1.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
2.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
3.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
4.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
5.
Mallet
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A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. The term is descriptive of the size and proportions of the tool. Tool mallets come in different types, the most common of which are and they are typically used to form sheet metal, since they do not leave marks and are less likely to dent the workpiece. Rubber mallets are used for forcing tight-fitting parts together, for shifting plasterboard into place, in upholstery work. It is a tool of preference for wood workers using chisels with plastic, metal, or wooden handles and it is the most commonly used mallet. Wooden mallets are used in carpentry to knock wooden pieces together. A wooden mallet will not deform the striking end of a metal tool and it also is used to reduce the force driving the cutting edge of a chisel, giving better control. Hardwood mallets are used to knock in cricket bats. Copper, brass and leaden mallets are used on machinery to apply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them. As these metals are softer than steel, the mallet is deformed by any excessive force, meat mallets tenderise or flatten meat. Made from wood or metal, they are typically two-sided, one flat or with slight bumps, and their use has been reduced with the invention of cube steak machines and other electric tenderisers, but they can still be readily found at cookery stores and in professional use. Plastic mallets, made of nylon, polycarbonate, or polystyrene are used especially in leatherwork, split head mallets have removable faces which can be changed to an appropriate material for the job. Beetle mallets are large mallets with a wood or plastic head, with rounded ends about 15 to 18 inches in diameter. It is used by paviours for tapping paving stones into position when bedding them, beetles are also used in jobs such as timber framing to shift the bases of large wooden posts, to fit joints, and to drive in pegs. Dead blow mallets typically have an internal cavity partially filled with shot, lead shot. This modification evens out the curve of the impact, enabling a more powerful blow to be delivered without risk of marring the target. Mallets of various types are some of the oldest forms of tools, Mallets used as drumsticks are often used to strike a marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel, metallophone, or vibraphone, collectively referred to as mallet percussion. The sticks usually have made of rattan, birch, or fiberglass
6.
Diatonic and chromatic
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They are very often used as a pair, especially when applied to contrasting features of the common practice music of the period 1600–1900. These terms may mean different things in different contexts, very often, diatonic refers to musical elements derived from the modes and transpositions of the white note scale C–D–E–F–G–A–B. In some usages it includes all forms of scale that are in common use in Western music. Chromatic most often refers to structures derived from the chromatic scale, in ancient Greece there were three standard tunings of a lyre. These three tunings were called diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic, and the sequences of four notes that they produced were called tetrachords, a diatonic tetrachord comprised, in descending order, two whole tones and a semitone, such as A G F E. In the chromatic tetrachord the second string of the lyre was lowered from G to G♭, in the enharmonic tetrachord the tuning had two quarter tone intervals at the bottom, A G F E. For all three tetrachords, only the two strings varied in their pitch. The term cromatico was occasionally used in the Medieval and Renaissance periods to refer to the coloration of certain notes, in works of the Ars Nova from the 14th century, this was used to indicate a temporary change in metre from triple to duple, or vice versa. This usage became common in the 15th century as open white noteheads became the standard notational form for minims. These uses for the word have no relationship to the meaning of chromatic. The term chromatic began to approach its modern usage in the 16th century, Medieval theorists defined scales in terms of the Greek tetrachords. The gamut was the series of pitches from which all the Medieval scales notionally derive, the origin of the word gamut is explained at the article Hexachord, here the word is used in one of the available senses, the all-encompassing gamut as described by Guido dArezzo. The intervals from one note to the next in this Medieval gamut are all tones or semitones, recurring in a pattern with five tones. The semitones are separated as much as they can be, between alternating groups of three tones and two tones, here are the intervals for a string of ascending notes from the gamut. This would include the major scale, and the minor scale. There are specific applications in the music of the Common Practice Period, most, but not all writers, accept the natural minor as diatonic. Among such theorists there is no agreed general term that encompasses the major, inclusive usage Some writers consistently include the melodic and harmonic minor scales as diatonic also. For this group, every scale standardly used in common practice music, mixed usage Still other writers mix these two meanings of diatonic, and this can lead to confusions and misconceptions
7.
Accidental (music)
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In music, an accidental is a note of a pitch that is not a member of the scale or mode indicated by the most recently applied key signature. In musical notation, the sharp, flat, and natural symbols, among others, in the measure where it appears, an accidental sign raises or lowers the immediately following note from its normal pitch, overriding sharps or flats in the key signature. A note is raised or lowered by a semitone, although microtonal music may use fractional accidental signs. One occasionally sees double sharps or flats, which raise or lower the note by a whole tone. Accidentals apply within the measure and octave in which appear, unless canceled by another accidental sign. If a note has an accidental and the note is repeated in a different octave within the same measure, the accidental does not apply to the same note of the different octave. The modern accidental signs derive from the two forms of the letter b used in Gregorian chant manuscripts to signify the two pitches of B, the only note that could be altered. The round b became the sign, while the square b diverged into the sharp. Sometimes the black keys on a keyboard are called accidentals or sharps. In most cases, a sharp raises the pitch of a note one semitone while a flat lowers it a semitone, a natural is used to cancel the effect of a flat or sharp. This system of accidentals operates in conjunction with the key signature, whose effect continues throughout an entire piece, an accidental can also be used to cancel a previous accidental or reinstate the flats or sharps of the key signature. Accidentals apply to subsequent notes on the staff position for the remainder of the measure where they occur, unless explicitly changed by another accidental. Once a barline is passed, the effect of the accidental ends, subsequent notes at the same staff position in the second or later bars are not affected by the accidental carried through with the tied note. Though this convention is still in use particularly in music, it may be cumbersome in music that features frequent accidentals. As a result, a system of note-for-note accidentals has been adopted. Accidentals are not repeated for repeated notes unless one or more different pitches intervene, if a sharp or flat pitch is followed directly by its natural form, a natural is used. Cautionary accidentals or naturals may be used to clarify ambiguities, because seven of the twelve notes of the chromatic equal-tempered scale are naturals this system can significantly reduce the number of naturals required in a notated passage. Thus, the effect of the accidental must be understood in relation to the meaning of the notes staff position
8.
Idiophone
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An idiophone is any musical instrument that creates sound primarily by the instrument as a whole vibrating—without the use of strings or membranes. It is the first of the four divisions in the original Hornbostel–Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. The early classification of Victor-Charles Mahillon called this group of instruments autophones, most percussion instruments that are not drums are idiophones. Hornbostel–Sachs divides idiophones into four main sub-categories, the first division is the struck idiophones. This includes most of the percussion instruments familiar in the West. They include all idiophones made to vibrate by being struck, either directly with a stick or hand or indirectly, various types of bells fall into both categories. The other three subdivisions are rarer, other classifications use six main sub-categories, Concussion idiophones are instruments that produce sound by being struck against one another. Percussion idiophones produce sound by being struck with a foreign object. Examples of non-vibrating objects are mallets, hammers, and sticks, scraper idiophones are instruments that are scraped with a stick or other foreign objects to give off a sound. Plucked idiophones produce sound by plucking a flexible tongue from within the instrument itself, lastly, friction idiophones are rubbed to increase vibration and sound intensity. Idiophones are made of materials that give off unique sounds, the majority of idiophones are made out of glass, metal, ceramics, and wood. Idiophones are considered part of the section in an orchestra. A number of idiophones that are struck, such as vibraphone bars and cymbals
9.
Xylophone
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The xylophone is a musical instrument in the percussion family that consists of wooden bars struck by mallets. The term xylophone may be used generally, to all such instruments such as the marimba, balafon. The term is popularly used to refer to similar instruments of the lithophone and metallophone types. The bars of metal sound more high pitched than the wooden ones, the modern western xylophone has bars of rosewood, padauk, or various synthetic materials such as fiberglass or fiberglass-reinforced plastic which allows a louder sound. Some can be as small a range as 2½ octaves but concert xylophones are typically 3½ or 4 octaves, the xylophone is a transposing instrument, its parts are written one octave below the sounding notes. Xylophones should be played with hard rubber, polyball, or acrylic mallets. Sometimes medium to hard rubber mallets, very hard core, or yarn mallets are used for softer effects, lighter tones can be created on xylophones by using wooden-headed mallets made from rosewood, ebony, birch, or other hard woods. Concert xylophones have tube resonators below the bars to enhance the tone, frames are made of wood or cheap steel tubing, more expensive xylophones feature height adjustment and more stability in the stand. In other music cultures some versions have gourds that act as Helmholtz resonators, others are trough xylophones with a single hollow body that acts as a resonator for all the bars. Old methods consisted of arranging the bars on tied bundles of straw, ancient mallets were made of willow wood with spoon-like bowls on the beaten ends. The instrument has obscure, ancient origins, according to Nettl, it originated in southeast Asia and came to Africa c. AD500 when a group of Malayo-Polynesian speaking peoples migrated to Africa, one piece of evidence for this is the similarity between East African xylophone orchestras and Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras. This, however has been questioned by ethnomusicologist and linguist Roger Blench who posits an independent origin in Africa, the xylophone-like ranat was used in Hindu regions. Java and Bali use xylophones in gamelan ensembles and they still have traditional significance in Africa, Malaysia, Melanesia, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, and regions of the Americas. The term marimba is also applied to traditional folk instruments such as the West Africa balafon. Early forms were constructed of bars atop a gourd, the wood is first roasted around a fire before shaping the key to achieve the desired tone. A skilled maker can produce startling amplification, the mallets used to play dibinda and mbila have heads made from natural rubber taken from a wild creeping plant. This usually doubles an already rapid rhythmic pulse that may also co-exist with a counter-rhythm, the Mbila is associated with the Chopi people of the Inhambane Province, in southern Mozambique
10.
Woodwind instrument
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Woodwind instruments are a family of musical instruments within the more general category of wind instruments. There are two types of woodwind instruments, flutes and reed instruments. What differentiates these instruments from other instruments is the way in which they produce their sound. Examples are a saxophone, a bassoon and a piccolo, flutes produce sound by directing a focused stream of air below the edge of a hole in a cylindrical tube. The flute family can be divided into two sub-families, open flutes and closed flutes, to produce a sound with an open flute, the player is required to blow a stream of air across a sharp edge that then splits the airstream. This split airstream then acts upon the air contained within the flutes hollow causing it to vibrate. Examples of open flutes are the flute, panpipes and shakuhachi. Ancient flutes of this variety were often made from sections of plants such as grasses, reeds. Later, flutes were made of such as tin, copper. Modern concert flutes are made of high-grade metal alloys, usually containing nickel, silver, copper. To produce a sound with a flute, the player is required to blow air into a duct. This duct acts as a channel bringing the air to a sharp edge, as with the open flutes, the air is then split, this causes the column of air within the closed flute to vibrate and produce sound. Examples of this type of include the recorder, ocarina. Reed instruments produce sound by focusing air into a mouthpiece which then causes a reed, or reeds, similar to flutes, Reed pipes are also further divided into two types, single reed and double reed. Single-reed woodwinds produce sound by placing a reed onto the opening of a mouthpiece, when air is forced between the reed and the mouthpiece, the reed causes the air column in the instrument to vibrate and produce its unique sound. Single reed instruments include the clarinet, saxophone, and others such as the chalumeau, double-reed instruments use two precisely cut, small pieces of cane bound together at the base. This form of production has been estimated to have originated in the middle to late Neolithic period. The finished, bound reed is inserted into the instrument and vibrates as air is forced between the two pieces and this family of reed pipes is subdivided further into another two sub-families, exposed double reed, and capped double reed instruments
11.
Brass instrument
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A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the players lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning lip-vibrated instruments, there are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. The view of most scholars is that the brass instrument should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent, as valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves, slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the family, though valve trombones are occasionally used. The trombone familys ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family, there are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments only play notes in the harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn, the trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument and these included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments, Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and the diameter of the bore with respect to its length, cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, baritone horn and all trombones are cylindrical bore, in particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates, conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The British brass band group of instruments fall into this category and this includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn, horn, euphonium and tuba
12.
Concerto
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A concerto is a musical composition, whose characteristics have changed over time. In the 17th century, sacred works for voices and orchestra were typically called concertos, J. S. Bach was thus reflecting a long-standing tradition when he used the title concerto for many of the works that we know as cantatas. But in recent centuries, up to the present, a concerto is a piece composed in three parts or movements, in which one solo instrument is accompanied by an orchestra or concert band. The popularity of the concerto grosso form declined after the Baroque period, the solo concerto, however, has remained a vital musical force from its inception to this day. Examples of this form of concerto include Giovanni Gabrielis In Ecclesiis or Heinrich Schützs Saul, Saul, was verfolgst du mich. The concerto began to take its shape in the late Baroque period. Corellis concertino group was two violins and a cello, in J. S. Bachs Fifth Brandenburg Concerto, for example, the concertino is a flute, a violin, and a harpsichord, the harpsichord sometimes plays with the ripieno. Later the concerto approached its modern form in which the concertino usually reduces to a solo instrument playing with/against an orchestra. The concerto was intended as a typical of the Italian style of the time. The baroque concerto was mainly for an instrument or a wind instrument. Bach also wrote a concerto for two violins and orchestra, during the baroque period, before the invention of the piano, keyboard concertos were comparatively rare, with the exception of the organ and some harpsichord concertos by Johann Sebastian Bach. Cello concertos have been written since the Baroque era if not earlier, among the works from that period, those by Antonio Vivaldi and Giuseppe Tartini are still part of the standard repertoire today. The concerti of the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach, such as CPE Bach, are perhaps the best links between those of the Baroque period and those of the Classical era. It is conventional to state that the first movements of concerti from the Classical period onwards follow the structure of sonata form, final movements are often in rondo form, as in J. S. Mozart wrote five violin concertos, all in 1775 and they show a number of influences, notably Italian and Austrian. Several passages have leanings towards folk music, as manifested in Austrian serenades, mozart also wrote the highly regarded Sinfonia Concertante for violin, viola, and orchestra. Beethoven wrote only one violin concerto, under-appreciated until revealed as a masterpiece in a performance by violin virtuoso Joseph Joachim, Haydn wrote at least two cello concertos which are the most important works in that genre of the classical era. Bachs three cello concertos and Boccherinis are also noteworthy, Bachs keyboard concertos contain some brilliant soloistic writing
13.
Jazz band
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A jazz band is a musical ensemble that plays jazz music. Jazz bands vary in the quantity of its members and the style of jazz that they play but it is common to find a band made up of a rhythm section. The size of a band is closely related to the style of jazz they play as well as the type of venues in which they play. Jazz bands can vary in size from a big band, to a trio or quartet. The term jazz trio can refer to a three piece band with a pianist, double bass player and a drummer, some bands use vocalists, while others are purely instrumental groups. Jazz bands usually have a bandleader, in a big band setting, there is usually more than one player for a type of instrument. Small jazz bands of three to four musicians are referred to as combos and can be found in small night club venues. In modern jazz, a bass player is almost always present in a small band. Its common for musicians in a combo to perform their music from memory, the improvisational nature of these performances make every show unique. In jazz, there are types of trios. One type of trio is formed with a piano player, a bass player. Another type of jazz trio that became popular in the 1950s and 1960s is the trio, which is composed of a Hammond organ player, a drummer. In organ trios, the Hammond organ player performs the line on the organ bass pedals while simultaneously playing chords or lead lines on the keyboard manuals. In the latter type of trio, the lack of a chordal instrument means that the horn player, Jazz quartets typically add a horn to one of the jazz trios described above. The Modern Jazz Quartet was a jazz combo established in 1952 that played a style of jazz influenced by classical music, the lineup of larger jazz ensembles can vary considerably, depending on the style of jazz being performed. In a 1920s-style Dixieland jazz band, a larger ensemble would be formed by adding a player, woodwind instruments, as with the clarinet. Also by the addition of soloing instruments, the standard rhythm section is piano, bass, and drums, augmented by guitar at times in small combos and regularly in large ones. Some large swing era orchestras also employed an additional piano, accordion, the horn section consists of a woodwind section and a brass section, which play the melody and main accompaniment
14.
Marching band
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A marching band is a group in which instrumental musicians perform for entertainment, and prepare for a competition. Instrumentation typically includes brass instruments, woodwind instruments, percussion instruments, most marching bands wear some kind of uniform that includes the school or organizations colors, name or symbol. Most high school marching bands are accompanied by a colorguard, a group of performers, Marching bands are generally categorized by function, size, age, gender, instruments and by the style of show they perform. In addition to traditional parade performances, many marching bands also perform shows at special events like competitions. Increasingly, marching bands perform concerts that implement many songs, traditions. Band is a term for an instrumental group. The marching band originated with traveling musicians who performed together at festivals and it evolved and became more structured within the armies of early city-states, becoming the basis for the military band, from which the modern marching band emerged. As musicians became less important in directing the movement of troops on the battlefield and this intermediate stage led to the modern instrumentation and music for marching bands. Many military traditions survive in modern marching band, Bands that march in formation are often ordered to dress their ranks and cover down your file. They may be called to attention, and given such as about face. Uniforms of many marching bands still resemble military uniforms, in the United States, modern marching bands are most commonly associated with performing during American football games. The oldest American college marching band, the Notre Dame Marching Band, was founded in 1845 first performed at a game in 1887. Many American universities had bands before the twentieth century associated with military ROTC programs. Spotts had seen a flock of birds fly in a V formation, the first halftime show at an American football game was performed by the University of Illinois Marching Illini also in 1907 at a game against the University of Chicago. Another innovation that appeared at roughly the time as the field show. University fight songs are closely associated with a universitys band. Boston College claims the first fight song, For Boston, many more recognizable and popular fight songs are played by high schools across the country. During the 20th century, marching bands added pageantry elements, including baton twirlers, majorettes, dance lines and these bands are said to be corps-style bands
15.
Front ensemble
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In a marching band or drum corps, the front ensemble or pit is the stationary percussion ensemble. This ensemble is placed in front of the football field. Some high school marching bands opt not to march any percussion instruments, originally, the front ensemble consisted of keyboard percussion and timpani, the marching versions of which are heavy and awkward. The main emphasis of the pit in drum corps style groups are the instruments, marimba, vibraphone, bells. Some marching band circuits also allow non-standard instruments or electronic/electric instruments in the pit, however, this is extremely controversial and divisive within the marching band community, and was prohibited outright by Drum Corps International until 2008, when it was passed in an 11-4 vote. Pit members will sometimes operate auxiliary equipment such as props, either inside or outside of the pit area, in indoor drumline, the front ensemble may not necessarily be placed at the front as the name suggests. The show designers place the pit where it would be most effective for the show, the term pit comes from musical theater, where the accompanying orchestra sits in the orchestra pit
16.
Drum and bugle corps (modern)
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A modern drum and bugle corps, is a musical marching ensemble consisting of brass instruments, percussion instruments, synthesizers, and color guard. Typically operating as independent non-profit organizations, drum corps perform in competitions, parades, festivals, competitive drum corps participate in summer touring circuits, such as Drum Corps International and Drum Corps Associates. Corps prepare a new show each year, approximately 8–12 minutes in length, shows are performed on football fields and are judged in various musical and visual categories, or captions. Musical repertoires vary widely among corps and include symphonic, jazz, big band, contemporary, rock, wind band, vocal, Rap, Broadway, competitive junior corps usually spend between 10 and 15 weeks on tour over the summer, practicing and performing full-time. All-age and alumni corps have less demanding schedules, practicing and performing mostly on weekends, Drum and bugle corps stems from a rich American and Canadian military history, separate from other marching musical activities. Beginning after World War I through the 1970s, corps and competitions were often sponsored by the VFW, Scout troops, churches, the Royal Canadian Legion, owing to many of these groups roots, corps were traditionally militaristic. By the late 1960s, many corps wanted more creative freedom, some felt the prize-money structures, based on competitive placement, were not fairly compensating all corps for their appearances. Additionally, some felt the current judging rules were stifling musical and theatrical possibilities, at the peak of North American drum corps participation, several corps decided to unionize, as stated by Don Warren. They formed their own organizations, which led to the formation of DCA in 1965. By this time, many corps had already lost their church or community sponsors, at the same time costs for the increasingly complex field shows mounted and creative and instructional demands rose leading many competitive corps to falter and become inactive. By the late 1990s only a fraction of the corps existed in the 60s and 70s remained, although several new corps, some of which have become very successful. A common criticism of drum corps is that it has become too similar to marching band, a few corps still utilize the traditional G Bugle which is very rarely found in DCI marching units. The competitive season for drum corps is in the rather than fall, with auditions. A typical show usually revolves around one genre of music, or sometimes melds separate genres together, modern corps programs have become increasingly conceptual and programmatic, with overarching show themes rather than loosely related musical selections. Often, especially within classical selections, a single composers material is featured, Corps have performed virtually every genre of music that can be fit for on-field adaptation, including jazz, new age, classical, and rock music. It is becoming common to hear corps performing original music. The exclusive use of bell-front brass instrumentation is a musical element of drum corps. Throughout the years, the used in drum corps have evolved from true
17.
Orchestra
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The term orchestra derives from the Greek ὀρχήστρα, the name for the area in front of a stage in ancient Greek theatre reserved for the Greek chorus. A full-size orchestra may sometimes be called an orchestra or philharmonic orchestra. The actual number of employed in a given performance may vary from seventy to over one hundred musicians, depending on the work being played. The term chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles of about fifty musicians or fewer, the typical orchestra grew in size throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak with the large orchestras called for in the works of Richard Wagner, and later, Gustav Mahler. Orchestras are usually led by a conductor who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, the conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the tempo and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The first violin, commonly called the concertmaster, also plays an important role in leading the musicians, the typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the instruments in each group. Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles, a chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the BBC Concert Orchestra, the so-called standard complement of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven. The composers instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, the exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No,4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral palette in Symphonies 3,5,6, the third horn in the Eroica Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of choral brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the finale of his Symphony No.5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, for several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethovens well-established model, with few exceptions. Apart from the core orchestral complement, various instruments are called for occasionally. These include the guitar, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord. Saxophones, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores.6 and 9 and William Waltons Belshazzars Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked tenor tuba, including Gustav Holsts The Planets, cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussys La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz
18.
Music of Guatemala
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The music of Guatemala is diverse. Music is played all over the country, towns also have wind and percussion bands that play during the lent and Easter-week processions as well as on other occasions. The Garifuna people of Afro-Caribbean descent, who are spread thinly on the northeastern Caribbean coast, have their own varieties of popular. Cumbia, from the Colombian variety, is very popular. Dozens of Rock bands have emerged in the last two decades, making rock music popular among young people. Guatemala also has an almost five-century-old tradition of art music, spanning from the first liturgical chant, much of the music composed in Guatemala from the 16th century to the 19th century has only recently been unearthed by scholars and is being revived by performers. Much of what is known about how the ancient Mayans created and played music comes from the iconography that is preserved in the pieces of mural art. Many kinds of instruments were used, but they broke down into two categories, being wind instruments and percussion instruments. The wind instrument family consisted of cane and bone flutes, different types of whistles, ocarinas of various designs, for percussion instruments, the Mayans crafted wooden drums with membranes made from the hides of deer or jaguar. They also made rattles, güiros, and other idiophones using the shells of snails, one of these percussion instruments called the “tunkul” is still seen in Guatemala today. It is made from a tree trunk with an H-shaped incision whose resulting tongues are hit with rudimentary drumsticks. The music the Mayans played was performed and danced to during festivities and rituals and it appears that each god had their date or holiday, with its accompanying ceremonies and special music. The marimbas first documentary evidence of existence comes from an account of a performance in front of the cathedral of Santiago de Guatemala, present-day Antigua Guatemala, later, historian Juan Domingo Juarros mentioned and described it in his Compendium of the History of Guatemala. The instrument may be much older, as an attempt at recreating an older West African instrument. The arch marimba was probably the first, followed by an instrument with a diatonic row of wood bars played with mallets, with gourd resonators. By the early 20th century, wooden-box resonators had replaced the gourd resonators, modern marimba bands include a smaller marimba for three players, a larger marimba for four players, plus a drum kit or other percussion and a string bass. Some bands have occasionally employed one or two saxophones, as well as one or two trumpets and a trombone. Singer Paco Pérez was catapulted to fame with his waltz Luna de Xelajú, the field of art music, also known as classical music, includes various musical styles such as Renaissance, baroque, classical, romantic, 20th-century music, and post-modern music
19.
Bantu languages
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The Bantu languages, technically the Narrow Bantu languages, constitute a traditional branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Bantu languages are spoken largely east and south of present-day Cameroon, that is, in the regions commonly known as Central Africa, Southeast Africa, and Southern Africa. Parts of the Bantu area include languages from other language families, the Bantu language with the largest total number of speakers is Swahili, however, the majority of its speakers know it as a second language. According to Ethnologue, there are over 180 million L2 speakers, other major languages include Zulu with 27 million speakers and Shona with about 11 million speakers. Ethnologue separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which, the Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in West Africa. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, the technical term Bantu, meaning human beings or simply people, was first used by Wilhelm Bleek, as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the structures of Bantu languages. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid groups has been called into doubt, a coherent classification of Narrow Bantu will likely need to exclude many of the Zone A and perhaps Zone B languages. There is no true genealogical classification of the Bantu languages, the most widely used classification, the alphanumeric coding system developed by Guthrie, is mainly geographic. The two groups have described as having mirror-image tone systems, where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone. Northwest Bantu is clearly not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 Tervuren proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, glottolog has incorporated many of these into their classification. The languages that share Dahls Law may also form a valid group, the infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the use of affixes. Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, the class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plural is indicated by a change of class, with a change of prefix
20.
Balafon
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The balafon is a kind of wooden xylophone or percussion idiophone which plays melodic tunes, and usually has between 16 and 27 keys. It has been played in Africa since the 14th century, it originated in Mali, according to the Manding history narrated by the griots. Balafon is a Manding name, but variations exist across West Africa, including the balangi in Sierra Leone, similar instruments are played in parts of Central Africa, with the ancient Kingdom of Kongo denoting the instrument as palaku. Records of the balafon go back to at least the 12th century CE, in 1352 CE, Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported the existence of the ngoni and balafon at the court of Malian ruler Mansa Musa. European visitors to West Africa described balafons in the 17th century largely identical to the modern instrument, the Atlantic Slave Trade brought some balafon players to the Americas. The Virginia Gazette records African-Americans playing a barrafoo in 1776, which appears to be a balafon, other North American references to these instruments die out by the mid-19th century. The balafon has seen a resurgence since the 1980s in the growth of African Roots Music, most famous of these exponents is the Rail Band, led by Salif Keita. Even when not still played, its sound and traditional style has been exported to western instruments. Maninka from eastern Guinea play a type of music that adapts balafon playing style to the imported instrument. In the Malinké language balafon is a compound of two words, balan is the name of the instrument and fô is the verb to play, Balafon therefore is really the act of playing the bala. Bala still is used as the name of a large bass balafon in the region of Kolokani and these bala have especially long keys and huge calabashes for amplification. Balani is then used as the name of the high pitched, small balafon with small calabashes, the balani is carried with a strap and usually has 21 keys, while the number of keys on a bala vary with region. A balafon can be either fixed-key or free-key, the balafon usually has 17-21 keys, tuned to a tetratonic, pentatonic or heptatonic scale, depending on the culture of the musician. The balafon is generally capable of producing 18 to 21 notes, Balafon keys are traditionally made from béné wood, dried slowly over a low flame, and then tuned by shaving off bits of wood from the underside of the keys. Wood is taken off the middle to flatten the key or the end to sharpen it, in a fixed-key balafon, the keys are suspended by leather straps just above a wooden frame, under which are hung graduated-size calabash gourd resonators. As the balafon cultures vary across West Africa, so does the approach to the instrument itself, in many areas the balafon is played alone in a ritual context, in others as part of an ensemble. In Guinea and Mali, the balafon is often part of an ensemble of three, pitched low, medium and high, in Cameroon, six balafon of varying size perform together in an orchestra, called a komenchang. An Igbo variation exists with one large tuned key for each player
21.
Xylorimba
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The xylorimba is a pitched percussion instrument corresponding to a xylophone with an extended range. As the marimba-xylophone it was an instrument in the 1920s and 30s. The name has been a source of confusion, alban Berg, Drei Stücke for orchestra Erik Bergman, Hathor Suite for soprano, baritone, mixed chorus and ensemble William Bolcom, Dream Music No. n. d. Grove Music Online, edited by Deane Root
22.
Mbira
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The mbira is an African musical instrument consisting of a wooden board with attached staggered metal tines, played by holding the instrument in the hands and plucking the tines with the thumbs. The mbira is usually classified as part of the lamellaphone family, members of this broad family of instruments are known by a wide variety of names. In the Anglo world it is called a thumb piano. In Eastern and Southern Africa, there are kinds of mbira, often accompanied by the hosho. The mbira was reported to be used in Okpuje, Nsukka area of the eastern part of Nigeria in the early 1900s. It is a common musical instrument of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is also often an important instrument to be played at ceremonies, weddings. Commercially produced mbiras were exported from South Africa by ethnomusicologist Hugh Tracey from the 1950s onward, various kinds of plucked idiophones and lamellaphones have existed in Africa for thousands of years. The tines were originally made of bamboo but over the metal keys have been developed. These metal-tined instruments traveled all across the continent and differentiated in their physical form, lamellophones are instruments which have little tines, or lamellae, which are played by plucking. Unlike stringed instruments or air-column instruments like flutes, the overtones of a plucked lamella are inharmonic, the inharmonic overtones are strongest in the attack and die out rather quickly, leaving an almost pure tone. The note arrangement of most mbira, with the notes in the scale ascending on the tines from the center outward in an alternating right-left fashion, Mbira music, like much of the sub-Saharan African music traditions is based on cross-rhythm. The following example is from the part of the traditional mbira piece Nhema Musasa. The left hand plays the bass line, while the right hand plays the upper melody. The composite melody is an embellishment of the 3,2 cross-rhythm, tunings vary from family to family, referring to relative interval relationships and not to absolute pitches. The most common tuning is Nyamaropa, similar to the western Mixolydian mode, the seven tunings that Garikayi uses are, Bangiza, Nyabango, Nhemamusasa, Chakwi, Taireva, Mahororo, and Mavembe. The closest to what is commonly named Nyamaropa is his Nhemamusasa tuning, many players, including griot clans — West African storytellers and musicians — have their own idiosyncratic tunings. Most of the time the instrument is played solo and tuning is not as critical as when playing with other musicians, but the tuning can be changed by adjusting the length of the metal tines inward or outward
23.
Lamellophone
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A lamellophone is any of a family of musical instruments. The name comes from the Latin word lamella for plate and the Greek root phonos for sound. The name derives from the way the sound is produced, the instrument has a series of plates, or tongues. When the musician depresses the free end of a plate with a finger or fingernail, and then allows the finger to slip off, the lamellophones constitute category 12 in the Hornbostel-Sachs system for classifying musical instruments, plucked idiophones. These idiophones are equipped with one or more tongues or lammelae that produce sound by being plucked by the performer, there are two main categories of plucked idiophones, those that are in the form of a frame and those that are in the form of a comb. A large number of lamellophones originate in Africa, where they are known under different names including mbira, sanza, kisanji, likembe, kalimba and they play a role in southeast African Music. They were reported as early as the 16th century, but there is no doubt they have a longer history. The Caribbean marímbula is also of this family, the marímbula can be seen as a bass variant of the mbira and is sometimes used in hiphop music. The tongues may be arranged in the manner of a piano and may be small enough to play with individual fingers. Some conjecture that African lamellophones were derived from xylophones and marimbas, however, similar instruments have been found elsewhere, for example, the indigenous peoples of Siberia play wooden and metallic lamellophones with a single tongue. Lamellophones may be made with or without resonators, there are also electric lamellophones with an additional pickup. Schaeffners musical instrument classification scheme has a post-prominent place for the linguaphones at the second highest level of classification, in 1932, Andre Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The lamellae vibrate within a frame or hoop 121.1 Clack idiophones or Cricri - The lamella is carved in the surface of a fruit shell, which serves as resonator. 121.2 Guimbardes and jaw harps - The lamella is mounted in a rod- or plaque-shaped frame, Đàn môi Jews harp Kouxian Morsing 121.21 Idioglot guimbardes - The lamella is of one substance with the frame of the instrument. 121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes - The lamella is attached to the frame, the lamellae are tied to a board or cut out from a board like the teeth of a comb. 122.2 With cut-out lamellae Comb Mechanical music box Slit drum Steel tongue drum Teponaztli Music of Africa Gravikord Gerhard Kubik, Lamellophone, in, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan Publishers, London,1981 Lamellophone players list from N. Scott Robinson site http, //www. music. vt. edu/musicdictionary/texti/Idiophone. html http, //www. wesleyan. edu/vim/svh. html
24.
Shona language
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Shona /ˈʃoʊnə/, or chiShona, is the most widely first spoken Bantu language, native to the Shona people of Zimbabwe. The term is used to identify peoples who speak one of the Shona language dialects, Zezuru, Karanga, Manyika and Korekore. Some researchers include Kalanga, others recognise it as a language in its own right, desmond Dales basic English–Shona and Shona–English dictionaries comprise special vocabulary of the Karanga, Korekore, Manyika and Zezuru dialects, but no Ndau or Kalanga. Shona is a language of Zimbabwe, along with Ndebele. Shona is spoken by a percentage of the people in Zimbabwe. Shona is the most spoken Bantu language by the criterion of number of native speakers, according to Ethnologue, Shona, comprising the Karanga, Zezuru, and Korekore dialects, is spoken by about 10.8 million people. The Manyika and Ndau dialects of Shona are listed separately by Ethnologue, the total figure of Shona speakers is then about 14.2 million people. Zulu is the second most widely spoken Bantu language with 10.3 million speakers according to Ethnologue, Shona is a written standard language with an orthography and grammar that was codified during the early 20th century and fixed in the 1950s. The first novel in Shona, Solomon Mutswairos Feso, was published in 1957, Shona is taught in the schools but is not the general medium of instruction in other subjects. It has a literature and is described through monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, modern Shona is based on the dialect spoken by the Karanga people of Masvingo Province, the region around Great Zimbabwe, and Zezuru people of central and northern Zimbabwe. However, all Shona dialects are considered to be of equal significance and are taught in local schools. Shona is a member of the family of Bantu languages. Shona speakers most likely moved into present day Zimbabwe from the Mapungubwe and K2 communities in Limpopo, South Africa, before the influx of European, primarily British, settlers. A common misconception is that the speakers of the Karanga dialect were absorbed into the Ndebele culture and this misconception is a direct result of the political bias in the national curriculum framework of Zimbabwe. The Kalanga language is spoken in Botswana where the Ndebele were never present. The Kalanga language is thought to have been the used by the Mapungubweans. If this is accurate it follows that the Karanga dialect of Shona is a derivative of Kalanga, Karanga is closer to Kalanga than the rest of the aforementioned dialects. Karanga and Kalanga are both closer to Venda than the other Shona dialects, Shona is used to refer to a standardised language based on the central dialects of the Shona region
25.
Gourd
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A gourd is a plant of the family Cucurbitaceae, particularly Cucurbita and Lagenaria or the fruit of the two genera of Bignoniaceae calabash tree, Crescentia and Amphitecna. The term refers to a number of species and subspecies, many with hard shells, likely one of the earliest domesticated types of plants, subspecies of the bottle gourd, Lagenaria siceraria, have been discovered in archaeological sites dating from as early as 13,000 BC. Gourds have had numerous uses throughout history, including as tools, musical instruments, objects of art, film, gourd is occasionally used to describe crop plants in the family Cucurbitaceae, like pumpkins, cucumbers, squash, luffa, and melons. More specifically, gourd refers to the fruits of plants in the two Cucurbitaceae genera Lagenaria and Cucurbita, or also to their hollow, dried-out shell, a gourd can also have a hard shell when dehydrated. There are many different gourds worldwide, the main plants referred to as gourds include several species from the Cucurbita genus, Crescentia cujete and Lagenaria siceraria. The bitter melon/balsam apple/balsam pear is also referred to as a gourd. L. siceraria was brought to Europe and the Americas very early in history, being found in Peruvian archaeological sites dating from 13,000 to 11,000 BC and Thailand sites from 11,000 to 6,000 BC. The gourds found in the Americas appear to have come from the Asian subspecies, very early in history, a new study now indicates Africa. The archaeological and DNA records show it likely that the gourd was among the first domesticated species, gourds continued to be used throughout history, in almost every culture throughout the world. European contact in North America found extensive use, including the use of bottle gourds as birdhouses to attract purple martins. Almost every culture had musical instruments made of gourds, including drums, stringed instruments common to Africa and wind instruments and these include Teasle gourd, Spine gourd, Sweet gourd, balsam apple and Momordica sahyadrica. Cultures from arid regions often associated gourds with water, and they appear in creation myths. Since the beginning of their history, they have had a multitude of uses, including food, kitchen tools, toys, musical instruments and decoration. Today, gourds are used for a wide variety of crafts, including jewelry, furniture, dishes, utensils. The Chinese developed a technique of tying a two-part mould around young gourds, or a part of them, so that the gourd grew into the mould, shaped gourds had various decorative uses, especially as boxes, bottles and other containers. The Luffa gourds, Luffa aegyptiaca and Luffa acutangula, have been used throughout recent history as scrubbing sponge and this is prepared by removing the skin and pulp from the gourd, and bleaching the fibers. A güiro is a Latin American percussion instrument made from a gourd, maracas are percussion instruments often made from gourds. A sitar is a stringed instrument, parts of which are made from gourds
26.
Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
27.
Chromatic scale
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The chromatic scale is a musical scale with twelve pitches, each a semitone above or below another. On a modern piano or other equal-tempered instrument, all the semitones have the same size, in other words, the notes of an equal-tempered chromatic scale are equally spaced. An equal-tempered chromatic scale is a nondiatonic scale having no tonic because of the symmetry of its equally spaced notes, the most common conception of the chromatic scale before the 13th century was the Pythagorean chromatic scale. Due to a different tuning technique, the twelve semitones in this scale have two different sizes. Thus, the scale is not perfectly symmetric, many other tuning systems, developed in the ensuing centuries, share a similar asymmetry. Equally spaced pitches are provided only by equal temperament tuning systems, the term chromatic derives from the Greek word chroma, meaning color. Chromatic notes are understood as harmonically inessential embellishments, shadings. The chromatic scale may be notated in a variety of ways, ascending and descending, The chromatic scale has no set spelling agreed upon by all. Its spelling is, however, often dependent upon major or minor key signatures, the images above, therefore, are only examples of chromatic scale notations. As an abstract entity, the chromatic scale is usually notated such that no scale degree is used more than twice in succession. The ancient Chinese chromatic scale is called Shí-èr-lǜ, however, it should not be imagined that this gamut ever functioned as a scale, and it is erroneous to refer to the Chinese chromatic scale, as some Western writers have done. The series of twelve known as the twelve lü were simply a series of fundamental notes from which scales could be constructed. The Indian solfège, i. e. sargam, makes up the notes of the chromatic scale with respective sharps. The total chromatic is the set of all pitch classes. An array is a succession of aggregates and these are 19-EDO just intonation approximations. In Pythagorean tuning the chromatic scale is tuned as follows, with higher than their enharmonic flats. The 12 golden notes of music Hewitt, Michael
28.
J.C. Deagan, Inc.
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J. C. Deagan, Inc. was a developer and manufacturer of percussion instruments from the late 19th to the mid-twentieth century. The company was founded in 1880 by John Calhoun Deagan and initially manufactured glockenspiels and it was noted for its development of the xylophone, vibraharp, organ chimes, aluminum chimes, aluminum harp, Swiss handbells, the marimba, and orchestra bells. Church bells were revolutionized by Deagan through his design of tubular bells, and its former headquarters, the tower of which still bears the company name, is a landmark in the Ravenswood neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. In 1978 the Deagan company was sold to Slingerland Drum Company, subsequently the Deagan trademark and patents were purchased by the Yamaha corporation. Clair Omar Musser, engineer, conductor, and marimba virtuoso The Deagan Resource - historical reference catalog of Deagan instruments
29.
Vaudeville
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Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment. It was especially popular in the United States and Canada from the early 1880s until the early 1930s, a typical vaudeville performance is made up of a series of separate, unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. A vaudeville performer is often referred to as a vaudevillian, Vaudeville developed from many sources, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and literary American burlesque. Called the heart of American show business, vaudeville was one of the most popular types of entertainment in North America for several decades, the origin of this term is obscure, but is often explained as being derived from the French expression voix de ville. A second speculation is that it comes from the songs on satire by poet Olivier Basselin. Some, however, preferred the term variety to what manager Tony Pastor called its sissy. Thus, vaudeville was marketed as variety well into the 20th century, with its first subtle appearances within the early 1860s, vaudeville was not initially a common form of entertainment. The form gradually evolved from the saloon and variety hall into its mature form throughout the 1870s and 1880s. This more gentle form was known as Polite Vaudeville, in the years before the American Civil War, entertainment existed on a different scale. Certainly, variety theatre existed before 1860 in Europe and elsewhere, in the US, as early as the first decades of the 19th century, theatregoers could enjoy a performance consisting of Shakespeare plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedy. As the years progressed, people seeking diversified amusement found a number of ways to be entertained. Vaudeville was characterized by traveling companies touring through cities and towns, a significant influence also came from Dutch minstrels and comedians. Vaudeville incorporated these various itinerant amusements into a stable, institutionalized form centered in Americas growing urban hubs, pastors experiment proved successful, and other managers soon followed suit. B. F. Keith took the step, starting in Boston. Later, E. F. Albee, adoptive grandfather of the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Edward Albee, circuits such as those managed by Keith-Albee provided vaudevilles greatest economic innovation and the principal source of its industrial strength. They enabled a chain of allied vaudeville houses that remedied the chaos of the booking system by contracting acts for regional and national tours. These could easily be lengthened from a few weeks to two years, Albee also gave national prominence to vaudevilles trumpeting polite entertainment, a commitment to entertainment equally inoffensive to men, women and children. Acts that violated this ethos were admonished and threatened with expulsion from the remaining performances or were canceled altogether
30.
Darius Milhaud
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Darius Milhaud was a French composer, conductor, and teacher. He was a member of Les Six—also known as The Group of Six—and one of the most prolific composers of the 20th century and his compositions are influenced by jazz and Brazilian music and make extensive use of polytonality. Milhaud is considered one of the key modernist composers, born in Marseille to a Jewish family from Aix-en-Provence, Milhaud began as a violinist, later turning to composition instead. Milhaud studied in Paris at the Paris Conservatory where he met his fellow group members Arthur Honegger and he studied composition under Charles Widor and harmony and counterpoint with André Gedalge. He also studied privately with Vincent dIndy, while in Brazil, they collaborated on a ballet, LHomme et son désir. On his return to France, Milhaud composed works influenced by the Brazilian popular music he had heard, including compositions of Brazilian pianist, Le bœuf sur le toit includes melodies by Nazareth and other popular Brazilian composers of the time, and evokes the sounds of Carnaval. The recurring theme is, in fact, a Carnaval tune by the name of The Bull on the Roof and he also produced Saudades do Brasil, a suite of twelve dances evoking twelve neighborhoods in Rio. Shortly after the piano version appeared, he orchestrated the suite. On a trip to the United States in 1922, Darius Milhaud heard authentic jazz for the first time, on the streets of Harlem, which left a great impact on his musical outlook. The following year, he completed his composition La création du monde, using ideas and idioms from jazz, in 1925, Milhaud married his cousin, Madeleine, an actress and reciter. In 1930 she gave birth to a son, the painter and sculptor Daniel Milhaud, the invasion of France by Nazi Germany forced the Milhauds to leave France in 1940 and emigrate to the United States. He secured a teaching post at Mills College in Oakland, California, where he composed the opera Bolivar and collaborated with Henri Temianka, the following year, these same pieces were performed at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado, by the Paganini and Juilliard String Quartets. The jazz pianist Dave Brubeck became one of Milhauds most famous students when Brubeck furthered his studies at Mills College in the late 1940s. My older brother Howard was his assistant and had all of his classes. Brubeck named his first son Darius, Milhauds former students also include popular songwriter Burt Bacharach. Milhaud told Bacharach, Dont be afraid of writing something people can remember, Dont ever feel discomfited by a melody. Milhaud was an extremely rapid creator, for whom the art of writing music seemed almost as natural as breathing and his most popular works include Le bœuf sur le toit, La création du monde, Scaramouche, and Saudades do Brasil. His autobiography is titled Notes sans musique, later revised as Ma vie heureuse, from 1947 to 1971, he taught alternate years at Mills and the Paris Conservatoire, until poor health, which caused him to use a wheelchair during his later years, compelled him to retire
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Classical music
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Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th
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Chord (music)
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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord
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Modernism (music)
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The operative word most associated with it is innovation. Its leading feature is a plurality, which is to say that no one music genre ever assumed a dominant position. While belief in progress or in the principle of innovation is not new or unique to modernism. Examples include the celebration of Arnold Schoenbergs rejection of tonality in chromatic post-tonal and twelve-tone works, musicologist Carl Dahlhaus describes modernism as, an obvious point of historical discontinuity. The breakthrough of Mahler, Strauss, and Debussy implies a profound historical transformation, other writers assert that modernism is not attached to any historical period, but rather is an attitude of the composer, a living construct that can evolve with the times. According to jazz drummer and bandleader Kenny Clarke, bebop was initially referred to as modern jazz by himself, secondly, there are debates within popular music about pastiche and authenticity. Modernism means something different within each of these two fields. This confusion is obvious in an early attempt to understand rock music in postmodern terms. Modernism in popular music had been named as early as the late 1950s when burgeoning Los Angeles rock, some examples which soon followed include the elaborately arranged River Deep – Mountain High by Ike & Tina Turner and Good Vibrations by the Beach Boys
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Carl Orff
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Carl Heinrich Maria Orff was a German composer, best known for his cantata Carmina Burana. In addition to his career as a composer, Orff developed an approach toward music education for children. Carl Orff was born in Munich on 10 July 1895 and his family was Bavarian and was active in the Army of the German Empire. His paternal grandfather was a Jew who converted to Catholicism, in 1911, at age 16, some of Orffs music was published. Many of his works were songs, often settings of German poetry. They fell into the style of Richard Strauss and other German composers of the day, the following year, he composed an opera, Gisei, das Opfer. Influenced by the French Impressionist composer Claude Debussy, he began to use colorful, mosers Musik-Lexikon states that Orff studied at the Munich Academy of Music until 1914. He then served in the German Army during World War I, afterwards, he held various positions at opera houses in Mannheim and Darmstadt, later returning to Munich to pursue his music studies. Like many other composers of the time, he was influenced by the Russian-French émigré Igor Stravinsky. But while others followed the cool, balanced neoclassic works of Stravinsky, it was such as Les noces, a pounding, quasi-folkloric evocation of prehistoric wedding rites. He also began adapting musical works of earlier eras for contemporary theatrical presentation, Orffs German version, Orpheus, was staged under his direction in 1925 in Mannheim, using some of the instruments that had been used in the original 1607 performance. The passionately declaimed opera of Monteverdis era was almost unknown in the 1920s, however, in 1924 Dorothee Günther and Orff founded the Günther School for gymnastics, music, and dance in Munich. Orff was there as the head of a department from 1925 until the end of his life, there he developed his theories of music education, having constant contact with children. In 1930, Orff published a manual titled Schulwerk, in which he shares his method of conducting, before writing Carmina Burana, he also edited 17th-century operas. However, these various activities brought him little money. Orffs relationship with German fascism and the Nazi Party has been a matter of considerable debate and his Carmina Burana was hugely popular in Nazi Germany after its premiere in Frankfurt in 1937. Given Orffs previous lack of success, the monetary factor of Carmina Buranas acclaim was significant to him. But the composition, with its rhythms, was also denounced with racist taunts
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Antigonae
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Antigonae, written by Carl Orff, was first presented on 9 August 1949 under the direction of Ferenc Fricsay in the Felsenreitschule, Salzburg, Austria, as part of the Salzburg Festival. Antigonae is in Orffs words a musical setting for the Greek tragedy of the name by Sophocles. However, it functions as an opera, Orff used the German translation of Sophocles play by Friedrich Hölderlin. The original play was written in 442 BC, and the German translation copies faithfully the mood, with this work Orff drew a line in his musical output, setting up a demarcation between pre-Antigonae and post-Antigonae style. Hölderlins translation into lines of ecstatic German inspired the declamatory technique Orff uses for the first time in much of Antigonae and it pre-dates a similar style of the minimalist school by about 50 years. In this way Orff creates unusual sound effects that both the dramatic and psychological setting of the original Greek tragedy with emotional color ranging from the ecstatic to the orgiastic. Much of the singing is performed a cappella, frequently an ostinato in the orchestra builds up an almost unbearable tension which is resolved only in the final bars of the piece. Orff frequently uses the technique called Singstimmen, which is halfway between singing and speaking, somewhat like Schönbergs Sprechgesang, but still within the language of work. The sense of antiquity is often enhanced when the text is treated psalmodically in a manner resembling Gregorian Chant. Another early device found in Antigone is the melisma, where many notes are assigned to a single syllable, the structure of the work, its heavy emotional content, its novel fabrics of sound, all demand more of the listener than required in the usual opera performance. While Antigone has never been popular, it has set new standards for the orchestra, the singers. The opera begins in the morning following a battle in Thebes between the armies of the two sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polynices. King Kreon, who ascended the throne of Thebes after both brothers are killed in battle, decrees that Polynices is not to be buried, Antigonae, his sister, defies the order, but is caught. Kreon decrees that she be buried alive in spite of the fact that she is betrothed to his son, Haemon. The gods, through the blind prophet Tiresias, express their disapproval of Kreons decision, which convinces him to rescind his order, however, Antigonae has already hanged herself rather than be buried alive. When Kreon arrives at the tomb where she was to be interred, his son, Haemon, attacks him, finally, when Kreons wife, Eurydice, is informed of Haemons and Antigonaes death she, too, takes her own life. At the end of the play, and the opera, Kreon is the principal left alive. According to the score, which is published by Schott Music and this orchestra is to be well screened from the audience when the opera is performed
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Hans Werner Henze
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Hans Werner Henze was a German composer. In particular, his works reflect his consistent cultivation of music for the theatre throughout his life. Henze was also known for his political convictions and he left Germany for Italy in 1953 because of a perceived intolerance towards his leftist politics and homosexuality. Late in life he lived in the village of Marino in the central Italian region of Lazio, an avowed Marxist and member of the Communist Party of Italy, Henze produced compositions honoring Ho Chi Minh and Che Guevara. Henze spent a year teaching in Cuba, though he became disillusioned with Castro. Henze was born in Gütersloh, Westphalia, the eldest of six children of a teacher and that and his political views led to conflict with his conservative father. Henzes father, Franz, had served in the First World War and was wounded at Verdun. He worked as a teacher in a school at Bielefeld, formed on progressive lines, Franz Henze then moved to Dünne, a small village near Bünde, where he fell under the spell of Nazi propaganda. Books by Jewish and Christian authors were replaced in the Henze household by literature reflecting Nazi views, the older boys, including Hans, were enrolled in the Hitler Youth. Henze began studies at the music school of Braunschweig in 1942, where he studied piano, percussion. Franz Henze rejoined the army in 1943 and he was sent to the Eastern front, Henze had to break off his studies after being conscripted into the army in 1944, towards the end of the Second World War. He was trained as a radio officer and he was soon captured by the British and held in a prisoner-of-war camp for the remainder of the war. In 1945 he became an accompanist in the Bielefeld City Theatre and he also took part in the famous Darmstadt New Music Summer School, a key vehicle for the propagation of avant-garde techniques. At the 1947 summer school, Henze turned to serial technique, in his early years he worked with twelve-tone technique, for example in his First Symphony and Violin Concerto of 1947. Sadlers Wells Ballet visited Hamburg in 1948, this inspired Henze to write a poem, Ballett-Variationen. The first ballet he saw was Frederick Ashtons Scènes de Ballet and he wrote a letter of appreciation to Ashton, introducing himself as a 22-year-old composer. The next time he wrote to Ashton he enclosed the score of his Ballett-Variationen and this work was first performed in Düsseldorf in September 1949 and staged for the first time in Wuppertal in 1958. In 1948 he became assistant at the Deutscher Theater in Konstanz
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Elegy for Young Lovers
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Elegy for Young Lovers is an opera in three acts by Hans Werner Henze to an English libretto by W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman. The opera was first performed in a German translation by Ludwig Prinz von Hessen at the Schlosstheater Schwetzingen at the Schwetzingen Festival on 20 May 1961, the first performance using the original English text was in Glyndebourne, also in 1961. The Juilliard Opera Theater produced the opera in New York City in 1965, Henze revised the opera in 1987, and this revised version received its first performance on 28 October 1988 at the La Fenice Theatre, Venice, with Markus Stenz conducting. According to Ann Saddlemyer in her book Becoming George, the poet is based on W. B. Yeats, and his wife George was the inspiration for both the secretary and the woman with visions, david Anderson has noted that the poet also portrays Auden as well. Robert Henderson has summarised the thesis of the opera as follows, Auden and Kallman described this opera as their equivalent of Richard Strauss opera Arabella. The dedication of the opera is to the memory of Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Henze quoted material from the aria My own, my own in his Fifth Symphony, completed in 1962. The opera is set in an inn called Der Schwarze Adler in the Austrian Alps in 1910, 2CD is part of the Schönberg Ensemble Edition box
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Pierre Boulez
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Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez CBE was a French composer, conductor, writer and organiser of institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of the classical music world. Born in Montbrison in the Loire district of France, the son of an engineer, Boulez studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Olivier Messiaen and he began his professional career in the late 1940s as Music Director of the Renaud-Barrault theatre company in Paris. As a young composer in the 1950s he quickly became a figure in avant-garde music, playing an important role in the development of integral serialism. From the 1970s onwards he pioneered the transformation of instrumental music in real time. In parallel with his activities as a composer Boulez became one of the most prominent conductors of his generation and he made frequent guest appearances with many of the worlds other great orchestras, including the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra. His recorded legacy is extensive and he received 26 Grammy Awards, Pierre Boulez died at his home in Baden-Baden on 5 January 2016, aged 90. Pierre Boulez was born on 26 March 1925, in Montbrison and he was the third of four children, an older sister, Jeanne and younger brother, Roger were preceded by a first child, also called Pierre, who died in infancy. By the age of fifteen he was sceptical about religion, what struck me most was that it was so mechanical, as a child he took piano lessons, played chamber music with local amateurs and sang in the school choir. After completing the first part of his baccalaureate a year early he spent the year of 1940–41 at the Pensionnat St. Louis. The following year he took courses in advanced mathematics at the University of Lyon which his father hoped would prepare him for a career in engineering and he was in Lyon when the Vichy government fell and the Germans took over. It was not a time, and nothing to eat. It was in Lyon that he first heard an orchestra, saw his first operas and met the well-known soprano Ninon Vallin, impressed by his ability, she persuaded Léon to allow his son to apply to the Conservatoire in Lyon, but the selection board rejected him. Boulez was determined to pursue a career in music, the following year, with his sisters support in the face of opposition from his father, he studied the piano and harmony privately with Lionel de Pachmann. Our parents were strong, but finally we were stronger than they, in fact, when he moved to Paris in the autumn of 1943, Léon accompanied him, helped him to find a room and subsidised him until he could earn a living. In late 1943 he entered the preparatory class of Georges Dandelot at the Paris Conservatoire. There he was introduced to Andrée Vaurabourg, wife of the composer Arthur Honegger and he greatly enjoyed working with her and she remembered him as an exceptional student, using his exercises as models in advanced counterpoint until the end of her teaching career. He also studied the piano privately in the hope of entering Jean Doyens class, but he was unsuccessful
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