1.
Passy Cemetery
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Passy Cemetery is a cemetery in Passy, in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. The current cemetery replaced the old cemetery, which was closed in 1802, in the early 19th century, on the orders of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, all the cemeteries in Paris were replaced by several large new ones outside the precincts of the capital. Montmartre Cemetery was built in the north, Père Lachaise Cemetery in the east, Passy Cemetery was a later addition, but has its origins in the same edict. The current entrance was built in 1934, the retaining wall of the cemetery is adorned with a bas relief commemorating the soldiers who fell in World War I. Opened in 1820 in the residential and commercial districts of the Right Bank near the Champs-Élysées. It is the cemetery in Paris to have a heated waiting-room. Sheltered by a bower of trees, the cemetery is in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower. The cemetery was once the home of a statue by Dunikowski titled The Soul Escaping the Body and it was on top of the ceremonial grave of Antoni Cierplikowski. The statue was known by many but was removed when the grave was cleared in 2004 and it is known as a small but well visited cemetery. Natalie Clifford Barney, Notable author, salonist and lesbian socialite of the Belle Époque, the entrance of the cemetery is located at 2, Rue du Commandant Schlœsing. The street in which it is situated is named for a Free French pilot, Squadron Leader Jacques-Henri Schlœsing, who flew with the wartime RAF until killed in action, the cemetery is behind the Trocadéro. Passy Cemetery on the Mairie de Paris website Passy Cemetery on the Cimetiéres de France et dAilleurs website Information, photographs of Passy cemetery Documenting funerary statuary in Paris cemeteries, on pariscemeteries. com
2.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
3.
Poltava
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Poltava is a city located on the Vorskla River in central Ukraine. It is the city of the Poltava Oblast and of the surrounding Poltava Raion of the oblast. Poltavas estimated population is 294,962 as of 2015 and it is still unknown when Poltava was founded, although the town was not attested before 1174. However, for unknown, municipal authorities chose to celebrate the citys 1100th anniversary in 1999. The settlement is indeed an old one, as archeologists unearthed a Paleolithic dwelling as well as Scythian remains within the city limits, the present name of the city is traditionally connected to the settlement Ltava which is mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle in 1174. With the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1238-39 many cities of the middle Dnieper region were destroyed, in the mid 14th century the region was part of the Duchy of Kiev that was a vassal of the Algirdas Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to the Russian historian Aleksandr Shennikov, the region around modern Poltava was a Cuman Duchy of Mansur who was a son of Mamai. Shennikov also claims that the Mansur Duchy joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a state rather than a vassal state. In 1399 the army of Mansur assisted the army of Grand Duchy of Lithuania in battle of the Vorskla River, the city for the first time is mentioned under the name of Poltava no later than 1430. Supposedly in 1430 the Lithuanian duke Vytautas gave the city along with Glinsk, in 1430 Murza Olexa was baptized as Alexander Glinsky who was a progenitor of the Glinsky family. In 1482 Poltava was razed by the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray, in 1537 Ografena Vasylivna Glinska passed Poltava to her son-in-law Mykhailo Ivanovych Hrybunov-Baibuza. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the territory around Poltava was passed to the Crown of Poland, in 1630 Poltava was passed to a Polish magnate Bartholomew Obalkowski. In 1641 it changed its owner again who was Alexander Koniecpolski, in 1646 Poltava became part of Wiśniowiecki Ordynatsia governed by the Ruthenian-Polish magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. In 1648 Poltava was the base of a regiment of the Ukrainian Cossacks. In 1658 Poltava became a center of anti-government revolt led by the local leader Martyn Pushkar who contested legitimacy of Ivan Vyhovskys election to the post of Hetman of Zaporizhian Host, the uprising was extinguished with help of Crimean Tatars. On the issue boyar Vasily Borisovich Sheremetev wrote to Alexei Mikhailovich on 8 June 1658, and if the Great Sovereign allows to place a voivode in the city and rebuilt the city until the fall that in Plotava Circassians and residents built their houses and stock-piled their food. With the signing of the 1667 truce of Andrusovo, the city part of the Tsardom of Muscovy. The city suffered from the Great Turkish War when in 1695 Petro Ivanenko led anti-Muscovite uprising with help of Crimean Tatars who ravaged the local monastery, the same year the Poltava Regiment actively participated in the Azov campaigns which resulted in taking the Turkish fortress Kyzy-Kermen
4.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
5.
Tony Robert-Fleury
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Tony Robert-Fleury was a French painter, known primarily for historical scenes. He was also a prominent art teacher, with famous artists among his students. He was born just outside Paris, and studied under his father Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury and under Paul Delaroche, in the following year, his Old Women in the Place Navone, Rome was purchased by the Musée du Luxembourg. In 1870, he painted a canvas of Le Dernier Jour de Corinthe and this painting was also purchased by the Musée du Luxembourg, it is on display at the Musée dOrsay. In 1880, he painted a ceiling for the Luxembourg Palace in Paris, Robert-Fleury painted Pinel a la Salpêtrière, which depicts the famed Father of Modern Psychiatry among the inmates of the asylum. Philippe Pinel in 1795, had been named chief doctor at the asylum, he had instituted more charitable and rational treatments, in 1875, Robert-Fleury painted Charlotte Corday at Caen, which shows the woman coming to the passionate conclusion that Marat needed to be murdered. Robert-Fleury taught as professor for many years at the Académie Julian in Paris, Robert-Fleury became president of the Société des artistes français in succession to Bouguereau. He was honoured with Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1907, in 1908 he was elected president of the Taylor Foundation, a position he held until the end of his life. Some of Robert-Fleurys more prominent pupils were, This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
6.
Louise Catherine Breslau
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Louise Catherine Breslau was a German-born Swiss artist of Jewish ancestry. Suffering from asthma all her life, Breslau turned to drawing as a child to pass the time while confined to her bed. Although she became one of the most sought after portraitists of her time, after her death she and her work were all and it has only been in the past few years that interest in Breslau and her works has been growing. Breslau was born into a bourgeois family, her father was a well-respected physician specializing in obstetrics. Tragedy hit in December 1866 when Dr. Breslau died suddenly from an infection contracted while performing a post-mortem examination. Lydia Escher was a friend of Louise Breslau in Zürich, and in her letters she told to take singing and piano lessons. After her fathers death, Breslau was sent to a convent near Lake Constance in hopes of alleviating her chronic asthma and it is believed that during her long stays at the convent her artistic talents were awoken. In the late 19th century young bourgeois ladies were expected to be educated in the arts including drawing and playing the piano. These were admirable attributes for a wife and mother. Pursuing a career was unusual and often prohibited. One of the few available for young women to study was at the Académie Julian in Paris. At the Académie, Breslau soon gained the attention of its highly regarded instructors, in 1879, with a portrait Tout passé, Breslau was the only student from the Académie Julian womens atelier to debut at the Paris Salon. Tout passé was a self -portrait that included her two friends, shortly afterwards Breslau had changed her name to Louise Catherine, opened her own atelier, and was becoming a regular contributor and medal winner at the annual Salon. Due to her success at the Salon and favorable notice from the critics and she eventually became the third woman artist, and the first foreign woman artist to be bestowed Frances Legion of Honor award. Over the years, Breslau became a colleague to some of the days most popular artists and writers including Edgar Degas. One person who was special in Breslaus life was Madeleine Zillhardt with whom she spent over forty years. Madeleine, a student at the Académie Julian, became Breslaus muse, model, confidant. During World War I, Breslau and Zillhardt remained at their home outside Paris, although she naturalised to Switzerland many years earlier, she showed her loyalty for the French by drawing numerous portraits of French soldiers and nurses on their way to the Front
7.
Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
8.
Jules Bastien-Lepage
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Jules Bastien-Lepage was a French painter closely associated with the beginning of naturalism, an artistic style that emerged from the later phase of the Realist movement. Bastien-Lepage was born in the village of Damvillers, Meuse, bastiens father grew grapes in a vineyard to support the family. His grandfather also lived in the village, his garden had fruit trees of apple, pear, Bastien took an early liking to drawing, and his parents fostered his creativity by buying prints of paintings for him to copy. Jules Bastien-Lepages first teacher was his father, himself an artist and his first formal training was at Verdun, and prompted by a love of art he went to Paris in 1867, where he was admitted to the École des Beaux-arts, working under Cabanel. He was awarded first place for drawing but spent most of his time working alone, nevertheless, he completed three years at the école. In a letter to his parents, he complained that the model was a man in the pose of a mediaeval lutanist. During the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, Bastien fought and was wounded, after the war, he returned home to paint the villagers and recover from his wound. In 1873 he painted his grandfather in the garden, a work that would bring the artist his first success at the Paris Salon. After exhibiting works in the Salons of 1870 and 1872 which attracted no attention, in 1874 his Portrait of my Grandfather garnered critical acclaim and received a third-class medal. He also showed Song of Spring, a study of rural life, representing a peasant girl sitting on a knoll above a village. His initial success was confirmed in 1875 by the First Communion, a picture of a little girl minutely worked up in manner that was compared to Hans Holbein, and a Portrait of M. Hayern. In 1875 he took place in the competition for the Prix de Rome with his Angels appearing to the Shepherds. His next attempt to win the Prix de Rome in 1876 with Priam at the Feet of Achilles was again unsuccessful, and the painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon of 1877 he sent a full-length Portrait of Lady L. and My Parents, the last picture, now in the Musée dOrsay, was widely praised by critics and the public alike. It secured his status as one of the first painters in the Naturalist school, after the success of Haymaking, Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as the leader of the emerging Naturalist school. By 1883, a critic could proclaim that The whole world paints so much today like M. Bastien-Lepage that M. Bastien-Lepage seems to paint like the whole world and this fame brought him prominent commissions. His Portrait of Mlle Sarah Bernhardt, painted in a light key, in 1879 he was commissioned to paint the Prince of Wales. In 1880 he exhibited a portrait of M. Andrieux and Joan of Arc listening to the Voices, and in the same year, at the Royal Academy
9.
Realism (art movement)
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Realism was an artistic movement that began in France in the 1850s, after the 1848 Revolution. Realists rejected Romanticism, which had dominated French literature and art since the late 18th century, Realism revolted against the exotic subject matter and exaggerated emotionalism and drama of the Romantic movement. Instead it sought to portray real and typical contemporary people and situations with truth and accuracy, Realist works depicted people of all classes in situations that arise in ordinary life, and often reflected the changes brought by the Industrial and Commercial Revolutions. The popularity of realistic works grew with the introduction of photography—a new visual source that created a desire for people to produce representations which look objectively real. The Realists depicted everyday subjects and situations in contemporary settings, classical idealism and Romantic emotionalism and drama were avoided equally, and often sordid or untidy elements of subjects were not smoothed over or omitted. Treatments of subjects in a heroic or sentimental manner were equally rejected, Realism as an art movement was led by Gustave Courbet in France. The Realist movement began in the century as a reaction to Romanticism. In favor of depictions of life, the Realist painters used common laborers. The chief exponents of Realism were Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier, jules Bastien-Lepage is closely associated with the beginning of Naturalism, an artistic style that emerged from the later phase of the Realist movement and heralded the arrival of Impressionism. Realists used unprettified detail depicting the existence of contemporary life, coinciding in the contemporaneous naturalist literature of Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac. Courbet was the proponent of Realism and he challenged the popular history painting that was favored at the state-sponsored art academy. His groundbreaking paintings A Burial at Ornans and The Stonebreakers depicted ordinary people from his native region, the paintings were done on huge canvases that would typically be used for history paintings. The French Realist movement had stylistic and ideological equivalents in all other Western countries, the Ashcan School, an art movement largely based in New York City, included such artists as George Bellows and Robert Henri. It helped to define American realism in its tendency to depict the life of poorer members of society. 19th Century French Realism, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art
10.
Bourgeoisie
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A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). 
