1.
Cubans
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Cubans or Cuban people are the inhabitants or citizens of Cuba. Cuba is a nation, home to people of different ethnic. As a result, some Cubans do not treat their nationality as an ethnicity but as a citizenship with various ethnicities, the majority of Cubans descend from Spaniards. The populations in the Spanish colonial era of Cuba, U. S occupation were, the largest urban populations of Cubans in Cuba are to be found in Havana, Santiago de Cuba, Camagüey, Holguín, Guantánamo, and Santa Clara. According to Cubas Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas ONE2012 Census, the population was 11,167,325 including,5,570,825 men and 5,596,500 women, in the 2012 Census 64. 1% or 7,160,399 self-identified as white. The majority of the ancestry of European ancestry comes from Spain, during the 18th, 19th and early part of the 20th century especially, large waves of Canary Islanders, Galicians, Asturians and Catalans emigrated from Spain to Cuba. Other European nationalities which immigrated include, English, Scots, Russians, Poles, Portuguese, Romanians, Italians, Greeks, French, Germans and Irish. Central and Eastern European influence was mostly during the Cold War years and immigration from the British Isles was mostly in Pinar del Rio Province, there is a small remnant of a Jewish community. There is also significant ethnic influx from diverse Levantine peoples, especially Lebanese, Palestinians, in the 2012 Census 64. 1% or 7,160,399 self-identified as white. Afro-Cubans composed 9. 3% of the population in 2012, just over 1 million Cubans described themselves as Black, while 2.9 million considered themselves to be mulatto or mestizo. Thus a significant proportion of living on the island affirm some sub-Saharan African ancestry. Recently, many African immigrants have been coming to Cuba, especially from Angola, Cubans of East Asian origins made up 1. 02% of the population. They are mostly of Chinese, Japanese or Korean origins, the Chinese population in Cuba is descended mostly from indentured laborers who arrived in the 19th century to build railroads and work in mines. After the Industrial Revolution, many of these stayed in Cuba because they could not afford return passage to China. Of the Taínos the number of people claiming descent have not been formally recorded, most, however, live on the eastern part of the island. As a result, descendants of the Calusa, Tequesta, Timucua, the total population in the official 1953 Census was 5,829,029 people. Intermarriage between diverse groups is so general as to be the rule, Cubas birth rate is one of the lowest in the Western Hemisphere. Immigration and emigration have had effects on the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century
2.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
3.
Mariel, Cuba
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Mariel is a municipality and town in the Artemisa Province of Cuba. It is located approximately 40 kilometres west of the city of Havana, the town is situated on the south-east side of the Mariel Bay. The villages of La Boca, Henequen, Mojica, Quiebra Hacha, Cabañas are the settlements that conform the municipality of Mariel. The port of Mariel is the nearest port to the United States, in 1980, some 125,000 Cubans left Mariel and went to the United States in what is known as the Mariel boatlift. While many reached the USA, several died while traveling through the ocean and those involved became known as Marielitos. In 2004, the municipality of Mariel had a population of 42,504, with a total area of 269 km2, it has a population density of 158. 0/km2. On the east side of the bay are a port, cement works and a power station, on the west side of the bay is a former submarine base, later designated as a free trade zone. A. This project would have received an agreement from the Brazilian government to subsidize it up to US$800 million, the port has been dredged to 18 m, enabling it to be used by Super-panamax vessels. The new Mariel Port can handle deeper vessels than Havana Bay, the Mariel container terminal would have an annual capacity of 850,000 to 1 million containers, compared with Havanas 350,000. Earlier on, it had reported that the Emirati operator DP World was the leading contender for this contract. The new port, with improved highway, railroad, and communications infrastructure, as of August 2014, the special economic zone was still under construction. Mariel Hemingway received her name from this town. Mariel boatlift Mariel Municipal Museum Municipalities of Cuba List of cities in Cuba Media related to Mariel at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Economy of Cuba
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Cuba has a planned economy dominated by state-run enterprises. Most industries are owned and operated by the government and most of the force is employed by the state. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party encouraged the formation of worker co-operatives, in the year 2000, public sector employment was 76% and private sector employment, mainly composed of self-employment, was 23% compared to the 1981 ratio of 91% to 8%. Investment is restricted and requires approval by the government, the government sets most prices and rations goods to citizens. In 2009, Cuba ranked 51st out of 182 countries with a Human Development Index of 0.863, in 2012, the countrys public debt was 35. 3% of GDP, inflation was 5. 5%, and GDP growth was 3%. Housing and transportation costs are low, Cubans receive free education, health care and food subsidies. Corruption is common, although lower than in most of Latin America, the country achieved a more even distribution of income since the Cuban Revolution, which was followed by an economic embargo by the United States. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cubas GDP declined by 33% between 1990 and 1993, partially due to loss of Soviet subsidies and to a crash in prices in the early 1990s. Cuba retains high levels of healthcare and education, although Cuba belonged to the high-income countries of Latin America since the 1870s, income inequality was high, accompanied by capital outflows to foreign investors. The countrys economy had grown rapidly in the part of the century. Its income per capita in 1929 was reportedly 41% of the US, thus higher than in Mississippi and its proximity to the United States made it a familiar holiday destination for wealthy Americans. Their visits for gambling, horse racing and golfing made tourism an important economic sector, tourism magazine Cabaret Quarterly described Havana as a mistress of pleasure, the lush and opulent goddess of delights. According to Perez, Havana was then what Las Vegas has become, the dictator Fulgencio Batista had plans to line the Malecon, Havana’s famous walkway by the water, with hotels and casinos to attract even more tourists. Today Hotel Havana Riviera is the hotel that was built before the revolutionary government took control. Cuba had an economy whose domestic market was constricted. Its population was characterized by unemployment and deep poverty. United States monopolies like Bethlehem Steel Corporation and Speyer gained control over national resources. The banks and the entire financial system, all electric power production
5.
Right of asylum
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This right was already recognized by the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Hebrews, from whom it was adopted into Western tradition. René Descartes fled to the Netherlands, Voltaire to England, and Thomas Hobbes to France, the Egyptians, Greeks, and Hebrews recognized a religious right of asylum, protecting criminals from legal action to some extent. This principle was adopted by the established Christian church, and various rules were developed that detailed how to qualify for protection. The Council of Orleans decided in 511, in the presence of Clovis I and this protection was extended to murderers, thieves and adulterers alike. In England, King Æthelberht of Kent proclaimed the first Anglo-Saxon laws on sanctuary in about 600 CE, however Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae says that the legendary pre-Saxon king Dunvallo Molmutius enacted sanctuary laws among the Molmutine Laws as recorded by Gildas. The laws of king Ethelred used the term grith, some of these items survive at various churches. Elsewhere, sanctuary held in an area around the church or abbey, sometimes extending in radius to as much as a mile, stone sanctuary crosses marked the boundaries of the area, some crosses still exist as well. Thus it could become a race between the felon and the law officers to the nearest sanctuary boundary. Serving of justice upon the fleet of foot could prove a difficult proposition, Church sanctuaries were regulated by common law. An asylum seeker had to confess his sins, surrender his weapons and those who did return faced execution under the law and/or excommunication from the Church. If the suspect chose to confess their guilt and abjure, they did so in a public ceremony and they would surrender their possessions to the church, and any landed property to the crown. The coroner, an official, would then choose a port city from which the fugitive should leave England. The fugitive would set out barefooted and bareheaded, carrying a wooden cross-staff as a symbol of protection under the church, theoretically they would stay to the main highway, reach the port and take the first ship out of England. In practice, however, the fugitive could get a distance away, abandon the cross-staff and take off. Knowing the grim options, some fugitives rejected both choices and opted for an escape from the asylum before the forty days were up, others simply made no choice and did nothing. Since it was illegal for the friends to break into an asylum. Henry VIII changed the rules of asylum, reducing to a short list the types of crimes which were allowed to claim asylum, the medieval system of asylum was finally abolished entirely by James I in 1623. Upon realizing this situation they would rush to sanctuary at the nearest church until it was safe to come out, a prime example is Queen Elizabeth Woodville, consort of Edward IV of England
6.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
7.
Cuban Americans
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Cuban Americans are Americans who trace their ancestry to Cuba. Cuban Americans are the third largest Latino group in the United States, many communities throughout the United States have significant Cuban American populations. Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the US, standing out in part because of its proximity to Cuba, followed by California, New Jersey, New York and Texas. South Florida is followed by New York City, Tampa, Union County and North Hudson, New Jersey areas, particularly Union City, Elizabeth, with a population of 141,250, the New York metropolitan areas Cuban community is the largest outside of Florida. Nearly 70% of all Cuban Americans live in Florida, thousands of Cuban settlers also immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1802 and Texas during the period of Spanish rule. Since 1820, the Cuban presence was more than 1,000 people. In 1870 the number of Cuban immigrants increased to almost 12,000, of which about 4,500 resided in New York City, about 3,000 in New Orleans, and 2,000 in Key West. The year 1869 marked the beginning of one of the most significant periods of emigration from Cuba to the United States, the exodus of hundreds of workers and businessmen was linked to the manufacture of tobacco. It was an exodus of skilled workers, precisely the class in the island that had succeeded in establishing a free labor sector amid a slave economy. The manufacture of snuff by the Cuban labor force, became the most important source of income for Key West between 1869 and 1900. Tampa was added to such efforts, with a migration of Cubans. However, the half of the 1890s marked the decline of the Cuban immigrant population. The War accentuated Cuban immigrant integration into American society, whose numbers were significant, in the mid- to late 19th century, several cigar manufacturers moved their operations to Key West to get away from growing disruptions as Cubans sought independence from Spanish colonial rule. The Cuban government had established a grammar school in Key West to help preserve Cuban culture. There, children learned folk songs and patriotic hymns such as La Bayamesa, in 1885, Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his cigar operations from Key West to the town of Tampa, Florida to escape labor strife. Ybor City was designed as a company town, and it quickly attracted thousands of Cuban workers from Key West. West Tampa, another new cigar manufacturing community, was founded nearby in 1892, both Ybor City and West Tampa were instrumental in Cubas eventual independence. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to their native land, several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U. S. occurred in the early 20th century
8.
Fidel Castro
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Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. Politically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state, industry and business were nationalized, born in Birán, Oriente as the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. After a years imprisonment, he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batistas forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batistas overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cubas Prime Minister, adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by control of the press. These actions, coupled with Castros leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cubas medical internationalism, following the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its Special Period and embraced environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American pink tide—namely with Hugo Chávezs Venezuela—and signed Cuba up to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, in 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008. Castro is a world figure. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary regime advanced economic, critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human-rights abuses, the exodus of a large number of Cubans, and the impoverishment of the countrys economy. He was decorated with various awards and significantly influenced various individuals. In 1960 Castro was bestowed with the Grand Slam Silver Trophy in the prestigious Ernest Hemingway International Billfishing Tournament after he caught a sailfish, Castro was born out of wedlock at his fathers farm on August 13,1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, aged six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, in 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, in 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was illiterate, he became embroiled in student activism. In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People, a charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf, in later years anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these remain unproven
9.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
10.
Refugee
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A refugee, generally speaking, is a displaced person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and who cannot return home safely. Such a person may be called an asylum seeker until granted refugee status by the state or the UNHCR if they formally make a claim for asylum. The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the United Nations Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United Nations have a second Office for refugees, which is the UNRWA. This however is solely responsible for supporting Palestinian refugees and it refers to shelter or protection from danger or distress, from Latin fugere, to flee, and refugium, a taking refuge, place to flee back to. In Western history, the term was first applied to French Huguenots, after the Edict of Fontainebleau, who again migrated from France after the Edict of Nantes revocation. The word meant one seeking asylum, until around 1914, when it evolved to mean one fleeing home and this legal concept of a refugee was expanded by the Conventions 1967 Protocol. European Unions minimum standards definition of refugee, underlined by Art, in UN parlance, the concept of refugee also includes descendants of refugees but only in the case of two specific groups, viz. Palestinian refugees and Sahrawi refugees. The UN does not consider refugee status to be hereditary for any other group, the UNHCR also protects people in refugee-like situations. It gives credence to the notion that personal individualized ‘fear of being persecuted’ is the reason for needing support. War, upheaval, famine and pestilence do not in the conventional definition make for refugee status. It does not matter that civilian deaths as a proportion of deaths in war escalated to 10% in World War I and it only matters that persons fear the persecution of their state. Furthermore, not all reasons for seeking asylum in another country satisfy the definition of refugee according to article 1A of the 1951 Refugee Convention, fleeing droughts and hunger, fleeing economic hardship, natural disasters and not even war or terror satisfied the definition of 1951. The idea that a person who sought sanctuary in a place could not be harmed without inviting divine retribution was familiar to the ancient Greeks. However, the right to asylum in a church or other holy place was first codified in law by King Æthelberht of Kent in about AD600. Similar laws were implemented throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, the related concept of political exile also has a long history, Ovid was sent to Tomis, Voltaire was sent to England. By the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, nations recognized each others sovereignty, the term refugee is sometimes applied to people who might fit the definition outlined by the 1951 Convention, were it to be applied retroactively. The repeated waves of pogroms that swept Eastern Europe in the 19th, beginning in the 19th century, Muslim people emigrated to Turkey from Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes, various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I
11.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
12.
Psychiatric hospital
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Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their size and grading. Some hospitals may specialize only in short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients, others may specialize in the temporary or permanent care of residents who, as a result of a psychological disorder, require routine assistance, treatment, or a specialized and controlled environment. Patients are often admitted on a basis, but people whom psychiatrists believe may pose a significant danger to themselves or others may be subject to involuntary commitment. Psychiatric hospitals may also be referred to as psychiatric wards when they are a subunit of a regular hospital, modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal, a crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent, or otherwise critical individuals. Open units are units that are not as secure as crisis stabilization units. Another type of hospital is medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. In the United Kingdom, both admissions and medium term care is usually provided on acute admissions wards. Juvenile or adolescent wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children or adolescents with mental illness, long-term care facilities have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation back into society within a short time-frame. Another institution for the mentally ill is a halfway house. Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums, the development of the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. It greatly differed from the view in which the insane were viewed as under the influence of the Devil therefore needing to be isolated from society. The first psychiatric hospital was built by the Muslims in Baghdad in 705 AD, others would rapidly follow, with some of the more famous ones being built in Cairo in 800 AD and in Damascus in 1270 AD. The physicians of the Islamic world would invent and use a variety of treatments, including occupational therapy, music therapy, as well as medication. Western Europe would adopt these views later on with the advances of physicians like Philippe Pinel at the Bicêtre Hospital in France and they advocated the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. The arrival in the Western world of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an event of the nineteenth century, nine counties first applied, the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. In 1828, the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums, the Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every country compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary. The Act required asylums to have written regulations and to have a resident physician, at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were a few thousand sick people housed in a variety of disparate institutions throughout England, but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000
13.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
14.
Protecting power
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In diplomatic usage, protecting power refers to a relationship that is initiated when a sovereign state does not have diplomatic representation in another country. A country may, in lieu of sending its own representative to the receiving state. The third state is responsible for looking after the states diplomatic property. It is common for protecting powers to be appointed when two countries break off relations with each other. The institution of protecting power dates back to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and was formalized in the Geneva Convention of 1929, Protecting powers are authorized in all four of the Geneva Conventions of 1949. In addition, the International Red Cross may itself be appointed a protecting power under Protocol I, the practice of selecting a protecting power in time of peace was formalized in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. The protecting power is appointed by the state and must also be acceptable to the host state. It must therefore maintain diplomatic relations with both states, in time of war, the Geneva Conventions also require that the protecting power be a neutral country. The specific responsibilities and arrangements are agreed between the power, the sending state, and the host country. In a comprehensive mandate, the protecting power carries out most diplomatic functions on behalf of the protected state and this is necessary when relations are so hostile that the sparring nations have no diplomatic or consular staff posted on each others territory. For example, Sweden carries out limited consular functions for the United States, Canada, in other cases, the two nations have broken diplomatic relations, but are willing to exchange personnel on an informal basis. The protecting power serves as the mechanism for facilitating this exchange, the original embassy remains staffed by nationals of the protected state but is formally termed an interests section of the protecting power. For example, the Cuban Interests Section was staffed by Cubans and occupied the old Cuban embassy in Washington, D. C. there is no requirement that the same protecting power be selected by both countries, although this is convenient for the purposes of communication. Each may appoint a different protecting power, provided that the choice is acceptable to the other state, there is also no requirement that a country select only one protecting power in the receiving country. During the Second World War, Japan appointed Spain, Sweden, the protecting power relationship originated in the Franco-Prussian War, when the belligerents expelled each others diplomats and placed restrictions on enemy aliens. This made it necessary for belligerents to appoint protecting powers to represent their interests in enemy countries, the energetic efforts of Elihu B. Washburne, the American Minister to France, set a precedent for the actions of protecting powers in war. The institution of protecting power became customary in international law but was not formalized until the Geneva Convention of 1929, the lack of formalization led to disputes over the rights and responsibilities of the protecting power
15.
Straits of Florida
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It is 150 km wide at the narrowest point between Key West and the Cuban shore, and has been sounded to a depth of 6,000 feet. The strait carries the Florida Current, the beginning of the Gulf Stream, five wells were drilled in state waters south of the Florida Keys from 1947 to 1962. Gulf Oil drilled three wells in federal waters south of the Florida Keys in 1960 and 1961, all the wells were dry holes. The boundary between the Exclusive Economic Zones of the US and Cuba is halfway between Cuba and Florida, as determined by a 1977 treaty between the US and Cuba, Cuba has three producing offshore oil fields within 5 km of its north coast opposite Florida. The issue of allowing oil and gas exploration offshore Florida became a contested topic in the 2008 US elections. In fact, no drilling was taking place in that part of Cuban waters. In 2004 the Spanish oil company Repsol-YPF drilled in deep Cuban waters between Cuba and the Florida Keys, and found an oil deposit, the deposit was judged noncommercial, and the hole was plugged. In October 2008, Cuba signed an agreement with the Brazilian state oil company Petrobras, in July 2009, Cuba signed an agreement with the Russian government giving the Russian oil company Zarubezhneft oil exploration rights off the north shore of Cuba. By May 2011 Petrobas had withdrawn from the 2008 agreement due to poor prospects, in 2009 the Falkland Islands-registered company BPC Limited and Norwegian company Statoil announced a joint venture to drill for oil in Bahamian waters north of Cuba and southeast of Florida. Florida Straits, a film starring Fred Ward
16.
Havana
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Havana is the capital city, largest city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet, the sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592, walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city. The sinking of the U. S. battleship Maine in Havanas harbor in 1898 was the cause of the Spanish–American War. Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one, Old Havana, Vedado and the suburban districts. The city is the center of the Cuban government, and home to various ministries, headquarters of businesses, the current mayor is Marta Hernández of the Communist Party of Cuba. In 2009, the city/province had the third highest income in the country, the city attracts over a million tourists annually, the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists, a 20% increase from 2005. Old Havana was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, the city is also noted for its history, culture, architecture and monuments. As typical of Cuba, Havana also features a tropical climate, in May 2015, Havana was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Durban, Beirut, and Kuala Lumpur. Most native settlements became the site of Spanish colonial cities retaining their original Taíno names, an alternate theory is that Habana is derived from the Middle Dutch word havene, referring to a harbour, etymologically related to the English word haven. All attempts to found a city on Cubas south coast failed, however, an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of this river. The town that became Havana finally originated adjacent to what was then called Puerto de Carenas, the quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havanas harbor, warranted this change of location. Pánfilo de Narváez gave Havana – the sixth town founded by the Spanish on Cuba – its name, the name combines San Cristóbal, patron saint of Havana. Shortly after the founding of Cubas first cities, the served as little more than a base for the Conquista of other lands. Havana began as a port, and suffered regular attacks by buccaneers, pirates. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsair Jacques de Sores in 1555, ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the bay also fueled Havanas agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water. On December 20,1592, King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City, later on, the city would be officially designated as Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies by the Spanish Crown
17.
Key West
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Key West is an island city in Florida and the county seat of Monroe County. The city boundaries include the island of Key West and several islands, as well as the section of Stock Island north of U. S. Route 1. Sigsbee Park—originally known as Dredgers Key—and Fleming Key, both located to the north, and Sunset Key located to the west are all included in the city boundaries, both Fleming Key and Sigsbee Park are part of Naval Air Station Key West and are inaccessible to the general public. Key West is the southernmost city in the contiguous United States and the terminus of U. S. Route 1, State Road A1A, the East Coast Greenway and, before 1935. Key West is 129 miles southwest of Miami by air, about 160 miles by car, Cuba, at its closest point, is 94 miles south. Key West is a destination for many passenger cruise ships. The Key West International Airport provides airline service, the central business district is located along Duval Street and includes much of the northwestern corner of the island. The official city motto is One Human Family, in Pre-Colonial times Key West was inhabited by the Calusa people. The first European to visit was Juan Ponce de León in 1521, as Florida became a Spanish territory, a fishing and salvage village with a small garrison was established here. Cayo Hueso is the original Spanish name for the island of Key West, spanish-speaking people today also use the term when referring to Key West. It is said that the island was littered with the remains of native inhabitants. This island was the westernmost Key with a supply of water. In 1763, when Great Britain took control of Florida, the community of Spaniards, Florida returned to Spanish control 20 years later, but there was no official resettlement of the island. Informally the island was used by fishermen from Cuba and from the British, while claimed by Spain, no nation exercised de facto control over the community there for some time. In 1815, the Spanish governor of Cuba in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas, businessman John W. Simonton, during a meeting in a Havana café on January 19,1822, for the equivalent of $2,000 in pesos in 1821. Geddes tried in vain to secure his rights to the property before Simonton who, Simonton had wide-ranging business interests in Mobile, Alabama. He bought the island because a friend, John Whitehead, had drawn his attention to the opportunities presented by the strategic location. John Whitehead had been stranded in Key West after a shipwreck in 1819, on March 25,1822, Lt. Commander, Matthew C
18.
Miami
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Miami is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U. S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Miamis metro area is the eighth-most populous, Miami is a major center, and a leader in finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade. In 2012, Miami was classified as an Alpha−World City in the World Cities Study Groups inventory, in 2010, Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance, commerce, culture, entertainment, fashion, education, and other sectors. It ranked 33rd among global cities, in 2008, Forbes magazine ranked Miami Americas Cleanest City, for its year-round good air quality, vast green spaces, clean drinking water, clean streets, and citywide recycling programs. According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities, Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States, Miami is nicknamed the Capital of Latin America and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality. Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U. S. with over 300 high-rises, Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States, and many large national and international companies. The Civic Center is a center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers. For more than two decades, the Port of Miami, known as the Cruise Capital of the World, has been the number one cruise port in the world. It accommodates some of the worlds largest cruise ships and operations, Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South, number two in the U. S. after New York City and number 13 in the world, including the popular destination of Miami Beach. The Miami area was inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Native American tribes, the Tequestas occupied the area for a thousand years before encountering Europeans. An Indian village of hundreds of people dating to 500–600 B. C. was located at the mouth of the Miami River, in 1566 the explorer, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, claimed it for Spain. A Spanish mission was constructed one year later in 1567, Spain and Great Britain successively controlled Florida, and Spain ceded it to the United States in 1821. In 1836, the US built Fort Dallas as part of its development of the Florida Territory and attempt to suppress, the Miami area subsequently became a site of fighting during the Second Seminole War. Miami is noted as the major city in the United States conceived by a woman, Julia Tuttle, a local citrus grower. The Miami area was known as Biscayne Bay Country in the early years of its growth. In the late 19th century, reports described the area as a promising wilderness, the area was also characterized as one of the finest building sites in Florida. The Great Freeze of 1894–95 hastened Miamis growth, as the crops of the Miami area were the ones in Florida that survived. Julia Tuttle subsequently convinced Henry Flagler, a tycoon, to expand his Florida East Coast Railway to the region
19.
Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
20.
Key Largo
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Key Largo is an island in the upper Florida Keys archipelago and is the largest section of the Keys, at 33 miles long. It is one of the northernmost of the Florida Keys in Monroe County, and its earlier Spanish name was Cayo Largo, meaning long islet. Key Largo is connected to the mainland in Miami-Dade County by two routes, the first route is The Overseas Highway, which is U. S. Highway 1 that enters Key Largo at Jewfish Creek near the middle of the island and turns southwest. These routes originate at Florida City on the mainland, in 1896, a post office opened on Key Largo called Aiken, located near Sound Point. Key Largos proximity to the Everglades also makes it a destination for kayakers. Automotive and highway pioneer and Miami Beach developer Carl G. Fisher built the Caribbean Club in 1938 as his last project. The island gained fame as the setting for the 1948 film Key Largo, but apart from background filming used for establishing shots, the film was shot on a Warner Brothers sound stage in Hollywood. After the films success, pressure from local businesses resulted in a change in the name of the post office serving the part of the island, from Rock Harbor to Key Largo. After that, every resident north of Tavernier had a Key Largo address, as of 2010, the three places have a combined population of 13,850. None of Key Largo is a municipality, so it is governed at the local level by Monroe County. The island of Key Largo is an exposed, fossilized remnant of a reef formed during a period of higher sea level. The highest elevation is a slight ridge forming the spine of the island, the islands substrate is called Key Largo limestone, in many places, fossilized corals and smooth, eroded limestone caprock are visible at the surface. Solution holes, which are dissolved in the limestone by acidic rainwater. The natural shoreline of the island is generally rocky, a slippery, gray, limestone-based clay called marl is the shoreline and near-shore soil. There are no natural sand beaches on the island, inland, decomposed vegetation forms a rich, acidic humus soil up to about six inches thick, topped by leaf litter. The soil supports a diverse flora of herbaceous plants, woody shrubs, frost has never been recorded on the island. Key Largo enjoys close to 3,000 hours of sunshine annually, Key Largo travel guide from Wikivoyage Official Tourism Site A Complete Guide to the Florida Keys and Key West
21.
Federal Emergency Management Agency
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The agencys primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA, FEMA also provides these services for territories of the United States, such as Puerto Rico. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster, in addition to this, FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agencys preparedness effort. Federal emergency management in the U. S. has existed in one form or another for over 200 years, a series of devastating fires struck the port city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, early in the 19th century. The 7th U. S. Congress passed a measure in 1803 that provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by extending the time they had for remitting tariffs on imported goods and this is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster. Between 1803 and 1930, ad hoc legislation was passed more than 100 times for relief or compensation after a disaster, examples include the waiving of duties and tariffs to the merchants of New York City after the Great Fire of New York. After the collapse of the John T, fords Theater in June 1893, the 54th Congress passed legislation compensating those who were injured in the building. After the start of the Great Depression in 1929, President Herbert Hoover had commissioned the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932, the purpose of the RFC was to lend money to banks and institutions to stimulate economic activity. RFC was also responsible for dispensing federal dollars in the wake of a disaster, RFC can be considered the first organized federal disaster response agency. The Bureau of Public Roads in 1934 was given authority to finance the reconstruction of highways and roads after a disaster. The Flood Control Act of 1944 also gave the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers authority over control and irrigation projects. This agency would oversee disasters until its incorporation into FEMA in 1978, over the years, Congress increasingly extended the range of covered categories for assistance, and several presidential executive orders did the same. In time, this array of agencies themselves underwent reorganization. One of the first such federal agencies was the Federal Civil Defense Administration, functions to administer disaster relief were then given to the President himself, who delegated to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. Subsequently, a new office of the Office of Defense Mobilization was created, then, in 1978 an effort was made to consolidate the several singular functions, FEMA was created to house civil defense and disaster preparedness under one roof. This was a controversial decision. FEMA was established under the 1978 Reorganization Plan No,3, and activated April 1,1979, by President Jimmy Carter in his Executive Order 12127. In July, Carter signed Executive Order 12148 shifting disaster relief efforts to the new federal-level agency, FEMA was also given the responsibility for overseeing the nations Civil Defense, a function which had previously been performed by the Department of Defenses Defense Civil Preparedness Agency
22.
Fort Chaffee Maneuver Training Center
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Fort Chaffee Maneuver Training Center is an Army National Guard installation in western Arkansas, adjacent to the city of Fort Smith. Established as Camp Chaffee in 1941, renamed to Fort Chaffee in 1956, Fort Chaffee has served as a United States Army base, training camp, prisoner-of-war camp, the base was closed following the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure Commission round. Since that time, the Arkansas National Guard has been using 66,000 acres as a training facility, the State of Arkansas received 6000 acres, about half of which have been redeveloped as of 2014. The main environmental concern has been asbestos, released during various fires, Fort Chaffee is just outside Fort Smith and Barling on Arkansas Highway 22, one mile southeast of Fort Smith Regional Airport. The Arkansas River flows eastward along its border and Interstate 40 is five miles to the north on the opposite side of the river. Fort Chaffee was originally named Camp Chaffee, the groundbreaking of Camp Chaffee was held on September 20,1941, as part of the Department of Wars preparations to double the size of the U. S. Army in the face of World War II. That month, the U. S. government paid $1.35 million to acquire 15,163 acres from 712 property owners, including families, farms, businesses, churches, schools and it took only sixteen months to build the entire base. The first soldiers arrived on December 7,1941, the day of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the installation was activated on March 27,1942 and from 1942 to 1946, the Sixth, Fourteenth and Sixteenth Armored Divisions trained there. The creation of the camp caused the town of Barling to experience a tremendous boom in housing. Fort Chaffee also served as a prisoner-of-war-camp during World War II, from 1948 to 1957, Chaffee was the home of the Fifth Armored Division. On March 21,1956, the name of Camp Chaffee was officially changed to Fort Chaffee in recognition of the permanent nature of the base. For four days in 1958, Chaffee was home to Elvis Presley, in 1959, the Home of the U. S. Army Training Center, Field Artillery moved from Fort Chaffee to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, where it remains to this day. The facility processed 50,809 refugees of the Vietnam War, giving them medical screenings, matching them with sponsors, and arranging for their resettlement in the United States. Among notable children of refugees born at Fort Chaffee was Dat Nguyen, in 1980, Fort Chaffee became a Cuban refugee resettlement center, holding 19,000 Cubans after the Mariel boatlift and briefly making the camp the 11th largest city in Arkansas. On Sunday, June 1, the detainees rioted, destroying four barracks and fighting with State Police officers, sixty-two refugees were injured and 46 others were arrested. After the riots, the previously unsecured facility was turned into a prison, the riot was a major issue in Frank D. Whites victory over Governor Bill Clinton in the November 1980 gubernatorial election, over two years, Fort Chaffee processed 25,390 Cuban refugees. In 1987, the Joint Readiness Training Center began training soldiers at Chaffee, in 1993 the JRTC was transferred to Fort Polk, Louisiana and in 1995, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the closure of Fort Chaffee
23.
Fort Indiantown Gap
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Fort Indiantown Gap, also referred to as The Gap or FTIG, is a census-designated place and U. S. Army post primarily located in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. A portion of the installation is located in eastern Dauphin County and it is located adjacent to Interstate 81,23 miles northeast of Harrisburg, just north of the northern terminus of Pennsylvania Route 934 at I-81s Exit 85. The installation is an active National Guard Training Center and serves as headquarters for the Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, the fort surrounds Memorial Lake State Park. It is served by the Annville, Pennsylvania post office, as of the 2010 census the population was 143 residents. The Fort Indiantown Gap Military Reservation is protected by a police force, the Fort Indiantown Gap Police Department. The installation is also home to the Northeast Counterdrug Training Center, the Susquehannock, who had been cultivating the land in that area of Pennsylvania, became willing allies against the colonists as the French and Indian War began. At the onset of the war, the Susquehannock attacked colonial frontier settlements using the passes that existed in Blue Mountain through Manada Gap, Indiantown Gap, and Swatara Gap. Because of these attacks, a chain of fortifications was established across the northern tier of Lebanon County, the current post was originally developed by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, on the recommendation of General Edward Martin, as a National Guard training site in 1931. Over the years, the installation has served as home to the Pennsylvania National Guard as well as units of the United States Army. In 1941, the post was officially named Indiantown Gap Military Reservation, Martin retired from military service and went on to serve as Governor of Pennsylvania and then State Senator. After his death, the Legislature of Pennsylvania renamed the installation the Edward Martin Military Reservation, the new name was never fully accepted by the military personnel who served there. In 1975, the Secretary of the Army renamed the post Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania also reinstated the Indiantown Gap designation, which it retains today. World War II reconfirmed the strategic importance of the Gap, which one of the nations most important Army training camps. Construction on the installation began almost immediately, seven U. S. Army divisions were given final training at the Gap prior to being shipped overseas. The Gap also served as a site for many units returning home from the European Theater of Operations after the war ended. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, during the Vietnam War, in 1975, the Gap served as a refugee camp for southeast Asian refugees. For eight months, more than 32,000 Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees were resettled through the installation, in 1976, a section of Fort Indiantown Gap was selected as the new national cemetery for the states of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia, and West Virginia. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania donated the land for the site to the Veterans Administration, in 1980, the Gap again became a refugee camp when over 19,000 Cuban aliens were brought to the Gap for processing and sponsorship after the Mariel boatlift
24.
Fort McCoy, Wisconsin
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Fort McCoy is a United States Army installation. It is located on 60,000 acres between Sparta and Tomah, Wisconsin, in Monroe County, since its creation in 1909, the post has been used primarily as a military training center. A part of Fort McCoy is also used by the Wisconsin State Patrol as a training facility, the post has been in virtually constant use since it was first formed as the Sparta Maneuver Tract on 14,000 acres in 1909. At first, the tract was made up of two camps, Camp Emory Upton and Camp Robinson and these were separated by a line of the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad that ran across the land from east to west. In 1926, the name of the post was shortened to Camp McCoy, in 1938, the United States began a major expansion of the camp. This included the addition of over 45,000 acres to the post and this increased the camps capacity to 35,000 soldiers. In all, the project was estimated to have cost about $30 million, the expansion was officially concluded with a new inauguration on August 30,1942. During World War II, Fort McCoy was used as a center for approximately 170 Japanese and 120 German and Italian American civilians arrested as potentially dangerous enemy aliens in 1942. The post was used as a prisoner-of-war camp during the conflict, holding 4,000 Japanese. Fort McCoys POWs were featured in the 2011 film Fort McCoy, the camp was briefly deactivated following World War II, but with the advent of the Korean War in 1950, it was once again used for training. This continued until 1953, when the camp was again deactivated and it was then used to house various small national, state and civilian projects, and served as a training center for the National Guard and the Job Corps. In response, a Milwaukee official proposed that the camp be used as a landfill for Milwaukee garbage, in 1973, the Army reactivated Camp McCoy as a permanent training center, and on September 30,1974, it was officially re-designated as Fort McCoy. In the 1990s, a major construction project was undertaken. Today, Fort McCoy serves as a Total Force Training Center, around 100,000 members of the military are trained at the fort every year, and the total number has exceeded 149,000 in the past. Fort McCoy also is the headquarters of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion-25 which served a tour in Iraq. The 181st Infantry Brigade is the largest unit stationed at Fort McCoy, Fort McCoy was used as a mobilization station during Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm. This was the first time units had mobilized at Fort McCoy since the Korean War,74 military units deployed through Fort McCoy, totaling over 9,000 Soldiers, 8% of the reserve forces activated during the Persian Gulf War. Volk Field Air National Guard Base was used as the point of departure
25.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
26.
Refugee camp
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A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced persons who have fled their home country, usually refugees seek asylum after theyve escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental- and economic migrants. Camps with over a thousand people are common, but as of 2012 the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations, there are also unofficial refugee camps, like Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations. Refugee camps generally develop in a fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments, if the return of refugees is prevented, a humanitarian crisis can result or continue. According to UNHCR, the majority of refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps, at the end of 2015, some 67 per cent of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter of refugees was reported to be living in planned/managed camps, at the end of 2015, about 56 per cent of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a planned/managed camp, compared with 2 per cent who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the majority of refugees lived in individual accommodations. A small percentage of refugees live in collective centers, transit camps. The average camp size is recommended by the UNHCR to be 45 sqm per person of accessible camp area, within this area the following facilities can usually be found, An administrative headquarters to coordinate services. Sleeping accommodations are frequently tents, prefabricated huts, or dwellings constructed of available materials. The UNHCR recommends a minimum of 3.5 sqm of covered living area per person, there should be at least 2m between shelters. Gardens attached to the family plot, the UNHCR recommends a plot size of 15 sqm per person. Hygiene facilities, such as washing areas, latrines or toilets, UNHCR recommends one shower per 50 persons and one communal latrine per 20 persons. Distance for the latter should be no more than 50m from shelter, hygiene facilities should be separated by gender. Places for water collection, either water tanks where water is off-loaded from trucks, UNHCR recommends 20 litres of water per person and one tap stand per 80 persons that should be no farther than 200m away from households
27.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
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Campamento Santiago
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Campamento Santiago is a military training installation controlled by the Puerto Rico National Guard on 12,789 acres of land located in Salinas, Puerto Rico. This training facility was named posthumously after Medal of Honor recipient and Salinas, in 1940, the Federal government of the United States leased this military camp, then known as Camp Salinas, from the Government of Puerto Rico. In 1967, the U. S. Government licensed the camp to the Puerto Rico National Guard, since that time the camp has grown from a tent city with very few permanent facilities to an installation of more than 300 buildings of approximately 715,680 square feet. In 1966 Col. Alberto A. Nido requested the construction of a range, peñagarícano was assigned project officer and the U. S. Army Antilles Command caretakers of the camp, provided earth-moving equipment and personnel. In 1974, Campamento Santiagos air strip was renamed after administrative official Manuel Collazo, the camp was named after Fourth Class Specialist Héctor Santiago Colón from Salinas, Puerto Rico, a posthumous Medal of Honor recipient. This marked the second instance that an installation in Puerto Rico was re-baptized after a local soldier after Campamento García in Vieques was named after Fernando García. Division General Carlos Chardón was actively involved in the process to propose the recognition, the Cal.45 shooting range at Campanento Santiago was baptized after Col. Eduardo Andino, a distinguished pistol and rifle shooter that won a U. S. Army National Pistol Championship in 1922. Camp Santiago also had a role in training National Guard and Reserve soldiers in Puerto Rico for Operation Enduring Freedom during the War in Afghanistan, in 2006 more soldiers went back to Camp Santiago to prepare for the Iraq War during Operation Desert Shield. The U. S. Navy had a radio receiver site at Camp Santiago. Camp Santiago also served as a village for athletes for the 1993 Central American and Caribbean Games in Ponce. Camp Santiago Joint Maneuver Training Center is located 51 miles south of San Juan, the main gate is located right off Puerto Rico Highway 52 on exit 65, the camp is easily accessible from almost everywhere in Puerto Rico. Though it has no permanent residents, Camp Santiago can house thousands of troops on a temporarily basis, victor J. Torres Fitness Center, ID Card office, a class six shoppette and AAFES has opened a new post exchange and gas station on base. Future projects for the Camp Santiago Joint Maneuver Training Center includes a navigation course, a live shooting house. Camp Santiago is the training area for the U. S. Army, Army National Guard, U. S. Army Reserve. The camp is used for Annual Field Training Exercises each summer, some Army National Guard and Army Reserve units from the Continental United States also come to Camp Santiago for their annual training camp. U. S. Marine Corps Reserve units in Puerto Rico conduct field training exercises, the Army ROTC and the Air Force ROTC hold their semester training exercises at Camp Santiago. Camp Santiago is open to the public for the annual Puerto Rico National Guard Family Day held each February. The Puerto Rico Rifle and Pistol Association hold their state championship every year at Camp Santiago, with participants from the military, law enforcement agencies, Federal and state law enforcement agencies use Camp Santiago as a support facility for operations in southern Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
30.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
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Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
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Committees for the Defense of the Revolution
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Not to be confused with Committees for the Defense of the Revolution Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, or CDR, are a network of neighborhood committees across Cuba. The organizations, described as the eyes and ears of the Revolution, exist to promote social welfare, as of 2010,8.4 million Cubans of the national population of 11.2 million were registered as CDR members. It is considered to be a police organization. The CDR system was formed by Fidel Castro on September 28,1960, following the 1959 Cuban Revolution, the slogan of the CDR is, ¡En cada barrio, Revolución. CDR officials have the duty to monitor the activities of person on their respective blocks. There is a file kept on each block resident, some of which reveal the internal dynamics of each household. Even after its 54-year existence, CDR activity remains contentious, the CDRs also take an active role in vaccination campaigns, blood banks, recycling, practicing evacuations for hurricanes, and backing up the government in its fight against corruption. However, a 2006 Amnesty International report noted CDR involvement in repeated human rights violations that included verbal as well as physical violence. Critics also contend that the CDRs are a tool, giving the government a heads-up about dissident activities on the micro-local level. Elizardo Sánchez, a Cuban dissident, described the CDR as a tool for the systematic and mass violation of rights, for ideological. They assist the police and the service, whereas Lazaro Sanchez. If we have to act, we are going to act and our streets cannot belong to criminals, or to counterrevolutionaries. Empire has the FBI, the Revolution has its CDRs, blockleiter Mass surveillance Informal collaborators Official CDR−Committees for the Defense of the Revolution website— Recent news about the CDR— +
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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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USS Saipan (LHA-2)
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USS Saipan was a Tarawa-class amphibious assault ship, the second United States Navy ship named in honor of the World War II Battle of Saipan. Commissioned in 1977, the ship saw service until 2007 when she was decommissioned, in 2009 the ship was sold for scrapping. From February to April 1980, Saipan was involved in Anorak Express 80, the Navy crew of around 800 and an entire Marine battalion of over 2,000 sailed from Norfolk to Norway. In May, Saipan was underway to augment U. S. Coast Guard efforts to assist Cuban refugees crossing the Straits of Florida to the United States during the Mariel boatlift, on 25 August, Saipan departed Norfolk for the first Mediterranean deployment by an LHA. On 3 September 1981, Saipan deployed for her tour in the Mediterranean Sea. During that deployment, Saipan visited or operated in seven different countries on three continents, from August 1982 through July 1983, Saipan was in the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for her first scheduled complex overhaul. In September 1983, while undergoing Refresher Training at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in 1984 Saipan on another North Atlantic deployment. In January 1985, Saipan departed for her third Mediterranean deployment and she steamed more than 32,000 miles, logged over 6,700 safe aircraft landings and visited ports in three countries. Following a four-month restricted availability in Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Saipan sailed to Guantanamo Bay to complete various training evolutions, on 17 August 1986, Saipan departed on its fourth Mediterranean deployment. Extended briefly in the Eastern Mediterranean for contingency operations, Saipan returned to Norfolk on 24 February 1987, starting at the end of October 1987, Saipan was in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for major refitting. In January 1989, Saipan returned to Norfolk, Virginia, from March 1990 through September 1990, Saipan was deployed for the fifth time to the Mediterranean. However, in late May 1990 it was diverted into the Eastern Atlantic, while there, Saipan conducted a non-combatant evacuation operation, evacuating 1,600 civilians from war-torn Liberia in support of Operation Sharp Edge. From September 1991 to March 1992, Saipan deployed to the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Desert Storm, Saipan again deployed to the Mediterranean in March 1993, in support of Operation Deny Flight and Operation Provide Promise. The ship returned in September 1993 and began her third scheduled complex overhaul in April 1994, in June 1996, Saipan deployed to the Mediterranean and participated in Operation Decisive Endeavor and various multi-national training exercises. She returned to Norfolk in December 1996, Saipan departed on her seventh deployment to the Mediterranean in July 1998. Saipan spent substantial operating time in the Adriatic Sea due to turmoil in Albania, on 28 July 1998 Saipan went to the rescue of the motor yacht MY Huntress which was burning approximately 98 miles southwest of Corfu and 57 miles east of Nisos Island. The crew and guests were saved, but Huntress burned and sank despite damage control efforts of Saipan. S, in 1999, Saipan became the developmental and operational test platform for the V-22 Osprey aircraft. In July 2000, Saipan began her eighth Mediterranean deployment, the ship commenced Adriatic presence operations during the Fall of 2000 federal elections in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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USS Boulder (LST-1190)
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The USS Boulder was named after a county and city in Colorado. Following commissioning at Long Beach, California, Boulder was assigned to the Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet, with the port of Little Creek. Into 1980, the landing ship alternated amphibious training operations along the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean with regular. Boulder was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation for removal and disposal of ordnance from the Suez Canal in 1974, Boulder was decommissioned on 28 February 1994 and was placed in inactive reserve at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility in Philadelphia. On 1 December 2008 she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register and and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here and this article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain. The entry can be found here
36.
Watercraft
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Watercraft are water-borne vehicles including ships, boats, hovercraft and submarines. Watercraft usually have propulsive capability and hence are distinct from a device that merely floats. Most watercraft would be described as either a ship or a boat, however, there are numerous craft which many people would consider neither a ship nor a boat, such as, surfboards, underwater robots, seaplanes, jetskis and torpedoes. Although ships are larger than boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se. Ships are typically large ocean-going vessels, whereas boats are smaller, and typically travel most often on inland or coastal waters. A rule of thumb says a boat can fit on a ship, but a ship cant fit on a boat, local law and regulation may define the exact size that distinguishes a ship from a boat. A merchant ship is any floating craft that transports cargo for the purpose of earning revenue, in that context, the term watercraft is rarely used to describe any individual object, rather the term serves to unify the category that ranges from jet skis to aircraft carriers. Such a vessel may be used in saltwater and freshwater, for pleasure, recreation, physical exercise, commerce, in general, the purpose of a water vehicle identifies its utility with a maritime industry sub-sector. The design from which a vehicle is created usually seeks to achieve a balance between internal capacity, speed and seaworthiness. Propulsion is the application of technology in watercraft. Current technological development seeks to identify cheaper, renewable and less polluting sources of propulsion for watercraft of all shapes and sizes, secondary applications of technology in watercraft have been those of used structural materials, navigation aids, and in the case of warships, weapon systems. Watercraft registration is the registration of a watercraft with a government authority, identification consists of an alphanumeric string called a vessel registration number that is issued in the United States by the states Department of Motor Vehicles. Navigation aids have varied over time, from observation, to mechanical mechanisms. Since the early 20th century, there has been a development in technologies which allow force projection from a naval task force to a land objective using marine infantry. The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Native Watercraft in Canada A History of Recreational Small Watercraft Recreational Watercraft
37.
Humanitarian Service Medal
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The Humanitarian Service Medal is a military service medal of the United States Armed Forces which was created on January 19,1977 by President Gerald Ford under Executive Order 11965. This medal is awarded to any member of the United States military who distinguish themselves by meritorious participation in specified military acts or operations of a humanitarian nature and this medal is presented as an individual service medal. The activities in which the Humanitarian Service Medal may be authorized are designated by the United States Department of Defense, such activities include natural disaster relief, evacuation of non-combatants from a hostile area, or humanitarian support to refugees. This medal may not be awarded for services rendered in domestic disturbances involving law enforcement, riots and this medal may also not be presented if either the Armed Forces Service Medal or Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was presented for the same period of service. The Humanitarian Service Medal is retroactive to April 1,1975, multiple awards of the medal are authorized with service stars denoting additional awards. The Department of the Army awards the Civilian Award for Humanitarian Service for similar service by Army civilian employees, as well as private American, centered on the obverse of the medal within a circle, is a right hand pointing diagonally upward with open palm. At the top of the reverse of the medal is the inscription, below this is an oak branch, with three leaves and three acorns, and below this, around the outside edge of the medal, is the inscription, United States Armed Forces
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1st Battalion, 8th Marines
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1st Battalion, 8th Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The battalion consists of approximately 1000 Marines and Sailors and is nicknamed The Beirut Battalion and they fall under the command of the 8th Marine Regiment and the 2nd Marine Division. The units history goes back to World War II where they fought in campaigns in the Pacific including Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Tinian. The battalion is probably best known as the unit that was the victim of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing in Lebanon, a total of 241 Marines, sailors and soldiers lost their lives that day and the majority of them were from 1/8. Activated April 1,1940, at San Diego, California, the 2nd Marine Brigade was re-designated February 1,1941, as 2nd Marine Division. The battalion was assigned during December 1941 to 2nd Marine Brigade, jeschke arrived from American Samoa, landing as reinforcements on Guadalcanal. On 12 January, the Marines began their advance with the 8th Marines along the shore, all along the front of the advancing assault companies the going was rough. The Japanese, remnants of the Sendai Division, were dug into the sides of a series of cross compartments, progress was slow despite massive artillery support and naval gunfire from four destroyers offshore. In two days of fighting, flamethrowers were employed for the first time and tanks were brought into play. The 2d Marines was now relieved and the 6th Marines moved into the attack along the coast while the 8th Marines took up the advance inland, Naval gunfire support, spotted by naval officers ashore, improved measurably. On the 15th, the Americans, both Army and Marine, reached the initial corps objective, in the Marine attack zone,600 Japanese were dead. The 8th Marines was essentially pinched out of the front lines by a narrowing attack corridor as the inland mountains, on 31 January, the 2d Marines and the 1st Battalion, 8th Marines, boarded ship to leave Guadalcanal. 1st Battalion 8th Marines headed for Wellington, New Zealand, the 2nd Marine Division losses on Guadalcanal were 263 dead. Tarawa 1st Battalion 8th Marines departed the USS Sheridan, boarded LVTs, with the battle still in doubt and after 18 hours at sea watching the battle as the division reserve, they were finally ordered ashore. 1/8 landed on Red Beach 2 at 06,15 on 21 November 1943, as soon as 1/8 began their landing, the murderous onslaught started. The LVTs didnt fare any better than the D Day landings and were bogged down by the reef. The men of 1/8 landed on the far right of Red 2 after wading over 500 yards ashore, in the end, it was the sheer courage of the survivors that got them ashore under such a hellish crossfire. Major Hays reported to Colonel Shoup, the newly promoted commander of the 2nd Marine Regiment, 1/8 had suffered more than 300 casualties just trying to get ashore, others were scattered all along the beach and the pier
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1st Battalion, 6th Marines
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The 1st Battalion, 6th Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. It consists of approximately 1,100 Marines and Sailors and they fall under the command of the 6th Marine Regiment, the 2nd Marine Division of the II Marine Expeditionary Force. It deployed to France from September to October 1917 and was assigned to the 4th Brigade, 2nd Division, for the actions at Belleau Wood, Soissons, and Blanc Mont, the 6th Marine Regiment was awarded the French Croix de Guerre three times. As a result, the regiment is authorized to wear the fourragère of the Croix de Guerre, the fourragère thereafter became part of the uniform of the unit. All members of the modern 6th Marines are authorized to wear the fourragère while serving with the regiment and it relocated to Quantico, Virginia in August 1919 and was deactivated on 20 August 1919. The battalion was reactivated on 12 June 1922 and participated in maneuvers at Gettysburg, from June–July 1922, it was assigned to the Marine Corps Expeditionary Force. From January to September 1925 it deployed to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, the unit returned to Norfolk, Virginia and was deactivated on 1 October 1925. Reactivated on 29 March 1927 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, it deployed from March to June 1927 to San Diego, 1/6 was again deactivated in March 1929. The battalion returned to San Diego during February to April 1938, on 1 February 1941, the 2nd Marine Brigade was re-designated as the 2nd Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force. 1/6 deployed during May to July 1941 to Reykjavík in Iceland and was reassigned to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, 1/6 relocated during March 1942 to San Diego and were reassigned to the 2nd Marine Division, FMF. From October to November 1942 it deployed to Wellington in New Zealand, during the course of World War II the battalion fought at Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Saipan, Tinian and Okinawa. The 6th Marines landed at Guadalcanal on 4 January 1943 where it was reunited with the 2nd. The 6th Marines suffered 223 casualties, during its six weeks on the Canal, during the Battle of Tarawa, the 6th Marines was the V Amphibious Corps floating reserve. The assault waves stormed ashore on 20 November 1943 but ran into stiff opposition, casualties were so heavy that the entire division reserve was committed on the first day. The 6th Marines was ordered ashore the following morning, the 1st and 3rd Battalions landed across Betios Green Beach and were ordered to drive the length of the island, the 2nd Battalion was used as a blocking force on nearby Bairiki Island. Betio was declared secure after 76 bloody hours, the 1st and 3rd Battalions were re-located to a new rest camp in Hawaii, but the 2nd Battalion stayed on to clear the rest of the atoll. The 6th Marines suffered 355 casualties and received a Presidential Unit Citation for its actions on Tarawa, the regiment next participated in the Battle of Saipan and the Tinian operation. The regiment landed under fire at Saipans Red Beach on 15 June
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Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
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Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune is a 246-square-mile United States military training facility in Jacksonville, North Carolina. The bases 14 miles of beaches make it an area for amphibious assault training. In April 1941, construction was approved on an 11, 000-acre tract in Onslow County, on May 1 of that year, Lt. Col. William P. T. Hill began construction on Marine Barracks New River, the first base headquarters was in a summer cottage on Montford Point, and then moved to Hadnot Point in 1942. Later that year it was renamed in honor of the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps, One of the satellite facilities of Camp Lejeune served for a while as a third boot camp for the Marines, in addition to Parris Island and San Diego. That facility, Montford Point, was established after Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, between 1942 and 1949, a brief era of segregated training for black Marines, the camp at Montford Point trained 20,000 African-Americans. After the military was ordered to integrate, Montford Point was renamed Camp Gilbert H. Johnson. Military forces from around the world come to Camp Lejeune on a basis for bilateral. Camp Lejeune was featured in the hit CW network drama One Tree Hill in late 2006, a 1974 base order required safe disposal of solvents and warned that improper handling could cause drinking water contamination. Yet solvents were dumped or buried near base wells for years, the bases wells were shut off in the mid-1980s, but were placed back online in violation of the law. In 1982, Volatile organic compounds were found to be in Camp Lejeunes drinking water supply, VOC contamination of groundwater can cause birth defects and other ill health effects in pregnant and nursing mothers. This information was not made public for two decades when the government attempted to identify those who may have been exposed. An advocacy group called The Few, The Proud, The Forgotten was created to inform victims of the contamination at Lejeune. This is believed to be the first time the government has admitted the link between the contamination and illnesses, in 2007, Jerry Ensminger, a retired Marine master sergeant, found a document dated 1981 that described a radioactive dump site near a rifle range at the camp. According to the report, the waste was laced with strontium-90, according to Camp Lejeunes installation restoration program manager, base officials learned in 2004 about the 1981 document. Ensminger served in the Marine Corps for 24 and a half years, in 1985 his 9-year-old daughter, Janey, died of cancer. On July 6,2009, Laura Jones filed suit against the US government over the water at the base. Jones previously lived at the base where her husband, a Marine, was stationed, Jones has lymphoma and now lives in Iowa
41.
Immigration and Naturalization Service
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The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was an agency of the U. S. Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, the agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1,2003, prior to 1933, there were separate offices administering immigration and naturalization matters. The INS was established on June 10,1933, merging these previously separate areas of administration, reflecting changing governmental concerns, immigration was transferred to the purview of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice. S. The investigative and enforcement functions of the INS were combined with the U. S. Customs investigators to create U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The border functions of the INS, which included the Border Patrol and INS Inspectors, were combined with U. S. Customs Inspectors to create U. S. Customs, the INS also adjudicated applications for permanent residency, change of status, naturalization, and similar matters. At the head of the INS was an appointed by the President who reported to the Attorney General in the Department of Justice. The INS worked closely with the United Nations, the Department of State, the INS was a very large and complex organization that had four main divisions—Programs, Field Operations, Policy and Planning, and Management—that were responsible for operations and management. The operational functions of the INS included the Programs and Field Operations divisions, the Field Operations division was responsible for overseeing INS many offices operating throughout the country and the world. The Field Operations division implemented policies and handled tasks for its three offices, which in turn oversaw 33 districts and 21 border areas throughout the country. Internationally, the Field Operations division oversaw the Headquarters Office of International Affairs which in turn oversaw 16 offices outside the country, managerial functions of the INS included the Policy and Planning and Management divisions. The Office of Policy and Planning coordinated all information for the INS and communicated with other cooperating government agencies, the office was divided into three areas, the Policy Division, the Planning Division, and the Evaluation and Research Center. These duties were handled by the offices of Information Resources Management, Finance, Human Resources and Administration, and Equal Employment Opportunity. Shortly after the U. S. Civil War, some started to pass their own immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1891 established an Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department and this office was responsible for admitting, rejecting, and processing all immigrants seeking admission to the United States and for implementing national immigration policy. Immigrant Inspectors, as they were called then, were stationed at major U. S. ports of entry collecting manifests of arriving passengers and its largest station was located on Ellis Island in New York harbor. Among other things, a tax of fifty cents was collected on each immigrant. This made immigration more a matter of commerce than revenue. S, each year, the U. S. State Department issued a limited number of visas, only those immigrants who could present valid visas were permitted entry
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Trumbo Point
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Trumbo Point is a section of the northwest corner of the island of Key West, Florida in the lower Florida Keys. It is one of several bases comprising the Key West Naval Air Station, Trumbo Point is inaccessible to civilians without U. S. Navy clearance. Trumbo Point was an addition to the island of Key West. It was built around 1912 to accommodate a shipping port for the Florida East Coast Railway and was the terminus of the Overseas Railroad, construction was done by the Trumbo American Dredging Company, with Howard Trumbo seving as the main engineer of the project. The U. S. Navy acquired Trumbo Point from the Florida East Coast Railway in 1917, the base was originally a Navy seaplane base and was later used by helicopters. The taxi ramps can still be descending into the water on the north side of the large. Today, Fleming Key is primarily used for housing and is the site of the former Bachelor Officers Quarters. NGIS is the tallest building on the island of Key West, Trumbo Point also contains a restaurant, bar & lounge, vacation rental villas for active and retired military personnel, a pool and water park. The base can be entered through Trumbo Gate off the intersection of Palm Avenue, the northernmost portion of the key is home to the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Schools Underwater Warfare Center, the US Army Special Operations Scuba School. It is an area, closed to all military and civilian personnel without specific clearance. Aerial color image from Google Maps
43.
McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II
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It first entered service in 1960 with the U. S. Navy. Proving highly adaptable, it was adopted by the U. S. Marine Corps and the U. S. Air Force. The Phantom is a fighter with a top speed of over Mach 2.2. It can carry more than 18,000 pounds of weapons on nine hardpoints, including air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground missiles. The F-4, like other interceptors of its time, was designed without an internal cannon, later models incorporated an M61 Vulcan rotary cannon. Beginning in 1959, it set 15 world records for performance, including an absolute speed record. The Phantom has the distinction of being the last U. S. fighter flown to attain ace status in the 20th century. The F-4 Phantom II remained in use by the U. S. in the reconnaissance and Wild Weasel roles in the 1991 Gulf War, finally leaving service in 1996. It was also the aircraft used by both U. S. flight demonstration teams, the USAF Thunderbirds and the US Navy Blue Angels. The F-4 was also operated by the forces of 11 other nations. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat in several Arab–Israeli conflicts, while Iran used its fleet of Phantoms in the Iran–Iraq War. Phantoms remain in front line service with five countries, Phantom production ran from 1958 to 1981, with a total of 5,195 built, making it the most numerous American supersonic military aircraft. The F-4 is currently used by Greece, Iran, Japan, South Korea and it has been recently used in combat against the Islamic State. In 1952, McDonnells Chief of Aerodynamics, Dave Lewis, was appointed by CEO Jim McDonnell to be the preliminary design manager. With no new aircraft competitions on the horizon, internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type, in 1953, McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its F3H Demon naval fighter, seeking expanded capabilities and better performance. The company developed several projects including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine, the J79-powered version promised a top speed of Mach 1.97. On 19 September 1953, McDonnell approached the United States Navy with a proposal for the Super Demon, the Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-scale mock-up of the F3H-G/H, but felt that the upcoming Grumman XF9F-9 and Vought XF8U-1 already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter. On 26 May 1955, four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and, within an hour, because the Navy already had the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk for ground attack and F-8 Crusader for dogfighting, the project now had to fulfill the need for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor
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VMFA-312
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Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 312 is a United States Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet squadron. Also known as the Checkerboards, the squadron is based at Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina and falls under the command of Marine Aircraft Group 31, Marine Fighter Squadron 312 was commissioned on June 1,1943, at Page Field, Parris Island, South Carolina. Originally it was part of MAG-31, 1st MAW, as first aircraft the squadron received 10 SNJ-4 Texans and one F4U-1D Corsair. As their unit crest the squadron members choose a satan-like bulldog wearing a flying helmet, in honor of their commanding officer, Major Richard M. Day, the men nicknamed their squadron Days Knights. Also at this time, the Checkerboards emblem began to appear on both the cowling and rudder of the aircraft. After being transferred in August 1943 to MAG-32, 3rd MAW, the relocated to San Diego, California, and departed Parris Island on January 2,1944. They departed MCAS Miramar on February 28,1944 and headed for Marine Corps Air Station Ewa on Hawai, VMF-312 trained at Ewa for 3 months and then headed out for Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides to become part of MAG-11, 2nd MAW. Assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 11 on June 25,1944, the squadron was transported to Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, VMF-312 continued to operate from Kadena Air Base on Okinawa until the cessation of hostilities. By wars end, the squadron had accounted for 59.5 air combat kills in the Pacific Theater, between September 1945 and February 1946 VMF-312 participated in the occupation force stationed on Okinawa. Although the night continued in service for several years, the day fighter version proved unsuitable, and VMF-312 transitioned back to Corsairs, this time F4U-4s. The squadron transferred to Marine Aircraft Group 12, MCAS El Toro in July 1950 and was alerted for deployment, the first VMF-312 aircraft flew in Korea on September 19,1950. Flying out of Wonson Air Base, the Checkerboards flew missions in support of the 1st Marine Division during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, redeployed in March 1951 aboard the light carrier USS Bataan, the Checkerboards were assigned escort and blockade missions. Leaving the ship in June 1951, the squadron amassed 4,945 accident-free hours of operations while logging 1,920 carrier landings. After a short period of ground based air support operations, the squadron returned to sea, first with Bairoko, then with Bataan. While aboard Bataan, the Checkerboards became the first piston engine squadron to shoot down a jet aircraft, when Captain Jesse Folmar shot down a MiG-15 jet fighter with 20 mm cannon fire. On June 8,1953, the Checkerboards were relieved by VMF-332, the Panthers were replaced with FJ-2 Furies and later FJ-3 Furies, while they in their turn were being replaced in mid-1959 by F8U-1 Crusaders. Concurrent with the reassignment in February 1966 to MCAS Beaufort was the transition to yet another aircraft, the F-4B Phantom II, and redesignation as Marine Fighter Attack Squadron. Crewed with a pilot and Radar Intercept Officer, and capable of speeds of up to mach 2, during the Vietnam War, the Checkerboards performed the vital mission of training combat aircrews prior to their deployment to Southeast Asia
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VMFA-251
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Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 251 is a United States Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet squadron. Also known as the Thunderbolts, the squadron is based at Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina and falls under the command of Marine Aircraft Group 31 and the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing. The Squadron radio callsign is T-Bolt Marine Observation Squadron 251 was activated December 1,1941 at Naval Air Station North Island, in 1944, the squadron transitioned to the F4U Corsair, and was re-designated Marine Fighter Squadron 251 in February 1945. This squadron flew 626 combat flights, totaling 2,403 hours,1 October 1944, until 15 February 1945, this. Ground crew has maintained in commission 98% of the assigned aircraft. Not once, from June 1944, has it failed to execute a mission because of failure to have the necessary planes in commission. This squadron has not lost a plane or pilot because of failure or malfunctioning of its aircraft, on June 1,1945, VMF-251 was deactivated at Samar, Philippines Island. Thirteen months later on July 1,1946, VMF-251 was reactivated at Grosse Ile, with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, VMF-251 was recalled to active service and directed to transition to the AD-4 Skyraider. In late April 1951 the squadron was transferred to Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, with the aircraft transition complete, the squadron was re-designated Marine Attack Squadron 251 on April 25,1951. VMA-251 embarked to Korea in June 1953, VMA-251 remained in Korea for two and a half years providing air defense along the Korean Demilitarized Zone. In January 1956, the Thunderbolts relocated to Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni, Japan, in 1957, VMA-251 was again relocated to Marine Corps Air Station Miami, Florida flying the FJ-4 Fury. With the transition to the FJ-4 came the re-designation to VMF-251 on April 20,1957, in April 1958 VMF-251 was moved to Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, California to receive its first supersonic fighter, the F8U Crusader. The Thunderbolts departed MCAS El Toro for the Pacific carrying with them the motto “Custos Caelorum”, in 1961, VMF-251 was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 31 at Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina. In August and September 1961 the squadron was deployed to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, from February through August 1962, VMF-251 was the first Marine F-8 squadron to deploy on board an aircraft carrier as part of Carrier Air Group Ten on the USS Shangri-La. During the cruise, VMF-251 set the record for the most flight time in one month for a Sixth Fleet based F-8 squadron by flying over 500 hours. The Thunderbolts received the CNOs flight safety award in 1967 and again in 1969 as well as the Fleet Marine Force Atlantic safety award for the years 1967,1968 and 1970. In 1969 they also received the Robert M. Hanson award, training exercises were conducted in Puerto Rico in 1964-1965,1971, and 1973. In April 1971 the squadron stood hot pad duty at Naval Air Station Key West, Florida, in September 1980 the Thunderbolts deployed to Trondheim in the Kingdom of Norway in support of NATO Exercises
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Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort
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About 4,700 personnel serve at the station, and it is home to six Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet fighter-attack squadrons. Beaufort is served by the Beaufort County Airport, located 10 kilometres southeast of MCAS Beaufort and it was then deactivated in 1946 and reactivated in 1956. On March 1,1960, it was re-designated Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort. On September 19,1975, the airfield was named Merritt Field in honor of Major General Lewie G. Merritt, USMC and he was from Ridge Spring, South Carolina. The air station encompasses 6,900 acres and it is also associated with a large air-to-air combat area off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia as well as a 5,200 acre air-to-ground combat and bombing range in McIntosh County, Georgia. Also attached to the base is the complex of Laurel Bay, just 3 miles from the station. The mission of MCAS Beaufort is to support as an operational base for MAG-31 and its associated squadrons, Marine Corps support units. An additional Navy F/A-18 strike fighter squadron under the claimancy of Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic at NAS Oceana, the population of the on-base city includes nearly 4,000 active-duty servicemembers and more than 700 civilian workers. As is the case with air bases, MCAS Beaufort hosts a bi-annual air show open to the public. In April 2007, a crash occurred involving an aircraft from the Blue Angels demonstration team during the show. MCAS Beauforts nickname is Fightertown East, MCAS Miramar in San Diego, California is the more commonly known Fightertown, also called Fightertown USA, the latter having acquired the nickname when it was under Navy control as NAS Miramar
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XVIII Airborne Corps
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The XVIII Airborne Corps is a corps of the United States Army that has been in existence since 1942 and saw extensive service during World War II. The corps is designed for deployment anywhere in the world and is referred to as Americas Contingency Corps. Its headquarters are at Fort Bragg, North Carolina and its command group includes, Commanding General, Lieutenant General Stephen J. Townsend Deputy Commanding General, Major General Jefforey A. When the concept of armored corps proved unnecessary, II Armored Corps was re-designated as XVIII Corps on 9 October 1943 at the Presidio of Monterey, California. Prior to this time the two divisions were assigned to VII Corps and jumped into Normandy during Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, the corps was unable to see service in Operation Market Garden, with the British I Airborne Corps being chosen instead. Following the Battle of the Bulge, in which the played a significant part. XVIII Airborne Corps planned and executed Operation Varsity, the component of Operation Plunder. It was one of the largest airborne operations of the war, with the British 6th, the U. S. 13th Airborne Division was to participate in the assault. However, due to a lack of a sufficient number of transports, however, the Japanese surrendered just weeks later and XVIII Airborne Corps was inactivated on 15 October 1945 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. 1st Infantry Division —26 January 1945 –12 February 1945, 8th Infantry Division —26 January 1945 –10 July 1945. 17th Airborne Division —12 August 1944 –1 January 1945,15 February 1945 –24 March 1945, 30th Infantry Division —21 December 1944 –3 February 1945. 75th Infantry Division —29 December 1944 –2 January 1945,7 January 1945, 78th Infantry Division —3 February 1945 –12 February 1945. 82nd Airborne Division —12 August 1944 –17 September 1944,19 December 1944 –14 February 1945,30 April 1945 –3 January 1946, 84th Infantry Division —20 December 1944 –21 December 1944. 86th Infantry Division —5 April 1945 –22 April 1945, 97th Infantry Division —10 April 1945 –22 April 1945. 101st Airborne Division —12 August 1944 —21 September 1944,28 February 1945 –1 April 1945, 106th Infantry Division —20 December 1944 –6 February 1945. 3rd Armored Division —19 December 1944 –23 December 1944, 5th Armored Division —4 May 1945 –10 October 1945. 7th Armored Division —20 December 1944 –29 January 1945,30 April 1945 –9 October 1945, 13th Armored Division —10 April 1945 –22 April 1945. The corps was reactivated at Fort Bragg on 21 May 1951 under the command of Major General John W. Leonard, in 1958 the XVIII Airborne Corps was given the additional designation of the Strategic Army Corps
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