1.
Diana (mythology)
–
In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of the hunt, the moon, and nature being associated with wild animals and woodland, and having the power to talk to and control animals. She was eventually equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, though she had an independent origin in Italy, Diana was worshipped in ancient Roman religion and is revered in Roman Neopaganism and Stregheria. Diana was known to be the goddess of childbirth and women. She was one of the three goddesses, along with Minerva and Vesta, who swore never to marry. Oak groves were especially sacred to her as were deer, according to mythology, Diana was born with her twin brother, Apollo, on the island of Delos, daughter of Jupiter and Latona. She made up a triad with two other Roman deities, Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife, and Virbius, the woodland god. Diana is a form developed from an ancient *divios, corresponding to later divus, dius, as in Dius Fidius, Dea Dia. It is rooted in Indoeuropean *dyw, meaning sky or daylight, from which also derived the name of Vedic god Dyaus and the Latin deus, dies. On the Tablets of Pylos a theonym διϝια is supposed as referring to a deity precursor of Artemis, Modern scholars mostly accept the identification. The ancient Latin writers Varro and Cicero considered the etymology of Dīāna as allied to that of dies, the persona of Diana is complex and contains a number of archaic features. According to Georges Dumézil it falls into a subset of celestial gods. Such gods, while keeping the original features of celestial divinities, the celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with light, inaccessibility, virginity, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Diana therefore reflects the world in its sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility. At the same time, however, she is seen as active in ensuring the succession of kings and these functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess. This ever open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantor of kingly status through successive generations. Her function as bestower of authority to rule is also attested in the story related by Livy in which a Sabine man who sacrifices a heifer to Diana wins for his country the seat of the Roman empire. Diana was also worshipped by women who wanted to be pregnant or who, once pregnant and this form of worship is attested in archeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as in ancient sources, e. g. Ovid. According to Dumezil the forerunner of all gods is an Indian epic hero who was the image of the Vedic god Dyaus
Diana (mythology)
–
The
Diana of Versailles, a 2nd-century Roman version in the Greek tradition of iconography
Diana (mythology)
–
Marcus Aurelius (
head covered) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter
Diana (mythology)
–
Gallo-Roman bronze statuette of Diana (latter 1st century)
Diana (mythology)
–
Diana (1892 - 93),
Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Bronze,
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York City.
2.
Hercules
–
Hercules is the Roman adaptation of the Greek divine hero Heracles, who was the son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmene. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures, the Romans adapted the Greek heros iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name Hercules. In later Western art and literature and in culture, Hercules is more commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick. This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the later tradition, Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches of the Greco-Roman world. One cycle of these adventures became canonical as the Twelve Labours, one traditional order of the labours is found in the Bibliotheca as follows, Slay the Nemean Lion. Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis, clean the Augean stables in a single day. Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon. Steal the apples of the Hesperides, Hercules was a favorite subject for Etruscan art, and appears often on bronze mirrors. The Etruscan form Herceler derives from the Greek Heracles via syncope, a mild oath invoking Hercules was a common interjection in Classical Latin. Hercules had a number of myths that were distinctly Roman, one of these is Hercules defeat of Cacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome. The hero was associated with the Aventine Hill through his son Aventinus, Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperor Commodus. Roman brides wore a belt tied with the knot of Hercules. The comic playwright Plautus presents the myth of Hercules conception as a sex comedy in his play Amphitryon, during the Roman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally from Hispania through Gaul. Tacitus records a special affinity of the Germanic peoples for Hercules, in chapter 3 of his Germania, Tacitus states. They say that Hercules, too, once visited them, and they have also those songs of theirs, by the recital of this barditus as they call it, they rouse their courage, while from the note they augur the result of the approaching conflict. For, as their line shouts, they inspire or feel alarm, some have taken this as Tacitus equating the Germanic Þunraz with Hercules by way of interpretatio romana. In the Roman era Hercules Club amulets appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, distributed over the empire, mostly made of gold, a specimen found in Köln-Nippes bears the inscription DEO HER, confirming the association with Hercules
Hercules
–
Hercules fighting the Nemean lion by
Peter Paul Rubens
Hercules
–
Hercules and the
Hydra (ca. 1475) by
Antonio del Pollaiuolo; the hero wears his characteristic lionskin and wields a club
Hercules
–
Hercules capturing the
Erymanthian Boar, by J.M. Félix Magdalena (b. 1941)
Hercules
–
Killing a fire-breathing
Cacus (
Sebald Beham, 1545)
3.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
4.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
5.
Claude, Duke of Chevreuse
–
Claude de Lorraine, also called Claude de Guise, was a French noble and husband of Marie de Rohan. He was the Duke of Chevreuse, a title which is used by the Duke of Luynes. He was the son of Henry I, Duke of Guise. Prince of Joinville, he is made Duke of Chevreuse and peer of France by Louis XIII in 1611, Grand Chamberlain of France in 1621, in 1625 Charles I of England made him a Knight in the Order of the Garter. In 1622, he married Marie de Rohan, who was 22 years younger than himself and they had 3 daughters, Anne Marie de Lorraine, abbesse of Pont-aux-Dames. Charlotte Marie de Lorraine, lover of Jean François Paul de Gondi, henriette de Lorraine, abbesse of Jouarre. He lived with his family in the château de Dampierre, near Chevreuse, living an inconspicuous life, Claude succeeded in distancing himself from his wifes plotting. He died without an heir in 1657
Claude, Duke of Chevreuse
–
Claude de Guise, prince de Joinville (1610)
Claude, Duke of Chevreuse
–
Arms of Claude
6.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
7.
House of Rohan
–
The House of Rohan is a French noble family of viscounts, later dukes and princes, coming from the locality of Rohan in Brittany. Their line descends from the viscounts of Porhoët and is said to back to the legendary Conan Meriadoc. Through the Porhoët, the Rohan are related to the Dukes of Brittany and they developed ties with the French and English royal houses as well, and played an important role in France and European history. Alain I de Rohan, son of the viscount of Porhoët, was the first to take on the name of Rohan, the main branch of the family became extinct when Jean II died childless in 1638, his title and possessions passed on to the cadet branch of Rohan-Gié. When the first duke of Rohan, Henri II de Rohan-Gié, died, his title and this created the Rohan-Chabot lineage, which was not really a branch of the Rohan family. Rohan-Gié, extinct 1638 Rohan-Soubise, extinct 1787 The family of Rohan has a documented history. Spanish Royal Genealogy, Henri Vanoene The Rohan-Chabot family in Josselin Marek, Miroslav
House of Rohan
–
Château des Rohan in
Mutzig, Alsace (completed in 1673)
House of Rohan
–
Arms of the House of Rohan: Gules, nine mascles or.
House of Rohan
–
Hôtel de Rohan-Soubise,
Paris (completed in 1705)
House of Rohan
–
Palais Rohan in
Strasbourg, Alsace (completed in 1742)
8.
Hercule de Rohan, duc de Montbazon
–
Hercule de Rohan was a member of the princely House of Rohan. The second Duke of Montbazon, he is an ancestor of the present Princes of Guéméné and his daughter was the famous Frondeur the duchesse de Chevreuse. The couple were married on 24 October 1594 and had two children and she married Charles dAlbert and had issue. Hercules first wife Madeleine had died in 1628, the same year he married again to Marie de Bretagne dAvaugour, daughter of Claude de Bretagne, Count of Vertus and Catherine Fouquet de La Varenne. His second wife was hailed as one of the most beautiful, hercule and Marie had three children, of whom two, François and Anne, would have progeny. François founded the Soubise line of the Rohans and married his cousin Anne de Rohan-Chabot and Anne, his youngest child married Louis Charles dAlbert de Luynes, hercule served Henri III and his successor Henri IV against the Catholic League. He was lieutenant-general of Brittany and then later, the governor of Nantes, Henri IV made him governor of Paris and the Ile-de-France. He was also the master of the hounds, hercule was riding in the carriage with Henri IV when the king was assassinated by François Ravaillac on 14 May 1610. Hercule himself was wounded in the attack, hercule commanded the funeral procession for Henris heart He died at the Château de Couziers eighty-six years old. He was buried at Rochefort-en-Yvelines in France, in local churchs chapel called Chapel of princes
Hercule de Rohan, duc de Montbazon
–
Hercule de Rohan. Engraving by Pierre Daret (1610-1675)
9.
Early Modern France
–
The Kingdom of France in the early modern period, from the Renaissance to the Revolution, was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon. This corresponds to the so-called Ancien Régime, the territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas. In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, in addition, certain provinces within France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families. The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion, France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with the Americas, India, the Indian Ocean, the Far East, and a few African trading posts. The administrative and legal system in France in this period is called the Ancien Régime. The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its appearance in 1348, the concurrent Hundred Years War slowed recovery. It would be the early 16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th century levels and these demographic changes also led to a massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole France remained a profoundly rural country. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, other major French cities include Lyon, Rouen, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Marseille. These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars, between 1693 and 1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3. 5% of its population, in the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French, both World Wars included. Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme, before the Renaissance, the language spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects called Oïl languages whereas the written and administrative language remained Latin. Nevertheless, in 1790, only half of the spoke or understood standard French. The southern half of the continued to speak Occitan languages, and other inhabitants spoke Breton, Catalan, Basque, Dutch. In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues doïl continued to be spoken in rural communities, during the French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the schools. The French used would be that of the system, which differed from the French spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language, France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of the 19th century. The Peace of Etaples marks, for some, the beginning of the modern period in France. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in 1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs, in 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on
Early Modern France
–
Francis I by
Jean Clouet
Early Modern France
–
France on the eve of the modern era (1477). The red line denotes the boundary of the French kingdom, while the light blue the royal domain.
Early Modern France
–
Henry IV of France by
Frans Pourbus the younger.
Early Modern France
–
Louis XIV King of France and of Navarre By
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
10.
Foreign Prince
–
Prince étranger was a high, though somewhat ambiguous, rank at the French royal court of the ancien régime. In medieval Europe, a nobleman bore the title of prince as an indication of sovereignty, aside from those who were or claimed to be monarchs, it belonged to those who were in line to succeed to a royal or independent throne. France had several categories of prince in the post-medieval era and they frequently quarrelled, and sometimes sued each other and members of the nobility, over precedence and distinctions. The foreign princes ranked in France above titular princes, and above most titled nobles, including the highest among these and they ranked below acknowledged members of the House of Capet, Frances ruling dynasty since the tenth century. This hierarchy in France evolved slowly at the court, barely taking into account any more exalted status a foreign prince might enjoy in his own dynastys realm. It was not clear, outside the halls of the Parlement of Paris, whether foreign princes ranked above, below, or with the holder of a French peerage. Deposed rulers and their consorts, ranked above the foreign princes, some ruled small border realms, while others inherited or were granted large properties in France. Still others came to France as relatively destitute refugees, but they were often also disruptive at court and occasionally proved threatening to the king. Deeming themselves to belong to the class as the king, they tended to be proud. They also clashed with the upstarts at court favored by Henry III, who raised to peerage, fortune and these so-called mignons were disdained and resisted by Frances princes initially. Later, endowed with wealth and honors, their families were absorbed into the peerage. More frequently, they vied for place and prestige with each other, with the princes légitimés, so great was their pride that Henry I, Duke of Guise, although merely a subject, dared to openly court Margaret of Valois, the daughter of Henri II. He was obliged to wed a princesse étrangère, to avoid bodily harm from Margarets offended brothers. The status of prince was not automatic, it required the kings acknowledgement. Some individuals and families claimed entitlement to the rank but never received it, most foreign princes did not initially use prince as a personal title. Since the families which held that rank were famous and few in the ancien régime of France, a title carried less distinction than the family surname. But he ranked as a prince rather than as a viscount, being a cadet of the House of La Tour dAuvergne. In France, some important seigneuries were styled principalities since the late Middle Ages and their lords had no specific rank, and were always officially subordinate to dukes and foreign princes
Foreign Prince
–
House of Lorraine
11.
Court (royal)
–
The court of a monarch, or at some periods an important nobleman, is a term for the extended household and all those who regularly attended on the ruler or central figure. It can also refer to the residence of the monarch where the court resides or a series of complexes. In the largest courts, the households, many thousands of individuals comprised the court. Foreign princes and foreign nobility in exile may also seek refuge at a court and this is shown above Near Eastern and Eastern courts often included the harem and concubines as well as eunuchs who fulfilled a variety of functions. At times the harem was walled off and separate from the rest of the residence of the monarch, in Asia concubines were often a more visible part of the court. Lower ranking servants and bodyguards were not properly called courtiers though may be included as part of the court or royal household in the broadest definition, entertainers and others may have been counted as part of the court. A royal household is the highest ranking example of this, a group of individuals dependent on the patronage of a great man, classically in ancient Rome, forms part of the system of clientage that is discussed under vassal. Individual rulers differed greatly in tastes and interests, as well as in political skills, accordingly, some founded elaborate courts based on new palaces, only to have their successors retreat to remote castles or to practical administrative centers. Personal retreats might arise far away from official court centres, etiquette and hierarchy flourish in highly structured court settings, and may leave conservative traces over generations. Most courts featured a strict order of precedence often involving royal and noble ranks, orders of chivalry, some courts even featured court uniforms. One of the markers of a court is ceremony. Most monarchal courts included ceremonies concerning the investiture or coronation of the monarch, some courts had ceremonies around the waking and the sleeping of the monarch called a levée. Orders of chivalry as honorific orders became an important part of court culture starting in the 15th century and they were the right of the monarch to create and grant as the fount of honour. Two of the earliest titles referring to the concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi, the imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least a thousand courtiers. The courts systems became prevalent in other such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire. Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century, however, by the Sui Dynasty the functions of the royal household and the imperial government were clearly divided. During the Heian period, Japanese Emperors and their families developed an exquisitely refined court that played an important role in their culture. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, a court culture can be recognized in the entourage of the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great
Court (royal)
–
Ambassador
Kosa Pan and
Siamese envoys pay their respect to
Louis XIV at his court in
Versailles.
Court (royal)
–
The 'Court of Lahore'.
Court (royal)
–
The
Macartney Embassy. Lord Macartney salutes the
Qianlong Emperor, but refused to
kowtow.
Court (royal)
–
The Dutch court is known for old traditions
12.
Constable of France
–
The Constable of France, as the First Officer of the Crown, was one of the original five Great Officers of the Crown of France and Commander in Chief of the army. He, theoretically, as Lieutenant-general of the King, outranked all the nobles and was only to the King. The Connétable de France was also responsible for justice and served to regulate the Chivalry. His jurisdiction was called the connestablie, the office was established by King Philip I in 1060 with Alberic becoming the first Constable. The position was replaced by the purely ceremonial title Dean of Marshals. The later title Marshal General of France or more precisely Marshal General of the Kings camps and armies was bestowed on outstanding military leaders. The recipient had authority over all the French armies and garrisons engaged in a war and was senior to the Maréchaux de France, the badge of office was a highly elaborate sword called Joyeuse, after the legendary sword of Charlemagne. Joyeuse was a made with fragments of different swords and used in the Sacre of the French Kings since at least 1271. It was contained in a blue scabbard embellished with fleur-de-lis in column from hilt to point, traditionally, the constable was presented with the sword on taking his office. He had the position of Lieutenant-General of the King, both within and without the kingdom, the constable had under his command all military officers, including the maréchaux, he was also responsible for the financing of the army, administering military justice within the host. The official name of the jurisdiction was la connétablie, which he exercised with the assistance of the Maréchaux de France and this paralleled the Court of the Lord Constable, later called curia militaris of Court of Chivalry, which existed in England at that time. Marshal of France At exceptional times the Marshal of France was senior to the Constable, porte-Oriflamme - a very prestigious honorary position, not a rank, which gave the right to carry the royal banner in battle. Grand Master of Crossbowmen Grand Master of Artillery, NOT UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE CONSTABLE, The title Lieutenant-general of the Realm was not a military rank. Note that there are gaps in the dates as the position was not always filled following the demise of its occupant, john Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, 1445–1453 Louis de Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, 1465–. Both titles were of a purely honorific nature and disappeared with the Napoleonic regime, if I Were King,1938, with François Villon, who was appointed by Louis XI, King of France to be Constable of France for one week. Various versions of Shakespeares play Henry V depict Constable Charles dAlbret, Comte de Dreux and he is played by Leo Genn in the 1944 film, by Richard Easton in the 1989 film, and by Maxime Lefrancois in the 2012 film. In the 1944 film he dies in combat with King Henry. In the 1989 film he is depicted as falling from his horse into the mud, in the 2012 film he is shot by a longbowman after stabbing the Duke of York in the back in woodland away from the main battle
Constable of France
–
2 October 1369:
Charles V of France presents the sword
Joyeuse to the Constable
Bertrand du Guesclin, miniature by
Jean Fouquet
13.
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
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Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
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Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
14.
Henri I de Montmorency
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Henri I de Montmorency, Marshal of France, and Constable of France, seigneur of Damville, served as Governor of Languedoc from 1563 to 1614. They accused him of being betraying the city and being in league with Protestants like his cousin Admiral Coligny, Damville responded by arresting four bourgeois and sending them to Paris with charges of slander. Damville also placed a procureur-général on the Parlement of Toulouse who was suspected of Protestantism, when Damville went into revolt in October 1574 he was deprived of his office by the Parlement of Toulouse, and arrests were made of his associates charged with conspiracy against the king. He became Duke of Montmorency on his brothers death in 1579, as a leader of the party called the Politiques he took a prominent part in the French Wars of Religion. In 1593 he was constable of France, but Henry IV showed some anxiety to keep him away from Languedoc. With his second wife, he had two children, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, Henri II de Montmorency and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Henri I de Montmorency
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Henri-Damville.jpg
Henri I de Montmorency
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Engraved portrait of Henri I de Montmorency
15.
Queen consort
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A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. In Brunei, the wife of the Sultan is known as a Raja Isteri with prefix Pengiran Anak, equivalent with queen consort in English, a queen consort usually shares her husbands social rank and status. She holds the equivalent of the kings monarchical titles, but historically, she does not share the kings political. A queen regnant is a queen in her own right with all the powers of a monarch, where some title other than that of king is held by the sovereign, his wife is referred to by the feminine equivalent, such as princess consort or empress consort. In monarchies where polygamy has been practiced in the past, or is practiced today. In Morocco, King Mohammed VI has broken with tradition and given his wife, Lalla Salma, prior to the reign of King Mohammed VI, the Moroccan monarchy had no such title. In Thailand, the king and queen must both be of royal descent, the kings other consorts are accorded royal titles that confer status. Other cultures maintain different traditions on queenly status, a Zulu chieftain designates one of his wives Great Wife, which would be the equivalent to queen consort. Conversely, in Yorubaland, all of a chiefs princess consorts are essentially of equal rank, in general, the consorts of monarchs have no power per se, even when their position is constitutionally or statutorily recognized. In some cases, the queen consort has been the power behind her husbands throne, e. g. Maria Luisa of Parma. Past queens consort, Queen Jang, consort to Sukjong of Joseon
Queen consort
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Anne of Bohemia and Hungary, consort of
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Queen consort
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Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Queen consort
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Queen
Sophia Magdalene wearing the crown of the Queen of Sweden.
16.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria was queen consort of France and Navarre, regent for her son, Louis XIV of France, and a Spanish and Portuguese Infanta by birth. During her regency, Cardinal Mazarin served as Frances chief minister, born at Benavente Palace in Valladolid, Spain, and baptised Ana María Mauricia, she was the eldest daughter of King Philip III of Spain and his wife Margaret of Austria. She held the titles of Infanta of Spain and of Portugal, in spite of her birth in Spain, she was referred to as Anne of Austria because the rulers of Spain belonged to the House of Austria. Anne was raised mainly at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid, exceptionally for a royal princess, Anne grew up close to her parents, who were very religious. She was raised to be too, and was often taken to visit monasteries during her childhood. In 1611, she lost her mother, who died in childbirth, despite her grief, Anne did her best to take care of her younger siblings, who referred to her with affection as their mother. Anne was betrothed at age eleven to King Louis XIII of France and her father gave her a dowry of 500,000 crowns and many beautiful jewels. For fear that Louis XIII would die early, the Spanish court stipulated that she would return to Spain with her dowry, jewels, and wardrobe if he did die. On 24 November 1615, Louis and Anne were married by proxy in Burgos while Louiss sister, Elisabeth of France, Anne and Elisabeth were exchanged on the Isle of Pheasants between Hendaye and Fuenterrabía. She was lively and beautiful during her youth and she was also a noted equestrian, a taste her son, Louis, would inherit. At the time, Anne had many admirers, including the handsome Duke of Buckingham, Anne and Louis, both fourteen years old, were pressured to consummate their marriage in order to forestall any possibility of future annulment, but Louis ignored his bride. Louiss mother, Marie de Medici, continued to conduct herself as queen of France, Anne, surrounded by her entourage of high-born Spanish ladies-in-waiting, continued to live according to Spanish etiquette and failed to improve her French. During the years he was in the ascendancy, the Duke of Luynes attempted to remedy the formal distance between Louis and his queen, Anne began to dress in the French manner, and in 1619 Luynes pressed the king to bed his queen. Some affection developed, to the point where it was noted that Louis was distracted during an illness of the queen. A series of stillbirths disenchanted the king and served to chill their relations, on 14 March 1622, while playing with her ladies, Anne fell on a staircase and suffered her second stillbirth. Louis blamed her for the incident and was angry with the Duchess of Luynes for having encouraged the queen in what was seen as negligence. Henceforth, the king had less tolerance for the influence that the duchess had over Anne, Louis turned now to Cardinal Richelieu as his advisor. Under the influence of Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, the queen let herself be drawn into political opposition to Richelieu, in 1635, France declared war on Spain, placing the queen in an untenable position
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Anne at the age of six, 1607. The pleated ruff that surrounds her neck and frames her face was made of yards and yards of expensive lace stiffened with starch. It was probably held in position by a wire frame attached to the collar of her dress.
Anne of Austria
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Anne of Austria, coronation costume, by
Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
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Louis XIII, Anne, and their son
Louis XIV, flanked by
Cardinal Richelieu and the Duchesse de Chevreuse.
17.
Godparent
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A godparent, in many denominations of Christianity, is someone who sponsors a childs baptism, although the term has also been used in a legal sense. A male godparent is a godfather, and a female godparent is a godmother, as early as the 2nd century AD, infant baptism had begun to gain acceptance among Christians for the spiritual purification and social initiation of infants. The requirement for some confession of faith necessitated the use of adults who acted as sponsors for the child and they vocalized the confession of faith and acted as guarantors of the child’s spiritual upbringing. Normally, these sponsors were the parents of a child, as emphasized in 408 by St. Augustine who suggested that they could, it seems exceptionally. Within a century, the Corpus Juris Civilis indicates that parents had been replaced in this role almost completely and this was clarified in 813 when the Council of Munich prohibited natural parents from acting as godparents to their own children. This pattern was marked by the creation of legal barriers to marriage that paralleled those for other forms of kin, as confirmation emerged as a separate rite from baptism from the 8th century, a second set of sponsors, with similar prohibitions, also emerged. Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin preserved infant baptism against the attacks of more radical reformers including Anabaptists, in 888, the Catholic Council of Metz attempted to limit the number to one, but proliferation seems to have continued. In early 14th-century Spain, as many as 20 godparents were being chosen, in England, the Synod of Worcester stipulated three sponsors, and this has remained the norm in the Church of England. The Council of Trent attempted to limit the numbers of godparents to one or two, but practice has differed across the Catholic world. They were abolished in 1644 by the Directory of Public Worship promulgated by the English Civil War Parliamentary regime, after the Restoration in 1660, they were reintroduced to Anglicanism, with occasional objections, but dropped by almost every dissenting church. There is some evidence that the institution had lost some of its social importance as well as its universality. At present, in the Church of England, relatives can stand as godparents, godparents should be both baptized and confirmed, but the requirement for confirmation can be waived. There is no requirement for clergy to baptize those from outside their parishes, as a result, individual clergy have considerable discretion over the qualifications of godparents. Many contemporary Anglican rites likewise require parents and godparents to respond on behalf of infant candidates, the Catholic institution of godparenthood survived the Reformation largely unchanged. Someone who belongs to another Christian church cannot become a godparent, a witness does not have any religious role recognized by the Church. Lutherans follow a similar theology of godparents as Roman Catholics and they believe that godparents help with their Christian upbringing, especially if they should lose their parents. Lutherans, like Roman Catholics, believe that a godparent must be both a baptized and confirmed Christian, some Lutherans also follow the Roman Catholic tradition that a Christian who is not affiliated with the Lutheran denomination may serve as a witness rather than a godparent. The Orthodox institution of godparenthood has been the least affected of the traditions by change
Godparent
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Detail from the "Baptism Window" at
St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral in Memphis, Tennessee, showing godparents from the mid-20th century.
Godparent
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The
baptismal font at the
Cathedral of Magdeburg.
Godparent
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Brit Mila—the
sandek holds the baby boy
18.
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Victor Amadeus II was Duke of Savoy from 1675 to 1730. He also held the titles of marquis of Saluzzo, duke of Montferrat, prince of Piedmont, count of Aosta, Moriana, Louis XIV organised his marriage in order to maintain French influence in the Duchy but Victor Amadeus soon broke away from the influence of France. Having fought in the War of the Spanish Succession, he became king of Sicily in 1713 but he was forced to exchange this title, Victor Amadeus was born in Turin to Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy and his second wife Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Named after his paternal grandfather Victor Amadeus I he was their only child, as an infant he was styled as the Prince of Piedmont, traditional title of the heir apparent to the duchy of Savoy. A weak child, his health was greatly monitored, as an infant he had a passion for soldiers and was noted as being very intelligent. His father died in June 1675 Turin at the age of forty after a series of convulsive fevers and his mother was declared Regent of Savoy and Marie Jeanne, known as Madame Royale at court, took power. The duchy would revert to the Kingdom of Portugal at her death. Victor Amadeus refused and a party was formed which refused to recognise his leaving Savoy. Despite a marriage contract being signed between Portugal and Savoy on 15 May 1679, the marriage between Victor Amadeus and the Infanta came to nothing and was thus cancelled, other candidates included Maria Antonia of Austria, a Countess Palatine of Neuburg and Anna Maria Luisa de Medici. Victor Amadeus was keen on the match with Tuscany and negotiations were kept secret from France even though the match never happened, under the influence of Louis XIV and Marie Jeanne, Victor Amadeus was forced to marry a French princess Anne Marie dOrléans. His mother was keen on the match and had always promoted French interests having been born in Paris a member of a branch of the House of Savoy. A significant event of his mothers regency was the Salt Wars of 1680 and these rebellions were caused by the unpopular taxes on salt in all cities in Savoy. The system had been put in place by Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy in order to raise money for the crown, the unrest caused an army to be sent to stop the unrest in the town, which was pacified quickly. However, in the town of Montaldo, the unrest began again and was more serious than before,200 soldiers were killed in warfare which lasted for several days. The news of these rebellions soon reached a wider scope and it clear that soon the whole of Piedmont was on the verge of revolt. The event had allowed Victor Amadeus a chance to some power. Having succeeded in ending his mothers power in Savoy, Victor Amadeus looked to his marriage with the youngest child of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. The contract of marriage between Anne Marie and the Duke of Savoy was signed at Versailles on 9 April, On 10 April 1684, Anne Marie was married at Versailles, by proxy, the couple were married in person on 6 May 1684
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Victor Amadeus II
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Map of Western Europe in 1713, the
Duchy of Savoy can be seen yellow in the centre
Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia
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Martin van Mytens, Portrait of Victor Amedeus II (1728/29), Reggia di Venaria
19.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
House of Savoy
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Hautecombe Abbey, where many of the dukes are buried.
House of Savoy
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House of Savoy
House of Savoy
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Map of Kingdom of Sardinia.
20.
Anne de Rohan-Chabot
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Anne de Rohan-Chabot was a French noble. A member of the House of Rohan, she was wife of the Prince of Soubise and it was she who brought the lordship of Soubise into the junior line of the House of Rohan. She was for some time the mistress of Louis XIV and she was sometimes called Madame de Frontenay due to being the Dame of Frontenay. Born to Henri Chabot and his wife Marguerite de Rohan, she was the third of five children and her parents marriage had caused a scandal as Marguerite was a Foreign Princess as a member of the House of Rohan. This had obliged Louis XIV to issue a decree that she was able to marry Henri and her family were allowed to bear the name of Rohan-Chabot, the Rohans being her maternal family. On 17 April 1663, at not more than fifteen years old, François was a widower and the younger son of Hercule de Rohan Duke of Montbazon, and his wife Marie de Bretagne dAvaugour. His older half sister was Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse and she was presented at court in 1665. Anne was the Dame of Soubise in her own right, as such, at the time of her marriage she passed the title onto her husband. The couple styled themselves as the Prince and Princess of Soubise after March 1667 based on letters patent which raised the title of Soubise to a principality, Anne was also the Dame of Frontenay in her own right. She received an excellent education for the time, although only a teenager, she was devoted to her husband. She was also a beauty of the era with her red hair, fresh pale skin. Known as la Belle Florice, she maintained her beauty by keeping to a diet of chicken and salad, fruit, dairy products. Anne became Louis XIVs mistress in 1669 when he was staying at the Château of Chambord where Anne was also present, at the time, Louis affections were split between Louise de La Vallière and her future successor Madame de Montespan. Some time later Anne gave birth to her son, Hercule Mériadec de Rohan. In January 1674 Anne became a Lady-in-waiting to Queen Marie Thérèse, although nothing was proved, Louis XIV did allot a large sum of money to the compliant husband, in consideration of his services. In the portraits of the time, the similarity between the king and Armand is obvious, the couples affair ended in 1675 having been on an off for some six years. At the same relationship between Madame de Montespan and the King also came to an end. She persuaded her husband to purchase the Hôtel de Guise from the trustees of the late Duchess of Guise and he bought the property on 27 March 1700 and renamed it the Hôtel de Soubise
Anne de Rohan-Chabot
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Anne from the studio of the Beaubrun brothers
21.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV of France
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Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV of France
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1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
22.
Port-Royal-des-Champs
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Port-Royal-des-Champs was an abbey of Cistercian nuns in Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Vallée de Chevreuse southwest of Paris that launched a number of culturally important institutions. The abbey was established in 1204, but became famous when its discipline was reformed in 1609 by its abbess, the Arnauld family became its patrons and the abbeys subsequent history was directed by a number of the members of that family. In 1625 most of the moved to a new Port-Royal in Paris. At the original site, several schools were founded, which known as the Little Schools of Port-Royal. These schools became famous for the quality of the education they gave. Playwright Jean Racine was a product of Port-Royal education, in 1634 Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, Abbé de Saint-Cyran, became spiritual director of the abbey, he was a companion of Jansenius and the implementer of Jansenism in France. From that point forward, the abbeys and schools of Port-Royal became intimately associated with school of theology. The atmosphere of serious study and Jansenist piety attracted a number of prominent cultural figures to the movement, Pascal defended the schools publicly against the Jesuits in the Jansenist controversies which agitated the French Roman Catholic Church, in his Provincial Letters in 1657. Perhaps even more striking, several important persons of the court were close to Jansenism, members of the Arnauld family have managed to have important jobs such as Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, Minister of Louis XIV. The Jesuits, on the hand, enjoyed predominance in political and theological power in France and Europe, providing a personal confessor to the King. As a result of the Jesuit attacks on Jansenism, the schools of Port-Royal were regarded as tainted with heresy, Louis XIV wanting peace in the church, the elementary schools were forcibly closed by papal bull in 1660, following the formulary controversy. In 1661, the monastery was forbidden to accept novices, heralding its eventual dissolution, the abbey itself was abolished by a bull from Pope Clement XI in 1708, the remaining nuns forcibly removed in 1709, most of the buildings themselves razed in 1711. The chapel, containing Mère Angéliques tomb, as well as buildings, still exist in the vast grounds of what eventually became Paris leading maternity hospital. A celebrated history of Port-Royal and its influence was written by Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve in 1837-1859, the remains of the monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs may still be seen at Magny-les-Hameaux, in the Chevreuse valley. Operated as Musée de Port-Royal, the 30-hectare estate includes the ruins of the abbey, a 17th-century building houses the Musée national de Port-Royal des Champs, which exhibits 17th- and 18th-century paintings and engravings
Port-Royal-des-Champs
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Plan of Port-Royal-des-Champs, engraving by
Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels, c. 1710
Port-Royal-des-Champs
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Nuns being forcibly removed from the abbey in 1709.
Port-Royal-des-Champs
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Caring for the Sick
Port-Royal-des-Champs
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Distributing Alms to the Poor
23.
Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti
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Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti was a French nobleman, the younger son of Henri, Prince of Condé and brother of le Grand Condé and Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in his favour in 1629. He was destined for the church and studied theology at the university of Bourges, said to be mystic and full of strange ideas, Conti turned slightly mad while in prison. Having a secret passion for his sister the Duchess of Longueville and he tried alchemy and potions for some time and eventually bruised himself with a spatula. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651, but soon became reconciled with Mazarin, and in 1654 married the cardinals niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi. They had two children, Louis Armand and François Louis and he took command of the army which in 1654 invaded Catalonia, where he captured three towns from the Spanish. He afterwards led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Alessandria in 1657 retired to Languedoc, Conti also wrote Lettres sur la grâce, and Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province. 11 October 1629 –26 February 1666, His Serene Highness The Prince of Conti This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conti
Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti
–
Armand de Bourbon-Conti
24.
Cardinal de Retz
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Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz was a French churchman, writer of memoirs, and agitator in the Fronde. The Gondi acquired great estates in Brittany and became connected with the noblest houses of the kingdom, Jean-François de Gondi was born in Montmirail, in the Brie region of northern France. He was the son in his family, and according to Tallemant des Réaux was made a knight of Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his brother, however, destined him for a closer connection with the Church. The Retz side of his family had much influence, and though young Jean-François was not much attracted to the clergy. They said he lacked the appearance of a soldier, being short, near-sighted, ugly and he was tutored by St. Vincent de Paul and educated at the Sorbonne. When he was eighteen, he wrote Conjuration de Fiesque, a historical essay, influenced by the Italian of Agostino Mascardi. The district of Retz or Rais is in southern Brittany, and has been under the control of different families. Retz always spelled the word Rais, the barony of Retz first belonged to the House of Retz, then to the Chabot family and the Laval family. Gilles de Rais, a Laval and comrade in arms of Joan of Arc, was executed without an heir, so the barony passed successively to the families of Tournemine, Annebaut, in 1581, it became a duchy, with Albert de Gondi its first duke. His brother Pierre de Gondi became bishop of Paris in 1570, Pierre was succeeded by his nephews Henri de Gondi and Jean-François de Gondi, for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an archbishopric in 1622. Finally, Jean François was then succeeded by Pierres great-nephew Jean François Paul de Gondi, Retz received no preferment of importance during Cardinal Richelieus life. Even after the death, though he was presented to Louis XIII and well received. But almost immediately after the death, Anne of Austria appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints Eve,1643. Retz, who had, according to accounts, already plotted against Richelieu. His uncle had lived in seclusion, Retz, on the contrary. This influence he gradually turned against Cardinal Mazarin, which helped lead to the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648, of the two parties who joined the Fronde, Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris. He had some tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of republicanism, but represented no real political principle
Cardinal de Retz
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Cardinal de Retz
Cardinal de Retz
Cardinal de Retz
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1731 Edition (by Bernard, Amsterdam)
25.
Fronde
–
The Fronde was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The king confronted the opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts, and most of the French people. The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles, the timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. A. Lloyd Moote argues that Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis, the Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. The long-term result was to strengthen Royal authority, but to weaken the economy, the Fronde facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchy. The French word fronde means sling, Parisian crowds used slings to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin, the Fronde in the end provided an incentive for the establishment of royalist absolutism, since the disorders eventually discredited the feudal concept of liberty. The pressure that saw the traditional liberties under threat came in the form of extended and increased taxes as the Crown needed to recover from its expenditures in the recent wars. The costs of the Thirty Years War constrained Mazarins government to raise funds by means, the impôts, the taille. The nobility refused to be so taxed, based on their old liberties, or privileges, and the brunt fell upon the bourgeoisie. When Louis XIV became king in 1643, he was only a child, most historians consider that Louiss later insistence on absolutist rule and depriving the nobility of actual power was a result of these events in his childhood. The military record of the first Fronde is almost blank, the noble faction demanded the calling of an assembly of the Estates General. The nobles believed that in the Estates-General they could continue to control the element as they had in the past. The royal faction, having no army at its disposal, had to release the prisoners. But Frances signing of the Peace of Westphalia allowed the French army to return from the frontiers, the two warring parties signed the Peace of Rueil after little blood had been shed. From then on the Fronde became a story of intrigues, half-hearted warfare in a scramble for power and control of patronage, the military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two great, and many lesser, generals. The peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649, the princes, received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin. On 14 January 1650, Cardinal Mazarin, having come to an understanding with Monsieur Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Condé, Conti, the war which followed this coup is called the Princes Fronde. This time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his day, listening to the promptings of Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother Condé, his old comrade in the battles of Freiburg and Nördlingen
Fronde
–
Cardinal Mazarin, French diplomat and statesman, by Pierre-Louis Bouchart
Fronde
–
Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine (1652) by the walls of the
Bastille,
Paris
Fronde
–
"Louis XIV Crushes the Fronde" by
Gilles Guérin 1654
Fronde
–
The
Battle of the Dunes in 1658
26.
Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland
–
Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland KG KB PC, known as The Lord Kensington between 1623 and 1624, was an English courtier, peer and soldier. A member of the influential Rich family, he was the son of Robert Rich, 1st Earl of Warwick, and his wife, Penelope Devereux, and the younger brother of Robert, 2nd Earl of Warwick. He began his career as a courtier and soldier in 1610, swiftly becoming a favourite of King James I and he was created Baron Kensington in 1622, and Earl of Holland in 1624. He was one of lovers of Marie de Rohan, the veteran of French court intrigue. He was elected MP for Leicester in 1610 and re-elected in 1614 and he was appointed joint Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire for 1628-32 and sole Lieutenant of the county for 1632-43. He was also joint Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex for 1628-42 and sole Lieutenant for 1642-43, on Sunday,9 July 1648, seven months prior to the execution of King Charles, the Earl and his army of approximately 400 men entered St Neots in the county of Huntingdonshire. The Earls men were hungry and weary, following their escape from Kingston upon Thames, of his original army of 500, the Earl escaped with around 100 horsemen and were immediately followed by a small party of Puritan and Parliamentary horsemen. After much hesitation regarding in which direction they should flee, the Earl decided on Northampton, upon the outskirts of Bedford the group turned eastward towards St Neots town. At Kingston, the Earl was joined by the young Duke of Buckingham, his young brother Francis Villiers, the field officers of Holland’s force sought only rest and safety. Colonel Dalbier called a council of war, where many officers voted for dispersing into the surrounding countryside, others suggested they should continue northwards. He suggested they meet and engage their pursuers and he further added that, by obtaining a victory, the fortunes of war could be turned in their favour. Due to his vast experience as a soldier, his words were listened to with respect and he further offered to guard them through the night in case of a surprise attack, or meet a soldiers death in the defence of the town. A vote was taken and Dalbier’s plan was adopted, the Duke of Buckingham spoke at length, claiming they did not wish to continue a bloody war, but wanted only a settled government under Royal King Charles. Assurances were also given that their Royalist troop would not riot or damage the townfolks’ property, of the latter, it is recorded that they were faithful to their promise. Fatigued by their battle and consequent retreat from Kingston, the field officers eagerly sought rest, true to his word, Colonel Dalbier kept watch over them. The small group of Puritan horsemen who had pursued them had, upon reaching Hertford, met with Colonel Scroope, at two o’clock on Monday morning,10 July,100 dragoons from the Parliament forces arrived ahead of the main army at Eaton Ford. Dalbier was at once informed, and immediately gave the alarm, To horse, the dragoons, equipped with musket and sword, crossed St Neots’ bridge before the Royalists were fully prepared. The Battle of St Neots had begun, the few Royalists guarding the bridge quickly fell back from the superior numbers before them
Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland
–
Portrait of Henry Rich by
van Dyck, c. 1640, in the
National Portrait Gallery
Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland
–
The Earl of Holland
27.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Fronsac, commonly referred to as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman, nobleman, and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1607 and was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616, Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIIIs chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642, he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the kings Chief Minister or First Minister. He sought to consolidate power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong and his chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. While a powerful figure, events like the Day of the Dupes show that in fact he very much depended on the kings confidence to keep this power. As alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the Collège de Sorbonne, Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts, most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. Richelieu is also known by the sobriquet lÉminence rouge, from the red shade of a cardinals clerical dress and this in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Born in Paris, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children, at the age of nine, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career and his private life seems to have been typical of a young officer of the era, in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea. King Henry III had rewarded Richelieus father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use, they were, however, challenged by clergymen, to protect the important source of revenue, Richelieus mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk, thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong interests, and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606 King Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon, as Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from the Pope. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607, soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu, 1633–40,
Philippe de Champaigne,
National Gallery,
London
Cardinal Richelieu
–
The young King
Louis XIII was only a figurehead during his early reign; power actually rested with his mother,
Marie de Médicis.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Henri Motte 's depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the
Siege of La Rochelle.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Letter of Cardinal Richelieu to
Claude de Razilly asking him to do everything in his power to relieve
Ré Island in the
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, July 1627.
28.
Duchy of Lorraine
–
The Duchy of Lorraine, originally Upper Lorraine, was a duchy now included in the larger present-day region of Lorraine in northeastern France. It was founded in 959 following the division of Lotharingia into two duchies, Upper and Lower Lorraine, the westernmost parts of the Holy Roman Empire. The Lower duchy was quickly dismantled, while Upper Lorraine came to be known as simply the Duchy of Lorraine, the Duchy of Lorraine was coveted and briefly occupied by the Dukes of Burgundy and the Kings of France. When Stanisław died on 23 February 1766, Lorraine was annexed by France, lorraines predecessor, Lotharingia, was an independent Carolingian kingdom under the rule of King Lothair II. Its territory had originally been a part of Middle Francia, created in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, Middle Francia was allotted to Emperor Lothair I, therefore called Lotharii Regnum. On his death in 855, it was divided into three parts, of which his son Lothair II took the northern one. His realm then comprised a territory stretching from the County of Burgundy in the south to the North Sea. In French, this became known as Lorraine, while in German. In the Alemannic language once spoken in Lorraine, the -ingen suffix signified a property, thus, in a figurative sense, stuck in the conflict with his rival Hugh the Great, in 942 King Louis IV of France renounced all claims to Lotharingia. In 953, the German king Otto I had appointed his brother Bruno the Great Duke of Lotharingia, in 959, Bruno divided the duchy into Upper and Lower Lorraine, this division became permanent following his death in 965. The Upper Duchy was further up the system, that is, it was inland. Upper Lorraine was first denominated as the Duchy of the Moselle, the usage of Lotharingia Superioris and Lorraine in official documents begins later, around the fifteenth century. The first duke and deputy of Bruno was Frederick I of Bar, Lower Lorraine disintegrated into several smaller territories and only the title of a Duke of Lothier remained, held by Brabant. After the duchy of the Moselle came into the possession of René of Anjou, the name Duchy of Lorraine was adopted again, only retrospectively called Upper Lorraine. At that time, several territories had already split off, such as the County of Luxembourg, the Electorate of Trier, the County of Bar, the border between the Empire and the Kingdom of France remained relatively stable throughout the Middle Ages. In 1301, Count Henry III of Bar had to receive the part of his lands as a fief by King Philip IV of France. In 1475, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold campaigned for the Duchy of Lorraine, in the 1552 Treaty of Chambord, a number of insurgent Protestant Imperial princes around Elector Maurice of Saxony ceded the Three Bishoprics to King Henry II of France in turn for his support. In the 17th century, the French kings began to covet Lorraine, while the central Imperial authority decayed in the course of the Thirty Years War, Chief Minister Cardinal Richelieu urged the occupation of the duchy in 1641
Duchy of Lorraine
–
1618-1648
Duchy of Lorraine
–
Flag
29.
Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine
–
Charles IV was Duke of Lorraine from 1624 until his death in 1675, with a brief interruption in 1634, when he abdicated under French pressure in favor of his younger brother, Nicholas Francis. His allies and confederates generally bore the price of these escapades by the young and impetuous heir and Charles IV was one such. Shortly thereafter, Nicholas Francis too fled into exile and abdicated his claims, which were now taken up again by Charles. In 1651 Charles IV was approached by an Irish delegation who were seeking his support to defend Ireland from the invasion of the Parliamentarian army of England. In the summer of 1652, a number of ships sent by Charles arrived at Inishbofin island with supplies, unfortunately Charles faced great opposition by the Irish Leaders Clanricarde and Ormonde, both of whom were arch-royalists loyal to Charles II of England. Lorraine eventually concluded that Ireland had been destroyed by the jealousy of those who desired the loss of it, in 1661, the French withdrew from Lorraine, and Charles was able to return to the Duchy for the first time. In 1670, the duchy was occupied by the French under King Louis XIV. Charles served in the Imperial armies in both the Thirty Years War and the Franco-Dutch War, both of which added to the power of France, in 1675 he defeated François de Créquy at Konzer Brucke, and died the same year in Austrian service. The duchy was not restored to his family more than twenty years later. He is sometimes numbered as Charles III of Lorraine, Charles married first Nicolette of Lorraine, whom he deposed and replaced as monarch of Lorraine in 1625. They had no children and Charles abandoned her and his marriage to Béatrice de Cusance was not deemed valid by the Roman Catholic church, which had not authorised his divorce from Nicole. The couple separated in April 1642 following his excommunication, which was the consequence of his second marriage, more than 20 years later, on 20 May 1663, Charles married Béatrice de Cusance a second time, to allow legitimation of their children. She died two weeks after this second marriage, Charles married a fourth time at the age of 61. The bride was Marie-Louise dAspremont, the 18-year-old daughter of Charles dAspremont-Lynden, Count of Rekem and they had no children and in 1679, a widow, she married Count Heinrich Franz von Mansfeld, Prince di Fondi, by whom she had two daughters. Dukes of Lorraine family tree The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Michael O Siochru, Gods Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, Faber & Faber Ltd, London,2008
Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine
–
Charles IV
Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine
Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine
–
Béatrix de Cusance
Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine
–
Charles' only surviving son
Charles Henri.
30.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
31.
Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons
–
Louis de Bourbon was Count of Soissons. He was the son of Charles de Bourbon, Count of Soissons and his sister was Louise de Bourbon, future Duchess of Longueville. Born in Paris, he was governor of the Dauphiné province, an office inherited at the death of his father. Around 1612, he was made the Grand Master of France and he set up a conspiracy with his cousin Gaston dOrléans and the comte de Montrésor with the intention to murder Cardinal Richelieu and depose the King, but the plot failed. The Kings mother, Marie de Medici, had tried as well on occasions to remove the Cardinal as well as once trying to depose the King in favor of her younger son Gaston. For this she was placed under house arrest for the remainder of her life, taking refuge in Sedan with the Duke of Bouillon, he plotted again against Richelieu, and the duc de Bouillon obtained the military support of Spain. A French royal army under Gaspard de Coligny, Marshal Châtillon was sent to Sedan, of the Kings 11,000 force,600 were killed,5500 were taken prisoner, while the Count of Soissons forces suffered nominal losses. This was due to the slow arrival of the Kings forces through muddy roads. The Count of Soissons, however, was killed after the battle while his officers were surrounding him by one officer whose identity was never ascertained, paid by Cardinal Richelieu. According to some sources, the Count died by accident while lifting the visor of his helmet with a loaded pistol and his son Jean de Bourbon was captured in Turin, Piedmont, Italy. Later, the King would pretend an unrelated boy was a child but that boy was born in 1646. He was buried in the Soissons family tomb at the Chartreuse de Bourbon-lez-Gaillon in Gaillon, the county of Soissons was passed onto his only surviving sister Marie de Bourbon, Princess of Carignano and wife of Thomas Francis of Savoy, a famous general. Louis Henri de Bourbon, bâtard de Soissons, Count of Noyers and of Dunois, Prince of Neuchâtel illegitimate son of Louis, line continues in the Dukes of Luynes family. Married Angelique Cunegonde de Montmorency-Luxembourg, daughter of François Henri de Montmorency and had issue,1 May 1604 –6 July 1641 His Serene Highness the Count of Soissons
Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons
–
Contemporary portrait of Louis de Bourbon
Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons
–
Engraving by
Matthäus Merian
32.
Parlement
–
A parlement was a provincial appellate court in the France of the Ancien Régime, i. e. before the French Revolution. In 1789,13 parlements existed, the most important of which was by far the Parlement of Paris, while the English word parliament derives from this French term, parlements were not legislative bodies. They consisted of a dozen or more judges, or about 1,100 judges nationwide. They were the court of appeal of the judicial system. Laws and edicts issued by the Crown were not official in their respective jurisdictions until the parlements gave their assent by publishing them, the members were aristocrats called nobles of the gown who had bought or inherited their offices, and were independent of the King. From 1770 to 1774 the Lord Chancellor, Maupeou, tried to abolish the Parlement of Paris in order to strengthen the Crown, however, when King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were reinstated. The parlements spearheaded the resistance to the absolutism and centralization of the Crown, but they worked primarily for the benefit of their own class. Alfred Cobban argues that the parlements were the obstacles to any reform before the Revolution. In November 1789, early in the French Revolution, all parlements were suspended, the political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Régime France developed out of the Kings Council, and consequently enjoyed ancient, customary consultative and deliberative prerogatives. In the 13th century, the parlements acquired judicial functions, then the droit de remontrance against the king, the Paris parlements jurisdiction covered the entire kingdom as it was in the 14th century, but did not automatically advance in step with the Crowns ever expanding realm. The Parlement of Paris played a role in stimulating the nobility to resist the expansion of royal power by military force in the Fronde. In the end, the King won out and the nobility was humiliated, in such a case, the parlements powers were suspended for the duration of this royal session. King Louis XIV moved to centralize authority into his own hands, in 1665, he ordained that a Lit de justice could be held without the king having to appear in person. In 1667, he limited the number of remonstrances to only one, in 1671–1673, however, the parlements resisted the taxes occasioned by the Dutch War. In 1673, the king imposed additional restrictions that stripped the parlements of any influence upon new laws by ordaining that remonstrances could only be issued after registration of the edicts. After Louis death in 1715, all the restrictions were discontinued by the regent and these locations were provincial capitals of those provinces with strong historical traditions of independence before they were annexed to France. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris had the largest jurisdiction of all the parlements, covering the part of northern and central France. In some regions provincial States-General also continued to meet and legislate with a measure of self-governance, tenure on the court was generally bought from the royal authority, and such positions could be made hereditary by payment of a tax to the King called la Paulette
Parlement
–
Façade of the palace of Parlement of Brittany
Parlement
–
Kingdom of France
33.
Mazarin
–
Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds. His personal library was the origin of the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris, some of these principles, such as the nation states sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day. Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino was born in Pescina, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, giulio was the older brother of Michele Mazzarino, Master of the Sacred Palace under Pope Urban VIII, and later Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence and a cardinal. Contemporary John Bargrave suggested that his father Pietro Mazzarini had lost a significant amount of money during a transaction and was forced to flee to Rome. Regardless, Pietro was a notary who made use of his connections to the Colonna once he arrived in Rome and became chamberlain to the Constable Filippo I Colonna and he had a younger sister, Laura Margherita Mazzarini. Mazarin studied at the Jesuit College in Rome, though he declined to join their order, at seventeen he accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, to the university of Alcalá de Henares in Spain, to serve as his chamberlain. His stay was brief, a notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry. Later Mazarin frequented the University of Rome La Sapienza, gaining the title of Doctor in jurisprudence, Mazarin followed Filippo I Colonna as captain of infantry in his regiment during the war in Monferrato of 1628, over the succession to Mantua. During this war he gave proofs of much ability, and Pope Urban VIII entrusted him, in 1629. At the time Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna, was married to Urbans nephew Taddeo Barberini, and the Pope now made her brother, Girolamo Colonna, Archbishop of Albano and a new cardinal. The Cardinal was sent to Monferrat as papal legate, to treat of peace between France and Spain in the matter of Mantua, and insisted that Mazarin be attached to his legation as secretary. As papal vice-legate at Avignon, and nuncio extraordinary in France, under Habsburg pressure, Mazarin was sent back to Avignon, where he was dismissed by Urban VIII on 17 January 1636. Richelieu, who felt the weight of his years, though he was as assiduous in the Kings service as ever, detected in Mazarin a likely aide in carrying on government. He confided to the man several sensitive missions, in which Mazarin acquitted himself well, then presented him to the King. He attributed his winnings to the Queens presence, and in thanks, the Queen demurred, Mazarin pressed, and she accepted. Several days later, Mazarin quietly received a deal more than he had given. Thus he was affirmed in the favour of the King, the court and above all of Anne of Austria, who would soon be regent
Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Pierre Mignard
Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Robert Nanteuil, 1656
34.
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Seine-Saint-Denis is a French department located in the Île-de-France region. Locally, it is referred to colloquially as quatre-vingt treize or neuf trois. The learned and rarely used demonym for the inhabitants is Séquano-Dionysiens, Seine-Saint-Denis is located to the northeast of Paris. It has an area of only 236 km², making it one of the smallest departments in France. Seine-Saint-Denis and two other departments, Hauts-de-Seine and Val-de-Marne, form a ring around Paris, known as the Petite Couronne. They form, together with Paris the Greater Paris since January 1st 2016, Seine-Saint-Denis is made up of three departmental arrondissements and 40 communes, Seine-Saint-Denis was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. It was formed from the part of the Seine department to the north and north-east of the Paris ring road, Seine-Saint-Denis has a history as a veritable left-wing stronghold, belonging to the ceinture rouge of Paris. The French Communist Party especially has maintained a strong presence in the department. A commune of Seine-Saint-Denis, Clichy-sous-Bois, was the scene of the death of two youths which sparked the riots of autumn 2005. In October - November,9,000 cars were burned and 3,000 rioters were arrested, Seine-Saint-Denis is the French department with the highest proportion of immigrants,21. 7% at the 1999 census. This figure does not include the children of immigrants born on French soil as well as some native elites from former French colonies, the ratio of ethnic minorities is difficult to estimate accurately as French law prohibits the collection of ethnic data for census taking purposes. However estimates suggest there are 500,000 Muslims out of a population of 1.53 million. Saint-Denis is home to the Union of French Islamic Organizations in the Bourget district, in 2005,56. 7% of young people under 18 were of foreign origin including 38% of African origin. Islam is believed to be the most practiced religion in the department, Seine-Saint-Denis was scheduled to be the site of a 2004 International Exhibition. Website of the General council Prefecture website Seine-Saint-Denis Tourist Board
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Prefecture building of the Seine-Saint-Denis department, in Bobigny
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Memorial to King
Louis XVI and Queen
Marie Antoinette,in
Basilica of St Denis
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Aerospace Museum in
Le Bourget
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Canal de l'Ourcq
35.
The Three Musketeers
–
The Three Musketeers is a historical novel by Alexandre Dumas. Set in 1625–1628, it recounts the adventures of a man named dArtagnan after he leaves home to travel to Paris. In genre, The Three Musketeers is primarily a historical and adventure novel, the story was first serialised from March to July 1844, during the July Monarchy, four years before the French Revolution of 1848 violently established the Second Republic. The authors father, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, had been a well-known General in Frances Republican army during the French Revolutionary Wars, the story of dArtagnan is continued in Twenty Years After and The Vicomte of Bragelonne, Ten Years Later. Le comte de la Fère, etc, in the meanwhile, since godfathers are second fathers, as it were, we beg the reader to lay to our account, and not to that of the Comte de la Fère, the pleasure or the ennui he may experience. This being understood, let us proceed with our story, the book he referred to was Mémoires de M. dArtagnan, capitaine lieutenant de la première compagnie des Mousquetaires du Roi by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras. The book was borrowed from the Marseille public library, and the remains to this day. The Three Musketeers was written in collaboration with Auguste Maquet, who worked with Dumas on its sequels. Maquet would suggest plot outlines after doing research, Dumas then expanded the plot, removing some characters, including new ones. The Three Musketeers was first published in form in the newspaper Le Siècle between March and July 1844. In 1625 France, dArtagnan leaves his family in Gascony and travels to Paris to join the Musketeers of the Guard, at an inn in Meung-sur-Loire, an older man derides dArtagnans horse. The older mans companions beat dArtagnan unconscious with a cooking pot and his letter of introduction to Monsieur de Tréville, the commander of the Musketeers, is also stolen. DArtagnan resolves to avenge himself upon the man, in Paris, dArtagnan visits M. de Tréville at the headquarters of the Musketeers, but without the letter, Tréville politely refuses his application. He does, however, write a letter of introduction to an academy for young gentlemen which may prepare him for recruitment at a later time. As dArtagnan prepares himself for the first duel, he realizes that Athos seconds are Porthos and Aramis, as dArtagnan and Athos begin, Cardinal Richelieus guards appear and try to arrest dArtagnan and the three Musketeers for illegal dueling. Although outnumbered, the four men win the battle, dArtagnan seriously wounds Jussac, one of the Cardinals officers and a renowned fighter. After learning of this, King Louis XIII appoints dArtagnan to Des Essarts company of the Kings Guards, dArtagnan hires a servant, finds lodgings, and reports to Monsieur des Essart. Des Essarts company is a less prestigious regiment in which he must serve for two years before being considered for the Musketeers, shortly after, his landlord speaks to him about his wife Constance Bonacieuxs kidnapping
The Three Musketeers
–
"D'Artagnan, Athos, Aramis and Porthos" Image by Maurice Leloir, 1894
The Three Musketeers
–
A
Musketeer of the Guard c.1660.
The Three Musketeers
–
Depiction of the Cardinal's musketeers, the great rivals of the King's musketeers.
The Three Musketeers
–
Three Musketeers, Issue No. 1, Classic Comics, published 1941
36.
Twenty Years After
–
Twenty Years After is a novel by Alexandre Dumas, first serialized from January to August 1845. A book of the DArtagnan Romances, it is a sequel to The Three Musketeers, through the words of the main characters, particularly Athos, Dumas comes out on the side of the monarchy in general, or at least the text often praises the idea of benevolent royalty. His musketeers are valiant and just in their efforts to protect young Louis XIV, the action begins during the regency of Queen Anne of Austria, with Cardinal Mazarin as First Minister. He is summoned by Mazarin, who requires an escort, the French people detest Mazarin, DArtagnan is sent to the Bastille to retrieve a prisoner, who turns out to be his former adversary, the Comte de Rochefort. Having determined that dArtagnan is the man he seeks, Mazarin enters the chambers of the Queen to let her know that he has enlisted the man who had served her so well twenty years earlier. The Queen, feeling guilty for having forgotten dArtagnans service, gives Mazarin a diamond ring to return to dArtagnan, the avaricious Mazarin merely uses the diamond to show dArtagnan that he is once again to enter the Queens service. He commissions dArtagnan to go in search of his friends, DArtagnan is at a loss, he has completely lost touch with his friends, who have resumed their real names. Athos, the Comte de la Fère, had returned to his estate near Blois, Porthos, Monsieur du Vallon, had married a widow, and Aramis became a priest. Fortune intervenes when Planchet, his old servant, enters dArtagnans chambers, through Planchet, he locates Bazin, Aramis old servant, now beadle at Notre Dame. Though Bazin is unwilling to help, dArtagnan is able to out, through an altar boy. DArtagnan and Planchet go there, where they are set upon by a group who think them Frondeurs while outside the house of Madame de Longueville. When this group is satisfied that dArtagnan is not the man they seek, DArtagnan finds that the former musketeer, who had thought of little other than being a priest, is now a priest who thinks of little other than being a soldier. Aramis is not willing to enter into Mazarins service, however, DArtagnan leaves but waits in hiding, suspecting that Aramis is both the Frondeur who had been sought earlier and the lover of Madame de Longueville. The visit to Aramis was not fruitless, as it yielded the address of Porthos, when dArtagnan arrives at Porthos estate he finds Mousqueton, who is overjoyed to meet dArtagnan and Planchet. He finds that Porthos, despite his wealth and life spent in pursuit of amusement, is not happy, Porthos desires to become a baron, and with this bait dArtagnan lures him into Mazarins service. DArtagnan then continues his search for Athos, whom he finds almost completely changed, to be an example to his ward, Raoul. In Paris, Athos visits Madame de Chevreuse, the mistress of Aramis, with whom, under the name Marie Michon. Athos reveals, discreetly, that Raoul is the son born of an encounter he had with her
Twenty Years After
–
Twenty Years After
37.
Gaetano Donizetti
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Domenico Gaetano Maria Donizetti was an Italian composer. Along with Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini, Donizetti was a composer of the bel canto opera style during the first half of the nineteenth century. Donizettis close association with the bel canto style was undoubtedly an influence on composers such as Giuseppe Verdi. Donizetti was born in Bergamo in Lombardy, there he received detailed training in the arts of fugue and counterpoint. Over the course of his career, Donizetti wrote almost 70 operas, in all, Naples presented 51 of Donizettis operas. Before 1830, success came primarily with his operas, the serious ones failing to attract significant audiences. However, his first notable success came with an opera seria, Zoraida di Granata, significant historical dramas did appear and became successful, they included Lucia di Lammermoor given in Naples in 1835, and one of the most successful Neapolitan operas, Roberto Devereux in 1837. Up to that point, all of his operas had been set to Italian libretti, Donizetti found himself increasingly chafing against the censorial limitations which existed in Italy. From about 1836, he interested in working in Paris. The first opera was a French version of the then-unperformed Poliuto which, two new operas were also given in Paris at that time. As the 1840s progressed, Donizetti moved regularly between Naples, Rome, Paris, and Vienna continuing to compose and stage his own operas as well as those of other composers, but from around 1843, severe illness began to take hold and to limit his activities. Eventually, by early 1846 he was obliged to be confined to an institution for the ill and, by late 1847, friends had him moved back to Bergamo. The youngest of three sons, Donizetti was born in 1797 in Bergamos Borgo Canale quarter located just outside the city walls and his family was very poor and had no tradition of music, his father Andrea being the caretaker of the town pawnshop. Simone Mayr, a German composer of internationally successful operas, had become maestro di cappella at Bergamos principal church in 1802, in 1807, Andrea Donizetti attempted to enroll both his sons, but the elder, Giuseppe, was considered too old. He remained there for nine years, until 1815, however, as Donizetti scholar William Ashbrook notes, in 1809 he was threatened with having to leave because his voice was changing. In 1810 he applied for and was accepted by the art school, the Academia Carrara. Then, in 1811, Mayr once again intervened, as Ashbrook states, this was nothing less than Mayrs argument that Donizetti be allowed to continue his musical studies. The piece was performed on 13 September 1811 and included the character stating the following, Ah, by Bacchus
Gaetano Donizetti
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Gaetano Donizetti (Portrait by Giuseppe Rillosi)
Gaetano Donizetti
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Donizetti as a schoolboy in Bergamo
Gaetano Donizetti
–
Johann Simone Mayr, circa 1810
Gaetano Donizetti
–
Donizetti as a schoolboy
38.
Maria di Rohan
–
Maria di Rohan is a melodramma tragico, or tragic opera, in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti. The Italian libretto was written by Salvadore Cammarano, after Lockroy and Edmond Badons Un duel sous le cardinal de Richelieu and it premiered at the Kärntnertortheater, Vienna on 5 June 1843. In 2011 the work was performed in Berlin by the Berliner Operngruppe under Felix Krieger with Iride Martínez in the title role, the story of Maria Di Rohan is both simple and complicated. Chalais loves Maria, who has forced to secretly marry Chevreuse. Chevreuse is in trouble, because he has killed a nephew of Richelieu. Time, c.1630 Place, Paris Maria seeks Chalais’ help, Chalais offers it, hoping that Maria will join him, obviously not knowing that she is already married to Chevreuse. Chalais succeeds and Chevreuse is pardoned, Gondi appears on the scene and insults Maria. Chalais challenges him to a duel, and Chevreuse offers to be the second, Richelieu is suddenly ousted from the court, and Chalais is offered his post. Everything looks great for him, but Maria is terribly worried, richelieu’s demise means that Chevreuse can disclose his marriage without fear. When he points to Maria, Chalais’ world begins to collapse, Chalais writes a love letter to Maria and encloses her portrait. Both are hidden in his desk, to be given to Maria should he perish, he’s suddenly visited by Maria who tells him that Richelieu has regained power. She tells Chalais to flee or he will be executed, Chevreuse is heard approaching and Maria hides in an adjoining chamber. Chevreuse tells Chalais that they must leave for the Gondi duel, of course he doesn’t follow, but stays to profess his love for Maria and she also admits that she has always and continues to love him. When he finally leaves for the duel, it is too late, Chevreuse has taken his place and is wounded. Chevreuse’s residence He tells Maria and Chalais that he will arrange to have Chalais escape from the city, Chalais leaves, and again, everything looks good at first, but disaster strikes. Chalais’ letter and Maria’s portrait are discovered by one of the courtiers in Chalais’ desk, Chalais tells Maria about the letters and she says all is lost. Once again she tells him to flee through a passage, and he does. Maria sings her beautiful prayer Havvi un Dio che in sua clemenza, the courtier gives the letter and portrait to Chevreuse and he is alternatively nostalgic and enraged
Maria di Rohan
–
Gaetano Donizetti
Maria di Rohan
–
Eugenia Tadolini,
Giorgio Ronconi, and
Carlo Guasco in the final scene of Maria di Rohan at its world premiere in Vienna, 1843
39.
Victor Cousin
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Victor Cousin was a French philosopher. He was the founder of eclecticism, an influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism. As the administrator of public instruction for over a decade, Cousin also had an important influence on French educational policy, the son of a watchmaker, he was born in Paris, in the Quartier Saint-Antoine. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school, the Lycée Charlemagne. The classical training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature and he was already known among his fellow students for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycée he graduated to the most prestigious of higher schools, École Normale Supérieure. That day decided my whole life and that school has remained ever since the living heart of French philosophy — Henri Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre and Jacques Derrida are among its past students. Cousin wanted to lecture on philosophy and quickly obtained the position of master of conferences in the school, the second great philosophical impulse of his life was the teaching of Pierre Paul Royer-Collard. The Scottish Philosophy being the Common Sense Philosophy of Thomas Reid, in 1815–1816 Cousin attained the position of suppliant to Royer-Collard in the history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. Another thinker who influenced him at this period was Maine de Biran. These men strongly influenced Cousins philosophical thought, to Laromiguière he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to certain laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are superior to analysis. De Biran made a study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts of consciousness, the influence of Schelling may be observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded in reason, in 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at Heidelberg. Hegels Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften appeared the year, and Cousin had one of the earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two became friends, the following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the Philosophy of Nature. Frances political troubles interfered for a time with his career, in the events of 1814–1815 he took the royalist side
Victor Cousin
–
Le Gray's 1850s
Albumen print of Victor Cousin
Victor Cousin
40.
Denis Tillinac
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Denis Tillinac is a conservative French writer and journalist. He writes a column in Valeurs Actuelles. He is close to Jacques Chirac, in 2012, he wrote an open letter to Marine Le Pen to ask her to support Nicolas Sarkozy in the second round of the presidential election. He is a Catholic and has books about the Catholic origins of France. Les Corréziens, En désespoir de causes Le mystère Simenon LAnge du désordre Elvis, Le Dieu de nos pères, défense du catholicisme Dictionnaire amoureux de la France Rue Corneille Femmes de guerre, texte in Inconnues corréziennes, résonances décrivains. Dictionnaire amoureux du catholicisme Considérations inactuelles
Denis Tillinac
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Denis Tillinac
41.
Doctor Who
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Doctor Who is a British science-fiction television programme produced by the BBC since 1963. The programme depicts the adventures of a Time Lord called The Doctor and he explores the universe in a time-travelling space ship called the TARDIS. Its exterior appears as a blue British police box, which was a sight in Britain in 1963 when the series first aired. Accompanied by a number of companions, the Doctor combats a variety of foes, while working to save civilisations, the show is a significant part of British popular culture, and elsewhere it has gained a cult following. It has influenced generations of British television professionals, many of whom grew up watching the series, the programme originally ran from 1963 to 1989. There was an attempt to revive regular production in 1996 with a backdoor pilot. The programme was relaunched in 2005, and since then has been produced in-house by BBC Wales in Cardiff, twelve actors have headlined the series as the Doctor. The conceit is that this is a Time Lord trait through which the character of the Doctor takes on a new body, each actors portrayal differs, but all represent stages in the life of the same character and form a single narrative. The time-travelling feature of the means that different incarnations of the Doctor occasionally meet. The current lead, Peter Capaldi, took on the role after Matt Smiths exit in the 2013 Christmas special The Time of the Doctor, in 2017, Capaldi confirmed he would be leaving at the end of the tenth series. Doctor Who follows the adventures of the character, a rogue Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. He fled from Gallifrey in a stolen TARDIS – Time and Relative Dimension in Space – a machine which allows him to travel across time, the TARDIS has a chameleon circuit which normally allows the machine to take on the appearance of local objects as a disguise. However, the Doctors TARDIS remains fixed as a blue British police box due to a malfunction in the chameleon circuit, the Doctor rarely travels alone and often brings one or more companions to share these adventures. His companions are usually humans, as he has found a fascination with planet Earth, as a Time Lord, the Doctor has the ability to regenerate when his body is mortally damaged, taking on a new appearance and personality. The Doctor has gained numerous reoccurring enemies during his travels, including the Daleks, the Cybermen, and the Master, another renegade Time Lord. Doctor Who first appeared on BBC TV at 17,16,20 GMT, eighty seconds after the programme time,5,15 pm. It was to be a weekly programme, each episode 25 minutes of transmission length. Discussions and plans for the programme had been in progress for a year, writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series
Doctor Who
–
The Present
TARDIS prop used from 2010 till the present day.
Doctor Who
–
Doctor Who title card since 2014
Doctor Who
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The Doctor portrayed by series leads in chronological order. Left to right from top row;
William Hartnell,
Patrick Troughton,
Jon Pertwee,
Tom Baker,
Peter Davison,
Colin Baker,
Sylvester McCoy,
Paul McGann,
Christopher Eccleston,
David Tennant,
Matt Smith and
Peter Capaldi.
Doctor Who
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1963–67 (
First Doctor and
Second Doctor)
42.
The Church and the Crown
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The Church and the Crown is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. The Fifth Doctor, together with Peri and Erimem, becomes involved with political intrigue in the court of King Louis XIII, the two characters are not related by either blood or marriage and are separated chronologically by almost 150 years. The Doctor says that the Duke of Buckingham is also the Prime Minister, however, Buckingham was, as a favourite of both James I and his son Charles I, extremely influential at the time. When searching in his pockets for money, the Doctor finds a card for the MCC. The Doctor mentions that the year is 1626, and tells his companions that Buckingham only has a couple of years to live before his assassination by John Felton, the Doctor tells Peri about having helped François Boucher sneak into the Louvre. Bouchers patroness was Madame de Pompadour, who appears as a character in the Tenth Doctor story The Girl in the Fireplace. Rouffet and Delmarre mention an earlier adventure involving the Queens diamonds and this is a reference to the events of the novel The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas, père. The Doctor tells Erimem that this is the time that he has met Louis XIII in his personal timeline. From the Kings perspective, however, that meeting will not occur until 1638, twelve years after the events of The Church, the Doctor mentions that he has had a nip and tuck since then, indicating that it was one of his previous incarnations
The Church and the Crown
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The Church and the Crown
43.
Hercule, Duke of Montbazon
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Hercule de Rohan was a member of the princely House of Rohan. The second Duke of Montbazon, he is an ancestor of the present Princes of Guéméné and his daughter was the famous Frondeur the duchesse de Chevreuse. The couple were married on 24 October 1594 and had two children and she married Charles dAlbert and had issue. Hercules first wife Madeleine had died in 1628, the same year he married again to Marie de Bretagne dAvaugour, daughter of Claude de Bretagne, Count of Vertus and Catherine Fouquet de La Varenne. His second wife was hailed as one of the most beautiful, hercule and Marie had three children, of whom two, François and Anne, would have progeny. François founded the Soubise line of the Rohans and married his cousin Anne de Rohan-Chabot and Anne, his youngest child married Louis Charles dAlbert de Luynes, hercule served Henri III and his successor Henri IV against the Catholic League. He was lieutenant-general of Brittany and then later, the governor of Nantes, Henri IV made him governor of Paris and the Ile-de-France. He was also the master of the hounds, hercule was riding in the carriage with Henri IV when the king was assassinated by François Ravaillac on 14 May 1610. Hercule himself was wounded in the attack, hercule commanded the funeral procession for Henris heart He died at the Château de Couziers eighty-six years old. He was buried at Rochefort-en-Yvelines in France, in local churchs chapel called Chapel of princes
Hercule, Duke of Montbazon
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Hercule de Rohan. Engraving by Pierre Daret (1610-1675)
44.
Claude de Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse
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Claude de Lorraine, also called Claude de Guise, was a French noble and husband of Marie de Rohan. He was the Duke of Chevreuse, a title which is used by the Duke of Luynes. He was the son of Henry I, Duke of Guise. Prince of Joinville, he is made Duke of Chevreuse and peer of France by Louis XIII in 1611, Grand Chamberlain of France in 1621, in 1625 Charles I of England made him a Knight in the Order of the Garter. In 1622, he married Marie de Rohan, who was 22 years younger than himself and they had 3 daughters, Anne Marie de Lorraine, abbesse of Pont-aux-Dames. Charlotte Marie de Lorraine, lover of Jean François Paul de Gondi, henriette de Lorraine, abbesse of Jouarre. He lived with his family in the château de Dampierre, near Chevreuse, living an inconspicuous life, Claude succeeded in distancing himself from his wifes plotting. He died without an heir in 1657
Claude de Lorraine, Duke of Chevreuse
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Claude de Guise, prince de Joinville (1610)
45.
List of rulers of Lorraine
–
The rulers of Lorraine have held different posts under different governments over different regions. The first rulers of the region were kings of the Franks whose kingdom was called Lotharingia, the Latin construction Lotharingia evolved over time into Lorraine in French, Lotharingen in Dutch and Lothringen in German. After the Carolingian kingdom was absorbed into its neighbouring realms in the ninth century. In 880, the Treaty of Ribemont gave the whole of Lotharingia to Louis the Younger, Charles the Bald Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Arnulf of Carinthia Zwentibold Louis the Child Charles the Simple In 925, Lotharingia was subsumed into East Francia. Gebhard Reginar Gilbert Henry Otto Conrad Bruno In 959, Lorraine was divided into two districts, Upper and Lower, each being given to a margrave or vice-duke under Bruno. Upon Brunos death in 965, that of Lower Lorraine, whose margrave had died, was vacant until 977. In that year Charles was appointed duke of Lower Lorraine and Frederick I was elevated duke in Upper Lorraine, the two duchies remained separate, following separate pathways, except for the brief period between 1033 and 1044. Note that the numbering of the varies between sources. Frederick I Thierry I Frederick II Frederick III Gothelo, godfrey, the Bearded Junior branch of the previous rulers of Ardennes–Metz, known as the House of Lorraine The House of Habsburg-Lorraine continued carrying the title as titular Dukes of Lorraine. Lorraine Lorraine Lorraine Titles of the dukes of Lorraine from contemporary documents with bibliography Putnam, alsace and Lorraine, From Cæsar to Kaiser,58 B. C. -1871 A. D
List of rulers of Lorraine
–
Gerhard
List of rulers of Lorraine
–
Frederick III
List of rulers of Lorraine
–
Raoul
List of rulers of Lorraine
–
John I
46.
Antoinette de Bourbon
–
Antoinette de Bourbon was a French noblewoman of the House of Bourbon. She was the wife of Claude de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, through her eldest daughter, Mary of Guise, Queen consort of King James V of Scotland, she was the maternal grandmother of Mary, Queen of Scots. Antoinette de Bourbon was born on 25 December 1493 at the Chateau de Ham, in the Somme department, Picardy and she was the child of Francis, Count of Vendôme and Marie de Luxembourg. Her paternal grandparents were John VIII, Count of Vendôme and Isabelle de Beauveau, and her grandparents were Peter II, Count of Saint-Pol. She married Claude of Lorraine on 9 June 1513, they had 12 children, Mary of Guise and their daughter was Mary, Queen of Scots. Francis, Duke of Guise Louise of Guise, married Charles I, renée of Guise, Abbess of St. Pierre, Reims. Charles of Guise, Duke of Chevreuse, Archbishop of Reims, Claude, Duke of Aumale Louis, Cardinal de Guise Philip of Guise Peter of Guise, died young. Antoinette of Guise, Abbess of Faremoutier Francis of Guise, Grand Prior of the Order of Malta, rené, Marquis of Elbeuf Antoinette was described as having been a remarkable woman, combining a strong sense of family pride with a wry sense of humour. She exhibited considerable talent at domestic economy as well as in the running of the vast Guise dominions surrounding their chateau of Joinville. She exerted an influence on the childhood of her granddaughter Mary, Queen of Scots, during the latters thirteen-year sojourn in France. Antoinette acted as proxy for her daughter, Mary of Guise, during the ceremony of the Queen of Scots. Antoinette de Bourbon died on 22 January 1583 at the Chateau de Joinville and she was eighty-nine years of age, having outlived all of her children save her daughter Reneé, Abbess of St. Pierre. Martyrs and Murderers, The Guise Family and the Making of Europe, thepeerage. com Accessed July 14,2007 Media related to Antoinette de Bourbon at Wikimedia Commons The French Wikipedia article of Antoinette de Bourbon
Antoinette de Bourbon
–
Antoinette de Bourbon, by
Léonard Limousin
47.
Christina of Denmark
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Christina of Denmark was a Danish princess, the younger surviving daughter of King Christian II of Denmark and Norway and Isabella of Austria. She became the duchess-consort of Milan, then duchess-consort of Lorraine and she served as the regent of Lorraine from 1545 to 1552 during the minority of her son. She was also a claimant to the thrones of Denmark, Norway, finally, she was sovereign Lady of Tortona in 1578-1584. Christina was born in Nyborg in central Denmark in 1521, on 20 January 1523, nobles forced her father to abdicate and offered the throne to his uncle, Duke Frederick of Holstein. Her mother died on 19 January 1526, in 1532, her father Christian II of Denmark was imprisoned in Denmark after an attempt to retake his throne. The same year, her brother died, and she became second in line to her fathers claim to the Danish throne after her elder sister Dorothea. Christina was given an education by her aunt, the regent of the Netherlands, under supervision of her governess. She was described as a beauty, intelligent and lively. As a ward of her uncle the Emperor, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1531, Francesco II Sforza, Duke of Milan proposed to marry either of the sisters, as he wished to make an alliance to the Imperial house. Charles V denied him a match with Dorothea, but agreed to a marriage with Christina, on 23 September 1533 in Brussels, Christina was married by proxy to Francesco II Sforza, Duke of Milan, through his representative Count Massimiliano Stampa. On 3 May 1534, Christina made her entry in Milan among great festivities, and on 4 May. She enjoyed hunting parties, and the palace was redecorated and beautified for her, according to the marriage settlement, the Duchy of Milan was to become a part of the Empire if it did not result in issue. She and Francesco had no children, Francesco II Sforza died in October 1535, leaving her widowed when she was thirteen. Her rights as a widow to the town of Tortona for life was secured, however, Massimiliano Stampa remained in charge as castellan of Milan, and Christina remained in the ducal residence. Charles V supported her wish to stay in Milan, as she was popular there and her presence was regarded as a protection to Milanese independence. As a way to save Milanese independence, Stampa suggested that she marry the heir to the throne of Savoy, prince Louis of Piedmonte, but the plan failed because of his death shortly thereafter. Pope Paul III suggested that she marry the son of his niece Cecilia Farnese, Christina welcomed duchess Beatrice of Savoy when Savoy was occupied by the French, and was present on the meeting between Beatrice and the Emperor in Pavia in May 1536. In December of that year, Milan was officially given over to the command of an Imperial official, before she left, she took the title Lady of Tortona, and had a governor named to manage her dower city for her
Christina of Denmark
–
Portrait of Christina of Denmark by
Hans Holbein the Younger, 1538
National Gallery, London
Christina of Denmark
–
Christina of Denmark
Christina of Denmark
–
Christina of Denmark Duchess of Milan and of Lorraine 1558, by François Clouet
Christina of Denmark
–
Christina about 1575
48.
Claude of Valois
–
Claude of France was a French Princess as the second daughter of King Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici, and Duchess consort of Lorraine by marriage to Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. Claude was raised alongside her sister Elisabeth, the future Queen of Spain and she was married on 19 January 1559, at the age of 11, to Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. Claude was victim of the traits that Catherine appeared to pass on to her children and suffered from a hunchback. Claude died in childbirth in 1575 at the age of 27, Claude and her husband had nine children, Henry II, Duke of Lorraine Christina of Lorraine, married Ferdinando I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Charles of Lorraine, Cardinal of Lorraine and Bishop of Metz, antoinette of Lorraine, married Jean-Guillaume, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Anne of Lorraine Francis II, Duke of Lorraine Catherine of Lorraine, Elisabeth of Lorraine, married Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. Claude of Lorraine There is a character on the CW show and she is portrayed by British actress Rose Williams. However, the Reign character is depicted as beautiful, spoiled and promiscuous and has more in common with the historical Claudes younger sister Marguerite
Claude of Valois
–
Claude of Valois
49.
Catherine of Cleves
–
Catherine de Clèves was the wife of Henry, Duke of Guise, and matriarch of the numerous and influential House of Guise. By marriage she was Duchess of Guise from 1570 to 1588 and she was Countess of Eu in her own right from 1564. Catherine was the daughter of François de Clèves, Duke of Nevers. She was the first cousin of Henry of Navarre, sister-in-law of Henri de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, at the age of twelve, Catherine married Antoine de Croÿ, Prince de Porcien, who died seven years later. After the conventional three years of mourning, on 4 October 1570, she married Henri de Lorraine, Duke of Guise and they had fourteen children, including Charles, Duke of Guise and Louis III, Cardinal of Guise. She had a publicised affair with a young nobleman, Saint-Mégrin. The event is dramatised in the Alexandre Dumas play Henri III et sa cour, Henry of Guise was the leader of the fervently Catholic faction in the French Wars of Religion. From 1584, the conflict among factions led by Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre, in 1588, Henry of Guise was assassinated on the orders of King Henry III. Catherine never forgave Henry III of France for his part in the assassination of her husband and she took a keen interest in the intrigues of the Catholic League and encouraged Henrys assassination in 1589. At the conclusion of the War of the Three Henrys she was mindful of the interests of her large family, catherines reconciliation with her cousin, Henry IV, was not effected until his conversion to Catholicism. She immediately moved to Paris and obtained an honorable position in the retinue of his wife. The Guises continued to support the Queen throughout the regency, after returning to the Louvre, the Dowager Duchess - anxious to promote the interests of the House of Guise - resumed plotting against Cardinal Richelieu. The death of her youngest daughter, the princesse de Conti and she retired to her château dEu, where she died aged 85. She was buried at the next to her husbands ornate tomb. Les ducs de Guise et leur époque, étude historique sur la seizième siècle
Catherine of Cleves
–
Catherine
