosopher Jenny Teichman defines the form of pacifism as anti-warism. Teichmans beliefs have been summarized by Brian Orend as, a pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong, in a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means. Pacifism may be based on moral principles or pragmatism, principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found, some pacifists follow principles of nonviolence, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others, by no means is all nonviolent resistance based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists, sometimes, as with the civil rights movements march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex, the principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to undesirable results than non-violence. Although all pacifists are opposed to war between states, there have been occasions where pacifists have supported military conflict in the case of civil war or revolution. Following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, French pacifist René Gérin urged support for the Spanish Republic, Gérin argued that the Spanish Nationalists were comparable to an individual enemy and the Republics war effort was equivalent to the action of a domestic police force suppressing crime. Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature, during the Warring States period, the pacifist Mohist School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states
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Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
16.
Josef Hoffmann
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Josef Hoffmann was an Austrian architect and designer of consumer goods. Hoffmann was born in Pirnitz / Brtnice, Moravia, Austria-Hungary and he studied at the Higher State Crafts School in Brno / Brünn beginning in 1887 and then worked with the local military planning authority in Würzburg, Germany. Thereafter he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna with Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer and Otto Wagner, in Wagners office, he met Joseph Maria Olbrich, and together they founded the Vienna Secession in 1897 along with artists Gustav Klimt, and Koloman Moser. Beginning of 1899, he taught at the Kunstgewerbeschule, now University of Applied Arts Vienna, with the Secession, Hoffmann developed strong connections with other artists. He designed installation spaces for Secession exhibitions and a house for Moser which was built from 1901-1903, with the banker Fritz Wärndorfer and the artist Koloman Moser he established the Wiener Werkstätte, which was to last until 1932. Hoffmanns style eventually became sober and abstract and it was limited increasingly to functional structures. In 1906, Hoffmann built his first great work on the outskirts of Vienna, compared to the Moser House, with its rusticated vernacular roof, this was a great advancement towards abstraction and a move away from traditional Arts and Crafts and historicism. This project served as a precedent and inspiration for the modern architecture that would develop in the first half of the 20th century. It had the clarity, simplicity, and logic that foreshadowed Neue Sachlichkeit and this masterpiece of Secession Style, was an example of Gesamtkunstwerk, replete with murals in the dining room by Klimt and four copper figures on the tower by Franz Metzner. In 1907, Hoffmann was co-founder of the Deutscher Werkbund, after World War II, he took on official tasks, that of an Austrian general commissioner with the Venice Biennale and a membership in the art senate. Some of Hoffmanns domestic designs can still be found in production today, originally produced in silver the range is now produced in high quality stainless steel. Another example of Hoffmann’s strict geometrical lines and the theme is the iconic Kubus Armchair. Designed in 1910, it was presented at the International Exhibition held in Buenos Aires on the centennial of Argentinean Independence known as May Revolution, Hoffmanns constant use of squares and cubes earned him the nickname Quadratl-Hoffmann. Although he said little to his students, Hoffmann was an esteemed and admired teacher. He tried to bring out the best in each member of his class by means of challenging assignments, and Gladys Aschermann and Louise Brigham. German designer Anni Schaad was another of his students, Le Corbusier was offered a job in his office, Schiele was helped financially and Kokoschka was given work in the Wiener Werkstätte. Hoffmann had voted for the union of Austria with Germany and, following its use by the British Government from 1945 to 1955 it was demolished. Hoffmann died in Vienna, aged 85, the critical reception of Hoffmann’s oeuvre has faithfully mirrored the changing tastes and ideologies in the history of 20th-century architecture
17.
Oskar Kokoschka
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Oskar Kokoschka was an Austrian artist, poet and playwright best known for his intense expressionistic portraits and landscapes. He was born in Pöchlarn, second child to Gustav Josef Kokoschka, a Czech goldsmith and his older brother died in infancy in 1887, he had a sister, Berta and a brother, Bohuslav. Oskar had a belief in omens, spurred by a story of a fire breaking out in Pöchlarn shortly after his mother gave birth to him. Kokoschkas life was not easy due to a lack of financial help from his father. They constantly moved into flats, farther and farther from the thriving center of the town. Concluding that his father was inadequate, Kokoschka drew closer to his mother, he felt that he was the head of the household, Kokoschka entered secondary school at Realschule, where emphasis was placed on the study of modern subjects such as science and language. Kokoschka was not interested in subjects, as he found he only excelled in art. This education of classic literature is said to have influenced his artwork, one of Kokoschkas professors suggested he pursue a career in fine art. Against his fathers will, Kokoschka applied to Kunstgewerbeschule in Vienna, Kunstgewerbeschule was an extremely progressive school that focused mainly on architecture, furniture, crafts and modern design. Unlike the more prestigious and traditional Academy of Fine Art in Vienna, Kokoschka studied there from 1904 to 1909, and was influenced by his professor Carl Otto Czeschka in developing an original style. Among Kokoschkas early works were drawings of children, which portrayed them as awkward. Kokoschka had no training in painting and so approached the medium without regard to the traditional or correct way to paint. The teachers at Kunstgewerbeschule helped Kokoschka gain opportunities through the Wiener Werkstätte or Viennese Workshops, Kokoschkas first commissions were postcards and drawings for children. Kokoschka said that it gave him the basis of artistic training and his early career was marked by portraits of Viennese celebrities, painted in a nervously animated style. Kokoschka had a passionate, often stormy affair with Alma Mahler and it began in 1912, shortly after the death of her four-year-old daughter Maria Mahler and her affair with Walter Gropius. After several years together, Alma rejected him, explaining that she was afraid of being too overcome with passion and he continued to love her his entire life, and one of his greatest works, The Bride of the Wind, is a tribute to her. The poet Georg Trakl visited the studio while Kokoschka was painting this masterpiece, Kokoschkas poem Allos Makar was inspired by this relationship. He volunteered for service as a cavalryman in the Austrian army in World War I, at the hospital, the doctors decided that he was mentally unstable
18.
Gustav Klimt
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Gustav Klimt was an Austrian symbolist painter and one of the most prominent members of the Vienna Secession movement. Klimt is noted for his paintings, murals, sketches, Klimts primary subject was the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism. In addition to his works, which include allegories and portraits. Among the artists of the Vienna Secession, Klimt was the most influenced by Japanese art, early in his artistic career, he was a successful painter of architectural decorations in a conventional manner. He subsequently accepted no more commissions, but achieved a new success with the paintings of his golden phase. Klimts work was an important influence on his younger contemporary Egon Schiele, Gustav Klimt was born in Baumgarten, near Vienna in Austria-Hungary, the second of seven children—three boys and four girls. His mother, Anna Klimt, had an ambition to be a musical performer. His father, Ernst Klimt the Elder, formerly from Bohemia, was a gold engraver, all three of their sons displayed artistic talent early on. Klimts younger brothers were Ernst Klimt and Georg Klimt, Klimt lived in poverty while attending the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts, where he studied architectural painting until 1883. He revered Viennas foremost history painter of the time, Hans Makart, Klimt readily accepted the principles of a conservative training, his early work may be classified as academic. In 1877 his brother, Ernst, who, like his father, would become an engraver, the two brothers and their friend, Franz Matsch, began working together and by 1880 they had received numerous commissions as a team that they called the Company of Artists. They also helped their teacher in painting murals in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Klimt began his professional career painting interior murals and ceilings in large public buildings on the Ringstraße, including a successful series of Allegories and Emblems. In 1888 Klimt received the Golden Order of Merit from Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria for his contributions to murals painted in the Burgtheater in Vienna and he also became an honorary member of the University of Munich and the University of Vienna. In 1892 Klimts father and brother Ernst both died, and he had to assume responsibility for his fathers and brothers families. The tragedies also affected his vision and soon he would move towards a new personal style. Historians believe that Klimt with the nuda veritas denounced both the policy of the Habsburgs and the Austrian society, which ignored all political and social problems of that time. In the early 1890s Klimt met Austrian fashion designer Emilie Louise Flöge who was to be his companion until the end of his life and his painting, The Kiss, is thought to be an image of them as lovers. He designed many costumes she created and modeled in his works, during this period Klimt fathered at least fourteen children
19.
Centenarian
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A centenarian is a person who lives to or beyond the age of 100 years. Because life expectancies worldwide are less than 100, the term is associated with longevity. A supercentenarian is a person who has lived to the age of 110 or more, there has only been one known case of a person of 120 years of age or older. In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians worldwide, as life expectancy is increasing across the world, and the world population has also increased rapidly, the number of centenarians is expected to increase quickly in the future. According to the UK ONS, one-third of babies born in 2013 in the UK are expected to live to 100. The United States currently has the greatest number of known centenarians of any nation with 53,364 according to the 2010 Census, in 2010,82. 8% of US centenarians were female. Japan has the second-largest number of centenarians, with an estimated 51,376 as of September 2012, Japan started recording its centenarians in 1963. The number of Japanese centenarians in that year was 153, but surpassed the 10,000 mark in 1998,20,000 in 2003, and 40,000 in 2009. According to a 1998 United Nations demographic survey, Japan is expected to have 272,000 centenarians by 2050, the incidence of centenarians in Japan was one per 3,522 people in 2008. In Japan, the number of centenarians is highly skewed towards females, Japan in fiscal year 2016 had 57,525 female centenarians, while males were 8,167, a ratio of 7,1. The increase of centenarians was even more skewed at 11.6,1, the total number of living centenarians in the world remains uncertain. It was estimated by the Population Division of the United Nations as 23,000 in 1950,110,000 in 1990,150,000 in 1995,209,000 in 2000,324,000 in 2005 and 455,000 in 2009. The following table gives estimated centenarian populations by country, including both the latest and the earliest known estimates, where available, in many countries, people receive a gift or congratulations on their 100th birthday. In the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, the British monarch sends greetings on the 100th birthday, the practice was formalised from 1917, under the reign of King George V, who also sent congratulations on the attainment of a 60th Wedding anniversary. NBCs Today Show has also named new centenarians on air since 1983, Centenarians born in Ireland receive a €2,540 Centenarians Bounty and a letter from the President of Ireland, even if they are resident abroad. Japanese centenarians receive a cup and a certificate from the Prime Minister of Japan upon their 100th birthday. Swedish centenarians receive a telegram from the King and Queen of Sweden, Centenarians born in Italy receive a letter from the President of Italy. In Japan, a National Respect for the Aged Day has been celebrated every September since 1966, an aspect of blessing in many cultures is to offer a wish that the recipient lives to 100 years old
20.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
21.
Woman
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A woman is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. The term woman is sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age. Women with typical genetic development are usually capable of giving birth from puberty until menopause, the spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman. In Old English, wīfmann meant female human, whereas wēr meant male human, the medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form woman, while the initial element, which meant female, underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman. It is a misconception that the term woman is etymologically connected to womb. Womb is actually from the Old English word wambe meaning stomach, the symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex. It is a representation of the goddess Venuss hand-mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess. The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper, alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle above an equilateral cross. Womanhood is the period in a life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence. The word woman can be used generally, to any female human or specifically. The word girl originally meant young person of either sex in English, in particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Referring to a female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced. There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman, menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include, Neithhotep, the wife of Narmer, merneith, consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right, merit-Ptah, also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist. Peseshet, a physician in Ancient Egypt, puabi, or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, kugbau, a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as Kubaba
22.
Public housing in the United Kingdom
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Public housing in the United Kingdom provides the largest proportion of rented accommodation in the country. Houses built for public or social housing use are built by local authorities, before 1865 housing for the poor was provided solely by the private sector. Council houses were built on estates, where frequently other amenities like schools. From the 1950s blocks of flats and three or four blocks of maisonnettes were widely built too. Flats and houses were built in mixed estates. Council homes were built to supply uncrowded, well-built homes on secure tenancies at reasonable rents to primarily working-class people, Public housing in the mid-20th century included many large suburban council estates and numerous urban developments featuring tower blocks. Many of these developments did not live up to the hopes of their supporters, in 1979, the role of council housing was to change. Housing stock has sold off through Right to Buy legislation. A substantial part of the UK population still lives in council housing, approximately 55% of the countrys social housing stock is owned by local authorities, and 45% by housing associations. In Scotland, council estates are known as schemes, the history of public housing is the history of the housing of the poor. Even that statement is controversial, as before 1890 the state was not involved in housing policy, Public housing became needed to provide homes fit for heroes in 1919, then to enable slum clearance. Standards were set to high quality homes. The Labour government of Harold Wilson built houses and flats to the point where there was a surplus in the late 1960s. The documented history of housing in Britain starts with almshouses which were established from the 10th century, to provide a place of residence for poor, old. The first recorded almshouse was founded in York by King Æthelstan, the public workhouse was the final fall back solution for the destitute. Rural poverty had been increased by the Enclosure Acts leaving many in need of assistance. This was divided into outside relief, or handouts to keep the family together, the workhouse provided for two groups of people - the transient population roaming the country looking for seasonal work, and the long-term residents. The two were kept separate where possible, the City of London Corporation built tenements in the Farringdon Road in 1865, but this was an isolated instance
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Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
24.
Design
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Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object, system or measurable human interaction. Design has different connotations in different fields, in some cases, the direct construction of an object is also considered to use design thinking. Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic, and it may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business processes, and even methods or processes of designing. Thus design may be a substantive referring to an abstraction of a created thing or things. It is an act of creativity and innovation, here, a specification can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product, and primitives are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no language or unifying institution for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject, the person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas usually specifying which area is being dealt with. A designers sequence of activities is called a process while the scientific study of design is called design science. Another definition of design is planning to manufacture an object, system, thus the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a broader sense, the design is an applied art, while the definition of design is fairly broad, design has a myriad of specifications that professionals utilize in their fields. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, the prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, Evolutionary Design, co-evolution, the Rational Model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, two German engineering design theorists. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model, systems development life cycle, according to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process, each stage has many associated best practices. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, the Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers, like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. Designers context-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than technical rationality, at least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Perspective
25.
Functionalism (architecture)
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In architecture, functionalism is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. This statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, Functionalism had the strongest influence in Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and the Netherlands. The place of functionalism in building can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, Functionalist views were typical of some gothic revival architects. The implication is that if the functional aspects are satisfied, architectural beauty would naturally and necessarily follow, sullivans credo is often viewed as being ironic in light of his extensive use of intricate ornament, since a common belief among functionalist architects is that ornament serves no function. The credo also does not address whose function he means, nevertheless, form follows function expresses a significant and enduring idea. Sullivans protégé Frank Lloyd Wright is also cited as an exemplar of functional design, in the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity. The idea of functionalism was conflated with lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter, for 70 years the preeminent and influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. Johnson said, Where form comes from I don’t know, the position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme, I dont do function. Popular notions of modern architecture are influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles, Functionalism was a dominant architectonic style in former Czechoslovakia in the period of 1928-1970. It was a result of fascination first by industrial development and later by an effort to create a new man and its program was formulated by the Club of architects in Prague in 1924. In 1930s and then in 1960s and 1970s the position of functionalism was dominant, the term Danish Functionalism is sometimes used to describe the Danish branch of functionalistic architecture which had its heyday in the 1960s. A fine example of the Danish Functionalist style is Aarhus University designed by the architect C. F. Møller, Danish architects such as Kaare Klint and Arne Jacobsen extended their approach to the furniture now known as Danish modern. Zlín is a city in Czech republic which was in 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism, in that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Zlíns distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials were used for the construction of all public edifices, the common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet
26.
Adolf Loos
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Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos was an Austrian and Czech architect and influential European theorist of modern architecture. His essay Ornament and Crime advocated smooth and clear surfaces in contrast to the decorations of the fin de siècle. Loos became a pioneer of modern architecture and contributed a body of theory and criticism of Modernism in architecture, Loos had three tumultuous marriages that all ended in divorce. He suffered from health, including an inherited hearing affliction. He died aged 62 on 23 August 1933 in Kalksburg near Vienna, Loos was born on 10 December 1870 in Brno, in the Moravia region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father, a German stonemason, died when Loos was nine years old, young Adolf Loos had inherited his fathers hearing impairment and was significantly handicapped by it throughout his life. His mother continued to carry on the business after her husbands death. Loos attended several Gymnasium schools, a school in Liberec. He later studied at Dresden University of Technology and he left one year later without completing his study. At age 23, Loos traveled to the United States and stayed there for three years from 1893–96, Loos returned to Vienna in 1896 and made it his permanent residence. He was a prominent figure in the city and a friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Arnold Schönberg, Peter Altenberg, inspired by his years in the New World he devoted himself to architecture. After briefly associating himself with the Vienna Secession in 1896, he rejected the style and advocated a new, plain, a utilitarian approach to use the entire floor plan completed his concept. Looss early commissions consisted of designs for shops and cafés in Vienna. In Spoken into the Void, published in 1900, he attacked the Vienna Secession, in his essays, Loos used provocative catchphrases and is noted for the essay/manifesto entitled Ornament and Crime, given in a lecture in 1910 and first published in 1913. Loos stripped-down buildings influenced the minimal massing of modern architecture, the distinction is not between complicated and simple, but between organic and superfluous decoration. Loos was also interested in the arts, collecting sterling silver and high quality leather goods. He also enjoyed fashion and mens clothing, designing the famed Kníže of Vienna, in 1920, he had a brief collaboration with Frederick John Kiesler - architect, theater and art-exhibition designer. The house, today Michaelerplatz 3, Vienna, and under monument preservation, was criticized by its contemporaries
27.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Veteran
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A veteran is a person who has had long service or experience in a particular occupation or field. This page refers to military veterans, i. e. a person who has served or is serving in the armed forces and those veterans that have had direct exposure to acts of military conflict may also be referred to as war veterans. Military veterans often receive special treatment in their countries due to the sacrifices they made during wars. Different countries handle this differently, some openly support veterans through government programs, Veterans are also subject to illnesses directly related to their military service such as posttraumatic stress disorder. War veterans are generally treated with respect and honour for their contribution to the world. Veterans of unpopular or lost conflicts may be discriminated against, Veterans of short or small conflicts are often forgotten when the country fought bigger conflicts. Many countries have longstanding traditions, ceremonies, and holidays to honour their veterans, in the UK Remembrance Day is held on November the 11th and is focused mostly on the veterans who died in service to the monarch and country. A red or white poppy is worn on the lapel in the weeks up to the date, in Russia, a tradition was established after World War II where newly married couples would on their wedding day visit a military cemetery. In France, for instance, those wounded in war are given the first claim on any seat on public transit, most countries have a holiday such as Veterans Day to honour their veterans, along with the war dead. Britain, with its historic distrust of standing armies, did little for its veterans before the 19th century and it did set up two small hospitals for them in the 1680s. In London and other cities the streets teemed with disabled or disfigured veterans begging for alms, the First World War focused national attention on veterans, especially those who had been partly or wholly disabled. The Kings National Roll Scheme was an employment program for disabled veterans of the First World War, kowalsky says it was practical, innovative, and ahead of its time and was the most important piece of legislation enacted for disabled veterans in interwar Britain. In the 21st century Britain has one of the highest densities of veterans in a country, with 13 million in 2000. Some veterans from the Belgian commitment of the Congolese to WWII live in communities throughout the Congo, though they received compensation from the government during the rule of the dictator Mobutu Sese Seko, after his overthrow they no longer receive pensions. The most common usage is for former armed services personnel, a veteran is one who has served in the armed forces, especially one who has served in combat. The National Guard and Reserve is included and it is especially applied to those who served for an entire career, usually of 20 years or more, but may be applied for someone who has only served one tour of duty. A common misconception is that only those who have served in combat or those who have retired from active duty can be called military veterans, the American Civil War produced veterans organizations, such as the Grand Army of the Republic and United Confederate Veterans. The treatment of veterans changed after the First World War, in the years following, discontented veterans became a source of instability
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Josef Frank (architect)
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Josef Frank was an Austrian-born architect, artist, and designer who adopted Swedish citizenship in the latter half of his life. Together with Oskar Strand, he created the Vienna School of Architecture, josef Frank was of Jewish ancestry. His parents, merchant Ignaz Frank and the Vienna-born Jenny, were originally from Heves in Hungary and he designed his parents grave in the old Jewish section of Viennas Central Cemetery. He studied architecture at the Vienna University of Technology and he then taught at the Vienna School of Arts and Crafts from 1919 to 1925. He was a member of the Vienna Werkbund, initiator. In 1933, he emigrated to Sweden, where he gained citizenship in 1939 and he was the most prestigious designer in the Stockholm design company Svenskt Tenn. He remained in Sweden after 1945 despite attempts to him to Vienna. The Vienna Circle manifesto lists three of his publications in a bibliography of closely related authors and he was also the brother of the physicist, mathematician, and philosopher Philipp Frank. Josef Frank dealt early on with public housing and housing estates, contrary to most other architects of the interwar period in Vienna, he took the idea of settlement and not the creation of so-called super blocks in the municipal housing. He also rejected facade decor and clearly preferred functional forms, the Viennese architect and furniture designer Luigi Blue refers to him as one of his idols. In addition to his work he created numerous designs for furniture, furnishings, fabrics, wallpaper. He has been a painter, as well, an exhibition of his textile designs is to be held from January to May 2017, at the Fashion and Textile Museum in London. Architect and Outsider, The Jewish Museum Vienna field office Judenplatz 2010 Was honored with a Google Doodle on July 15 in honor of his 125th birthday
30.
Otto Neurath
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Otto Neurath was an Austrian philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. Before he fled his country in 1934, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle. Neurath was born in Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Neurath and he studied mathematics in Vienna and gained his Ph. D. in the department of Political Science and Statistics at the University of Berlin. He married Anna Schapire in 1907 and she died as a result of childbirth in 1911, and he married a close friend, the mathematician and philosopher Olga Hahn. Neurath taught political economy at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie until war broke out, subsequently, he directed the Department of War Economy in the War Ministry. In 1917 or 1918, he director of the Deutsches Kriegswirtschaftsmuseum at Leipzig. Here he worked with Wolfgang Schumann, known from the Dürerbund for which Neurath had written many articles, during the political crisis which led to the armistice, Schumann urged him to work out a plan for socialization in Saxony. Along with Schumann and Hermann Kranold developed the Programm Kranold-Neurath-Schumann, Neurath then joined the German Social Democratic Party in 1918-19 and ran an office for central economic planning in Munich. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Neurath was imprisoned but returned to Austria after intervention from the Austrian government, while in prison he wrote Anti-Spengler, a critical attack on Oswald Spenglers Decline of the West. In 1923, he founded a new museum for housing and city planning called Siedlungsmuseum, julius Tandler, city councillor for welfare and health, served at the first board of the museum together with other prominent social democratic politicians. The museum was provided with rooms at buildings of the city administration. To make the museum understandable for everybody, Neurath worked on graphic design, in the late 1920s, graphic designer and communications theorist Rudolf Modley served as an assistant to Neurath, contributing to a new means of communication, a visual language. With the illustrator Gerd Arntz and with Marie Reidemeister, Neurath created Isotype, at international conventions of city planners, Neurath presented and promoted his communication tools. During the 1920s, Neurath also became an ardent logical positivist and he was the driving force behind the Unity of Science movement and the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. During the Austrian Civil War of 1934, Neurath had been working in Moscow, anticipating problems, he had asked to get a coded message in case it would be dangerous for him to return to Austria. He was joined by Arntz after affairs in Vienna had been sorted out as best they could and his wife also fled to the Netherlands where she died in 1937. After the Luftwaffe had bombed Rotterdam he and Marie Reidemeister fled to England and he and Reidemeister married in 1941, after a period interned on the Isle of Man. Neurath died, suddenly and unexpectedly, in December 1945, most work by and about Neurath is still available only in German
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Frankfurt
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The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Ernst May
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Ernst May was a German architect and city planner. It is said Mays brigade of German architects and planners established twenty cities in three years, including Magnitogorsk, Mays travels left him stateless when the Nazis seized power in Germany, and he spent many years in African exile before returning to Germany near the end of his life. May was born in Frankfurt am Main, the son of a leather goods manufacturer and his education from 1908 through 1912 included time in the United Kingdom, studying under Raymond Unwin, and absorbing the lessons and principles of the garden city movement. He finished a study at the Technical University of Munich, working with Friedrich von Thiersch and Theodor Fischer, working for himself and others through the 1910s, in 1921 he helped win a competition for rural housing estate developments in Breslau. His concepts of decentralized planning, some of which had imported from the garden city movement, he won the job of city architect. Working under Mayor Ludwig Landmann, the position gave him powers of zoning, financing. There was copious funding and an available labor pool, Mays developments were remarkable for the time for being compact, semi-independent, well-equipped with community elements like playgrounds, schools, theatres, and common washing areas. For the sake of economy and construction speed May used simplified, prefabricated forms and these settlements are still marked by their functionality and the way they manifest egalitarian ideals such as equal access to sunlight, air, and common areas. Of these settlements the best known is probably Siedlung Römerstadt, in 1926 May sent for Austrian architect Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky to join him in Frankfurt. Mays Frankfurt was a civic and critical success and this has been described as one of the most remarkable city planning experiments in the twentieth century. This also brought him to the attention of the Soviet Union, catherine Bauer Wurster visited the buildings in 1930 and was inspired by the work of May In 1930 May took virtually his entire New Frankfurt-team to Russia. The promise of the Socialist paradise was still fresh, and Mays Brigade, the first was to be Magnitogorsk. Although Mays group is indeed credited with building 20 cities in three years, the reality was that May found Magnitogorsk already under construction and the town dominated by the mine. Officials were indecisive, then distrustful, corruption and delay frustrated their efforts, Mays contract expired in 1933, and he left for British East Africa. Some of his architects found themselves unwanted by Russia, and stateless, after Mays departure, the Soviet government began promoting the criticism of his ideas, methods and achievements. Criticism was severe, widespread, and had ideological underpinnings and he was characterized as an undesirable capitalistic and Western influence that should be contraposed to the socialistic and Soviet architectural trends. In the mid-1930s, the Soviet government adopted the policy of not inviting any foreign architects, may worked as a farmer in Kenya, but soon sold his farm and opened an architectural office, designing commercial buildings, hotels and schools. In some projects he collaborated with architect and urban planner Erica Mann, in 1953 the Mau-Mau uprisings made it difficult to work
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New Frankfurt
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New Frankfurt was an affordable public housing program in Frankfurt started in 1925 and completed in 1930. It was also the name of the magazine that was published from 1926 to 1931 dedicated to international tendencies in architecture. The project was initiated by Frankfurts mayor Ludwig Landmann, who hired the architect Ernst May as a manager of many communal departments. Renowned architects like Max Cetto, Martin Elsaesser, Walter Gropius, Ferdinand Kramer, Adolf Meyer, Bruno Taut, Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, under May 12,000 apartments were built,2,000 more than planned. The buildings not only met the needs of housing, they set standards for urban development and design. All apartments and mansions were equipped with a Frankfurt kitchen, catherine Bauer Wurster visited the buildings in 1930 and was inspired by the work of May. The Nazis stopped all activities and presented the estates to foreign visitors as their own new Nationalsocialist architecture. After some demolitions of houses designed by Mart Stam and protest, one two-storey terrace house was renovated and restored into the standard of 1928 by the Ernst May Society, it is called the Ernst May House and is a museum today. The reconstruction was underpinned by research by architectural historians, ed.1985 https, //www. frankfurt. de/sixcms/detail. php. id=317578&_ffmpar=5021021 Informations on frankfurt. de Website of the Ernst-May-Society
35.
Kindergarten
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Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
36.
Kitchen
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A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
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Frederick Winslow Taylor
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Frederick Winslow Taylor was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants, Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era. Taylor was also an athlete who competed nationally in tennis and golf, Taylor was born in 1856 to a Quaker family in Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Taylors father, Franklin Taylor, a Princeton-educated lawyer, built his wealth on mortgages, Taylors mother, Emily Annette Taylor, was an ardent abolitionist and a coworker with Lucretia Mott. His fathers ancestor, Samuel Taylor, settled in Burlington, New Jersey and his mothers ancestor, Edward Winslow, was one of the fifteen original Mayflower Pilgrims who brought servants or children, and one of eight who had the honorable distinction of Mister. Winslow served for years as the Governor of the Plymouth colony. Educated early by his mother, Taylor studied for two years in France and Germany and traveled Europe for 18 months, in 1872, he entered Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, with the plan of eventually going to Harvard and becoming a lawyer like his father. In 1874, Taylor passed the Harvard entrance examinations with honors, however, due allegedly to rapidly deteriorating eyesight, Taylor chose quite a different path. Instead of attending Harvard University, Taylor became a patternmaker and machinist. He left his apprenticeship for six months and represented a group of New England machine-tool manufacturers at Philadelphias centennial exposition, Taylor finished his four-year apprenticeship and in 1878 became a machine-shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works. At Midvale, he was promoted to time clerk, journeyman machinist, gang boss over the lathe hands, machine shop foreman, research director. Taylors fast promotions reflected both his talent and his familys relationship with Edward Clark, part owner of Midvale Steel, when he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen. In order to determine how much work should properly be expected, he began to study and his focus on the human component of production Taylor labeled scientific management. While Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis tournament in the 1881 US National Championships. Taylor became a student of Stevens Institute of Technology, studying via correspondence, on May 3,1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia. He spent time as a plant manager in Maine, in 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia. His business card read Consulting Engineer - Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty, through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management system. In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel in order to solve an expensive machine-shop capacity problem, as a result, he and Maunsel White, with a team of assistants, developed high speed steel, paving the way for greatly increased mass production
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
39.
Dining car
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A dining car or a restaurant car, also a diner, is a railroad passenger car that serves meals in the manner of a full-service, sit-down restaurant. Grill cars, in which sit on stools at a counter and purchase. Fare typically consisted of meat, cold beans, and old coffee. Such poor conditions discouraged many from making the journey, most railroads began offering meal service on trains even before the First Transcontinental Railroad. As competition among railroads intensified, dining car service was taken to new levels, the room accommodated 12 guests, and could be reserved anytime for private dinner or cocktail parties, or other special functions. The room was used by celebrities and dignitaries traveling on the Super Chief. Edwin Kachel was a steward for more than twenty-five years in the Dining-Car Department of the Great Northern Railway and he said that on a dining car, three elements can be considered -- the equipment, the employee, then passenger. In other words, the whole is constituted by two-thirds of human parts, as cross-country train travel became more commonplace, passengers began to expect high-quality food to be served at the meals on board. The level of service on trains in the 1920s and 1930s rivaled that of high-end restaurants. Elegance is one of the words used to describe the concept of dining on a train. Use of fresh ingredients was encouraged whenever possible, the Christmas menu for the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. In one of the most common dining car configurations, one end of the car contains a galley while the end has table or booth seating on either side of a center aisle. Dining cars enhance the familiar restaurant experience with the visual entertainment of the ever-changing view. While dining cars are common today than in the past they still play a significant role in passenger railroading, especially on medium-. Today, a number of tourist-oriented railroads offer dinner excursions to capitalize on the fascination with the dining car experience. The U76/U70 tram line between the German cities of Düsseldorf and Krefeld offers a Bistrowagen, where passengers can order drinks and snacks and this practise comes from the early 20th Century, when interurban trams conveyed a dining car. Despite the introduction of tram units,4 trams still have a Bistrowagen. The Harvey House Cookbook, Memories of Dining along the Santa Fe Railroad, luckin, Richard W. Mimbres to Mimbreño, A Study of Santa Fes Famous China Pattern
40.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
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Weimar Republic
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Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place, the official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich, it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, in its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their leaders for the countrys defeat. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations. Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the borders of the republic. From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, the Great Depression, exacerbated by Brünings policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government, the Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the éminence grise who would keep Hitler under control, within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency, it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitlers seizure of power was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation and these events brought the republic to an end, as democracy collapsed, a single-party state founded the Nazi era. The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model, the Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat while on the moderate left the Chancellors SPD preferred Deutsche Republik. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany, after the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy and this left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. If the Reichs Eagle is shown without a frame, the charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reichs coat of arms are to be used. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design, the artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. The achievements and signs of movement were mostly done away with after its downfall
42.
Right-wing politics
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Hierarchy and inequality may be viewed as natural results of traditional social differences or the competition in market economies. The term right-wing can generally refer to the conservative or reactionary section of a party or system. The original Right in France was formed as a reaction against the Left, and comprised those politicians supporting hierarchy, tradition, the use of the expression la droite became prominent in France after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the Ultra-royalists. The people of English-speaking countries did not apply the terms right, from the 1830s to the 1880s, there was a shift in the Western world of social class structure and the economy, moving away from nobility and aristocracy towards capitalism. This general economic shift toward capitalism affected centre right movements such as the British Conservative Party, in the United States, the Right includes both economic and social conservatives. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right, in the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Ancien Régime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre, who argued for a form of conservatism. Throughout the 19th century, the line dividing Left and Right in France was between supporters of the republic and supporters of the monarchy. In British politics, the right and left came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the Spanish Civil War. The meaning of right-wing varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems, according to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, in liberal democracies, the political Right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right-wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, nationalists and, on the far Right, Roger Eatwell and Neal OSullivan divide the Right into five types, reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme, and new. Chip Berlet argues that each of these styles of thought are responses to the left, including liberalism and socialism, the reactionary right looks toward the past and is aristocratic, religious and authoritarian. Often the moderate right promotes nationalism and social welfare policies, radical right is a term developed after World War II to describe groups and ideologies such as McCarthyism, the John Birch Society, Thatcherism, and the Republikaner Party. Eatwell stresses that use has major typological problems and that the term has also been applied to clearly democratic developments. The radical right includes right-wing populism and various other subtypes, Eatwell argues that the extreme right has four traits, 1) anti-democracy, 2) nationalism, 3) racism, and 4) the strong state. The New Right consists of the conservatives, who stress small government, free markets. Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far right, parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy, private property rights, and a limited welfare state. They support conservatism and economic liberalism, and oppose socialism and communism, typical examples of leaders to whom the far right label is often applied are Francisco Franco in Spain and Augusto Pinochet in Chile
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Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
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Joseph Stalin
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Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
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First five-year plan
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The first five-year plan of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a list of economic goals, created by General Secretary Joseph Stalin and based on his policy of Socialism in One Country. It was implemented between 1928 and 1932, in 1929, Stalin edited the plan to include the creation of kolkhoz collective farming systems that stretched over thousands of acres of land and had hundreds of peasants working on them. This disruption led to a famine in Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan as well as areas of the Northern Caucasus. Despite the ruinous loss of life, the introduction of collective farms allowed peasants to use tractors to farm the land, unlike before when most had been too poor to own a tractor. Public machine and tractor stations were set up throughout the USSR, peasants were allowed to sell any surplus food from the land. However, the government planners failed to notice of local situations. In 1932, grain production was 32% below average, to add to this problem, agricultural production was so disrupted that famine broke out in several districts. Because of the reliance on rapid industrialization, major cultural changes had to occur in tandem. As this new social structure arose, conflicts occurred among some of the majority of the populations, in Turkmenistan, for example, the Soviet policy of collectivization shifted their production from cotton to food products. Prior to the enactment of the first Soviet five-year plan, the Soviet Union had been experiencing threats from external sources. The first war threat emerged from the East in 1924 and this war scare arose when Western nations, like Great Britain, began cutting off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. This created fear among the Soviets that the West was preparing to attack the Soviet Union again, during the Russian Civil War, foreign powers had occupied portions of Soviet territory. The fear of invasion from the west left the Soviets feeling a need for rapid industrialization to increase Soviet war making potential, at the same time as the war scare of 1927, dissatisfaction among the peasantry was emerging in the Soviet Union. This dissatisfaction arose from the famine of the early 1920s, as well as a growing mistreatment of the peasants, also during this time the secret police or the NKVD had begun rounding up political dissenters in the Soviet Union. The central aspect of the first Soviet five-year plan was the rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union, the need for rapid industrialization was once again out of the fear of impending war from the West. If war were to break out between the Soviet Union and the West, the Soviets would be fighting against some of the most industrialized nations in the world, the rapid industrialization would inhibit fears of being left unprotected if War between the Soviets and the West were to occur. To meet the needs of a war, the Soviet leaders set unrealistic quotas for production. To meet those needs, the facilities had to be constructed to quickly facilitate material production before goods could be produced
46.
Magnitogorsk
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Magnitogorsk is an industrial city in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located on the eastern side of the extreme southern extent of the Ural Mountains by the Ural River. It was named after the Magnitnaya Mountain and it is the second largest city in Russia that is not the administrative center of any federal subject or district. Here the largest iron and steel works in the country is situated, Magnitnaya was founded in 1743 as part of the Orenburg Line of forts built during the reign of the Empress Elizabeth. By 1747, the settlement had been large enough to guide the building of a small wooden chapel named subsequently The Church of the Holy Trinity. Iron ore mining in this region back to 1752, when two entrepreneurs named Tverdysh and Myasnikov decided to check on the feasibility of mining in the area that became famous later. They managed to take advantage of the fact that the Magnitnaya mountain did not belong to anyone at that time. So, they secured it for themselves by way of petition to Empress Elizabeth, in 1759, the petition was eventually accepted, and they launched iron ore production. At this time, hundreds of foreign experts kept coming here in order to implement and direct the work. In 1928, a Soviet delegation arrived in Cleveland, Ohio to discuss with American consulting company Arthur G. McKee a plan to set up in Magnitogorsk a copy of the US Steel steel mill in Gary. The contract was four times increased and eventually the new plant had a capacity of four million tons annually. It was a showpiece of Soviet achievement, huge reserves of iron ore in the area made it a prime location to build a steel plant capable of challenging its Western rivals. However, a proportion of the workforce, as ex-peasants, typically had few industrial skills. To solve these issues, several hundred foreign specialists arrived to direct the work, however, by the time that May completed his plans for Magnitogorsk construction of both factory and housing had already started. The sprawling factory and enormous cleansing lakes had left little room available for development and this modification resulted in a city being more rope-like than linear. The book Behind the Urals, by John Scott, documents the development of Magnitogorsk during the 1930s. Scott discusses the fast-paced industrial and social developments during Stalins first five-year plan, in 1937, foreigners were told to exit and Magnitogorsk was declared a closed city. There is not much information about events and development of the city during the closed period. During perestroika the closed city status was removed and foreigners were allowed to visit the city again, with the depletion of the substantial local iron-ore reserves, Magnitogorsk has to import raw materials from Sokolvsko-Sarbaisky deposit in northern Kazakhstan
Media related to Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky at Wikimedia Commons