1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Chennai
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Chennai /ˈtʃɛnnaɪ/, formerly known as Madras /məˈdrɑːs/ or /-ˈdræs/) is the capital of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is one of the biggest cultural, economic, according to the 2011 Indian census, it is the sixth-largest city and fourth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city together with the adjoining regions constitute the Chennai Metropolitan Area, Chennai is among the most visited Indian cities by foreign tourists. It was ranked 43rd most visited city in the world for year 2015, the Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as the safest city in India. Chennai attracts 45 percent of tourists visiting India, and 30 to 40 percent of domestic health tourists. As such, it is termed Indias health capital, as a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Chennai confronts substantial pollution and other logistical and socio-economic problems. Chennai has the third-largest expatriate population in India at 35,000 in 2009,82,790 in 2011, tourism guide publisher Lonely Planet named Chennai as one of the top ten cities in the world to visit in 2015. Chennai is ranked as a city in the Global Cities Index and was ranked the best city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey. In 2015 Chennai was named the hottest city by the BBC, National Geographic ranked Chennais food as second best in the world, it was the only Indian city to feature in the list. Chennai was also named the ninth-best cosmopolitan city in the world by Lonely Planet, the Chennai Metropolitan Area is one of the largest city economies of India. Chennai is nicknamed The Detroit of India, with more than one-third of Indias automobile industry being based in the city, in January 2015, it was ranked third in terms of per capita GDP. Chennai has been selected as one of the 100 Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The name Madras originated even before the British presence was established in India, the name Madras is said to have originated from a Portuguese phrase mae de Deus which means mother of god, due to Portuguese influence on the port city. According to some sources, Madras was derived from Madraspattinam, a north of Fort St George. However, it is whether the name was in use before the arrival of Europeans. The British military mapmakers believed Madras was originally Mundir-raj or Mundiraj, Madras might have also been derived from the word Madhuras meaning juice of honey or sugarcane in Sanskrit. The nativity of name Chennai, being of Telugu origin is clearly proved by the historians. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a deed, dated 8 August 1639
3.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
5.
Coromandel Coast
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The Coromandel Coast is the southeastern coast region of the Indian Subcontinent, between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. The coastline runs between False Divi Point in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and its definition can also include the northwestern coast of the island of Sri Lanka. The land of the Chola dynasty was called Cholamandalam in Tamil, literally translated as The realm of the Cholas, the alluvial plains created by these rivers are fertile and favour agriculture. The coastline forms a part of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the region averages 800 mm/year, most of which falls between October and December. As a result, the coast is hit by inclement weather almost every year between October and January, the high variability of rainfall patterns is also responsible for water scarcity and famine in most areas not served by the great rivers. The Coromandel Coast is home to the East Deccan dry evergreen forests ecoregion, by late 1530 the Coromandel Coast was home to three Portuguese settlements at Nagapattinam, São Tomé de Meliapore, and Pulicat. Later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Coromandel Coast was the scene of rivalries among European powers for control of the India trade, the Coromandel Coast supplied Indian Muslim eunuchs to the Thai palace and court of Siam. The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit the court in Thailand, eventually the British won out, although France retained the tiny enclaves of Pondichéry and Karaikal until 1954. Chinese lacquer goods, including boxes, screens, and chests, became known as Coromandel goods in the eighteenth century, because many Chinese exports were consolidated at the Coromandel ports. Some of the books on the economic history of the Coromandel Coast are 1. )S. Arasaratnam, Merchants, companies, and commerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1650-1740, Oxford University Press,1986. The earthquake and subsequent tsunami killed over 220,000 people around the rim of the Indian Ocean. The tsunami devastated the Coromandel Coast, killing many and sweeping away many coastal communities, four ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Coromandel after the Indian coast. The Coromandel Peninsula in New Zealand was named one of these ships. After the ship reached the shore, some of its sailors deserted, intending to remain behind in South Australia, a red nail varnish made by Chanel is named coromandel due to its suggestions of exoticism. One of the earliest superfast trains of Indian Railways that runs between Howrah and Chennai is named Coromandel Express, in Slovene the idiom Indija Koromandija means a land of plenty, a promised land, a utopia where Houses are bleached with cheese and covered with cake. There is a poem by the Indian poet and freedom fighter Sarojini Naidu titled Coromandel Fishers. Also, the little-known early 20th-century poet Walter J. Turner wrote a poem entitled Coromandel, the Courtship Of The Yonghy-bonghy-bo by Edward Lear is set on the Coast of Coromandel. Coromandel Wood is referred to by Dame Edith Sitwell in her poem Black Mrs Behemoth, part of Façade and her brother, Sir Osbert Sitwell composed a poem entitled On the coast of Coromandel
6.
Bay of Bengal
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The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar, the Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres. Among the important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, on the south, Adams Bridge and from the southern extreme of Dondra Head to the north point of Poeloe Bras. The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region, in ancient Hindu scriptures, this water body is referred to as Mahodadhi while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning Gulf of the Ganges, in ancient maps. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vangopasagara, also called as Vangasagara. Even today in Bengali, it is known as Bongoposagor, many major rivers of the Indian subcontinent flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these and its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and this joins the Padma whereupon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove forest at the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal, the Brahmaputra at 2,948 km is the 28th longest River in the world. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal in India itself, the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr since the early Miocene period. The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the organic carbon deposited in the worlds oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers. Further south of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the rivers that flow from west to east in the Indian subcontinent. Many small rivers drain directly into the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal, some of the biggest ports in the world — Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata in India as well as Chittagong and Mongla in Bangladesh — are on the bay. Other Indian ports on the bay include Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, the islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India
7.
Lighthouse, Chennai
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The Madras Light House is a lighthouse facing the Bay of Bengal on the east coast of the Indian Subcontinent. It is a landmark on the Marina Beach in Chennai. It was built by the East Coast Constructions and Industries in 1976 replacing the old lighthouse in the northern direction, the lighthouse was opened in January 1977. It also houses the department and was restricted to visitors. On 16 November 2013, it was reopened to visitors and it is one of the few lighthouses in the world and the only one in India with an elevator. It is also the only lighthouse in India within the city limits, the lighthouse is located on Kamarajar Salai opposite the office of the Director General of Tamil Nadu Police and All India Radios Chennai station. The lighthouse marks the end of the promenade on the half of the Marina Beach. It is also the junction where Kamarajar Salai, Santhome High Road, the lighthouse and the surrounding areas are served by the Light House MRTS station located nearby on Dr. Radhakrishnan Salai 13. 0450°N80. 2768°E /13.0450,80.2768. By the end of the 18th century, the Madras Presidency encompassed much of south India, as its capital, the city of Madras served as the nerve centre of the sea trade controlled by the British East India Company. Ships approaching the shore of Madras after nightfall faced the risk of running aground on the shoals of Covelong in the south, the present lighthouse is the fourth lighthouse of Chennai. Before the end of the 18th century, when Madras was a sea shore. The first conventional lighthouse was proposed in 1795, the year when the first census of the city was taken. The request was approved and the steeple of St. Marys Church was considered as the site for the new lighthouse, however, the proposal did not materialise due to opposition from the chaplains. Hence, the terrace of the officers mess-cum-exchange building was chosen as the location for the new lighthouse, and it used a large oil-wick lantern to aid vessels approaching the port. Situated at 99 feet above sea level, it had 12 lamps fuelled by coconut oil, small country mirrors were used as reflectors. The beam emanating from the lamp swept the sea as far as 25 miles from the shore, the first lighthouse functioned till 1841. When Capt. Smith returned to Madras in 1837, he brought him a new apparatus. By then, ships, which were anchored in front of the Fort thus far, the old lighthouse was therefore considered a location too far to the south
8.
Anna Memorial
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Anna memorial, locally known as Anna Samadhi, is a memorial structure built on the Marina beach in Chennai, India. It was built in memory of former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, C. N. Annadurai, the memorial lies on the northern end of the Marina abutting the MGR Memorial. In 1996-1998, during the DMK reign, the memorial was remodelled at a cost of ₹27.5 million and the entrance arch carried the design of Rising Sun, however, the design was removed after the AIADMK party returned to power in May 2001. The renovation resulted in the original tusk-shaped entrance arch giving way to a polished marble tiled structure, widened pathways. After the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coastal parts of the state in December 2004, subsequently, repair works were undertaken at a cost of ₹13.3 million. In 2012, the memorial was renovated at a cost of ₹12 million, the memorial also houses a museum on Annadurai, which is located at the northern side
9.
MGR Memorial
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MGR memorial is a memorial structure built on the Marina beach in Chennai, India. It was built in memory of former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, spread over 8.25 acres, the memorial is located adjacent to the Anna Memorial and has the highest footfall on the seafront. The body of former Tamil Nadu Chief Minister and MGRs protégé J. Jayalalithaa is also buried at this site, the memorial was built in 1988 and was inaugurated by Janaki Ramachandran, wife of M. G. Ramachandran, in May 1990. The memorial was remodelled and the complex was laid with marbles. When J. Jayalalitha died on 5 December,2016, she was buried next to MGR and this structure was designed by Architect Mr. K. Ramachandran, retired chief architect of PWD, Tamil Nadu. Between 1996 and 1998, the mausoleum was renovated at a cost of about ₹27.5 million. After the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the seafront in December 2004, repair works were taken up at the cost of about ₹13.3 million. In 2012, the memorial was renovated at a cost of ₹43 million, including ₹34 million for remodelling the facade. Two pergolas having 18-metre width have also constructed, in addition to ramps for the physically challenged. The erection of the insignia was opposed by the opposition DMK party. A public interest writ petition was filed in the Madras High Court in October 2012 against the erection of the two-leaves insignia, the facade was also given a Grecian touch with the erection of a 12-foot-high bronze sculpture of Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. The 3. 75-tonne sculpture, worked by architect R. Ravindran, two 15. 9-metre-high columns serving as the entrance are built with reinforced cement concrete. The elevated two-leaves structure is supported by a 6-metre-high beam serving as the stem, the leaf structure, with a span of 10.2 metre for each leaf, will be a metre higher than the nearby towering columns. The leaves has a resemblance of a honey comb and is visible from both the front and the rear. A museum on M. G. R. is located within the memorial at the side of the campus
10.
Napier Bridge
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Napier Bridge is a bridge in Chennai, India, built over the Coovum River connecting Fort St. George with the Marina beach. One of the citys oldest bridges, it was built in 1869 by Francis Napier who was the Governor of Madras from 1866 to 1872. Alongside the iron bridge built in 1869, a new bridge was built in 1999 with a 10.5 m -wide carriageway on the western side, the eastern side carriageway is 9.75 m in width. The bridge is 138 m long with 6 spans across the river near its mouth and it has 2 m wide footpaths. As part of the Marina Beach beautification project, special lights have been fixed beneath the bridge providing an effect as if the bridge is floating on the river water. A combination of lighting effects has been created on the arches and surface using 464 bulbs, the lights and fixtures covered the outer arch, inner arch, edge, bottom, road and pedestrian pathways of the bridge. The ₹1.62 crore special lighting arrangement was inaugurated by the then Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M. K. Stalin, architecture of Chennai Heritage structures in Chennai
11.
Greater Chennai Corporation
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The administration of Chennai can refer to either the administration of the City of Chennai or the administration of the Chennai Metropolitan Area. The city is administered by the Chennai Corporation, consisting of 200 councillors, the suburbs, which comprise the metropolitan region, are administered by local municipalities, town panchayats, or panchayat unions. The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority plans development for the city as well as its suburbs, Chennai city is governed by the Corporation of Chennai, consisting of 200 councillors who represent 200 wards and are directly elected by the citys residents. From among themselves, the councillors elect a mayor and a deputy mayor who preside over about 10 standing committees, the first native Indian to govern the Madras Presidency as well as serve later as the first Mayor post-independence of erstwhile Madras was L. Sriramulu Naidu. The Madras High Court, whose jurisdiction extends across Tamil Nadu, the district of Chennai has three parliamentary constituencies—Chennai North, Chennai Central and Chennai South—and elects 18 Members of the Legislative Assembly to the state legislature. The metropolitan region of Chennai covers many suburbs that are part of Kanchipuram, the larger suburbs are governed by town municipalities, and the smaller ones are governed by town councils called panchayats. While the city covers an area of 174 km², the area is spread over 1,189 km². The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority has drafted a Second Master Plan that aims to develop satellite townships around the city, contiguous satellite towns include Mahabalipuram to the south, Chengalpattu and Maraimalai Nagar to the southwest, and Kanchipuram town, Sriperumpudur, Tiruvallur and Arakkonam to the west. The Greater Chennai Police department, a division of the Tamil Nadu Police, is the law enforcement agency in the city, the city police force is headed by a commissioner of police, and administrative control rests with the Tamil Nadu Home Ministry. The department consists of 36 subdivisions with a total of 121 police stations, the citys traffic is managed by the Chennai City Traffic Police. The Metropolitan suburbs are policed by the Chennai Metropolitan Police, and outer areas are policed by the Kanchipuram. The Corporation of Chennai and municipalities of the suburbs provide civic services, garbage in most zones was previously handled by JBM Fanalca Environment Management, a private company, and by the Chennai Corporation in the other zones. As of 2011,8 transfer stations exist within the city for treating the waste, garbage is dumped in two dump-yards in the city—One in Kodungaiyur and another in Perungudi, with a major portion of the latter covering the Pallikaranai marshland. In market areas, the work is done during the night. Water supply and sewage treatment are handled by the Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewage Board, Electricity is supplied by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. Fire services are handled by the Tamil Nadu Fire and Rescue Service, the city, along with the suburbs, has 33 operating fire stations. The citys telephone service is provided by four companies, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Tata Indicom, Reliance Communications. Broadband Internet access is provided by Sify, BSNL, Reliance Communications, Hathway, Bharti Airtel, historically, Chennai has relied on annual monsoon rains to replenish water reservoirs, as no major rivers flow through the area
12.
Urban beach
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It does not include swimming or any sort of natural sloping shoreline into the water. The very point of the beach is to surprise and delight city residents, workers. There are many variations of urban beaches, urban beaches are often found along waterways, though some are inserted into town squares or other spaces far from water. The beach may be a seasonal installation over a roadway or parking lot and it is not necessarily public land though it is always open to the general public. As river or ocean swimming is not possible, many urban beaches include water features -- for example fountains, some urban beaches feature entertainment and food/beverage areas. A few include sports such as beach volleyball. Most urban beaches are designed to appeal to a general population, despite the absence of swimming, swimwear is commonly seen alongside the more usual attire seen in major urban centres. The popularity of urban beaches has increased in the early 21st century as the concept has been championed by urban planners, landscape architects and local politicians. Natural urban beaches located at the sea have attracted tourists for a time, such as the Copacabana of Rio. While some European urban beaches claim to predate Paris, all built since have been influenced by its design elements. Many waterfront restaurants and bars around the globe have beach-themed sections, strictly speaking, such locations are private enterprises and not true urban beaches, which can include commercial ventures but should maintain an atmosphere of public space. This list is only of urban beaches as defined above, open to the public on a free or admission basis and it does not include fully private artificial beaches, natural beaches that exist in urban areas, playgrounds, dedicated waterparks or hardscape fountain plazas. Media related to City beaches at Wikimedia Commons
13.
Fort St. George, India
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Fort St George is the name of the first English fortress in India, founded in 1644 at the coastal city of Madras, the modern city of Chennai. The construction of the fort provided the impetus for further settlements and trading activity, thus, it is a feasible contention to say that the city evolved around the fortress. The fort currently houses the Tamil Nadu legislative assembly and other official buildings, the fort is one of the 163 notified areas in the state of Tamil Nadu. The East India Company, which had entered India around 1600 for trading activities, had begun licensed trading at Surat, the fort was completed on 23 April 1644 at a cost of £3000, coinciding with St Georges Day, celebrated in honour of the patron saint of England. The fort, hence christened Fort St George, faced the sea and some fishing villages and it gave birth to a new settlement area called George Town, which grew to envelop the villages and led to the formation of the city of Madras. It also helped to establish English influence over the Carnatic and to keep the kings of Arcot and Srirangapatna, as well as the French forces based at Pondichéry, at bay. In 1665, after the EIC received word of the formation of the new French East India Company, according to the 17th century traveller Thomas Bowrey, Fort St. to be yearly transported to England. The Fort is a stronghold with 6 metres high walls that withstood a number of assaults in the 18th century. It briefly passed into the possession of the French from 1746 to 1749, but was restored to Great Britain under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the Fort Museum contains many relics of the Raj era, including portraits of many of the Governors of Madras. The fort is maintained and administered by the Archaeological Survey of India as a ticketed monument, St Marys Church is the oldest Anglican church in India. It was built between 1678 and 1680 on the orders of the then Agent of Madras Streynsham Master, the tombstones in its graveyard are the oldest English or British tombstones in India. This ancient prayer house solemnised the marriages of Robert Clive and Governor Elihu Yale, the Fort Museum exhibits many items of the period of English and later British rule. This building was completed in 1795 and first housed the office of the Madras Bank, the hall upstairs was the Public Exchange Hall and served as a place for public meetings, lottery draws and occasional entertainment. These relics are reminders of British rule in India, the objects on display in the museum are the weapons, coins, medals, uniforms and other artefacts from England, Scotland, France and India dating back to the colonial period. Original letters written by Clive and Cornwallis make fascinating reading, one set of quaint period uniforms is displayed for viewing, as well. However, the piece de resistance is a statue of Lord Cornwallis. The first ever flown flag after the independence is stored in 3rd floor of the museum, Public are allowed to see but not to touch or take photographs. The museum is mentioned in the novel The Museum of Innocence, the first floor of the building includes the Banqueting Hall, which holds paintings of the Governor of the Fort and other high officials of the Regime
14.
Foreshore Estate
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Foreshore Estate is a neighbourhood in Chennai, India. It is one of the sites in the city for the immersion of the Ganesh idols during the annual Ganesh festival. The idols are first paraded down South Marina Beach before being brought to Foreshore Estate for immersion in the sea, the festival takes place in September. Some of the buses plying through Foreshore Estate are 6A, 6D, 12B, 21B, 21D, 21E, 21L, 27D, PP51, PP19, PP21 and PP66
15.
Juhu
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Juhu is a neighbourhood of Mumbai. It is most famous for the sprawling Juhu beach and it surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, Versova to the north, Santacruz and Vile Parle to the east, and Khar to the south. Juhu is among the most affluent areas of the city and home to many Bollywood celebrities, the nearest railway stations are Santacruz, Andheri and Vile Parle on the Western Line and Harbour Line of the Mumbai Suburban Railway. The nearest Metro Station is D. N Nagar. There are two minor B. E. S. T bus depots in Juhu. J. R. D. Tata, the father of aviation in India, made his maiden voyage to Juhu Airport from Drigh Road airstrip, Karachi, via Ahmedabad. In the nineteenth century, Juhu was an island, a long and it could be reached during low tides by walking across the tidal inlet. Juhu was called Juvem by the Portuguese, at its north point, nestled the village of Juhu, inhabited by Bhandaris, Agris and Kulbis and at its south point, opposite Bandra island, lived a small colony of fisher folk and cultivators. The inhabitants of Juhu were mainly East Indians and there was a section of Goans. The Church of St. Joseph was built by the Portuguese in 1853, the open beaches of Juhu have attracted the well-heeled and the most affluent among Mumbais population for almost a century. In the 1890s, Jamsetji Tata purchased land on Juhu and built a bungalow there and he planned to develop 1200 acres in Juhu Tara. This was to yield 500 plots of one each and a seaside resort. Simultaneously he wanted to extend the Mahim Causeway to Santacruz, to access to this area, after his death in 1904, the scheme was abandoned. With the dawn of aviation in the 20th century, the Bombay Flying Club commenced operations in 1929 at what became the present Juhu Aerodrome. During the freedom struggle Mahatma Gandhi visited Mumbai and took many walks at Juhu Beach and we may recall the famous photograph of Gandhiji poking his grandson Kanaa during a walk at Juhu Beach, Bombay,1937. To mark Gandhis visit in Juhu, there is statue of Gandhi by the beach. There is also a Gandhi Shiksha Bhavan school in Juhu, in the 1970s Bhaktivedanta Swami started the Hare Krishna Movement and built ISKCON Temple, giving Juhu its global recognition. He also gave various philosophical and spiritual discourses and wrote many books here and his lectures on Bhagavat Samkhya given in ISKCON Juhu has become a important source for research especially in the field of Quantum Mechanics. Juhu enjoys a uniform climate throughout the year, in summers the maximum temperature reaches 35 °C and the minimum temperature is 25 °C
16.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
17.
Presidency College, Chennai
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Presidency College is an arts, law and science college in the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the two Presidency colleges established by the British in India, the other being the Presidency College, at the behest of Sir Thomas Munro, a Committee of Public Instruction was formed in 1826. In 1836, the duties of the Committee were taken over by a Committee of Native Education, the plans drawn up by the Committee did not commend themselves to the Governor of Madras, Lord Elphinstone, who in turn proposed nineteen resolutions which were passed unanimously. As first Principal, the choice of Elphinstone fell on E. B, powell, a University of Cambridge Wrangler in Mathematics, who accepted the post. Powell reached Mumbai on 20 September 1840 but did not arrive at Chennai until 24 November, the journey from Bombay to Madras taking some four weeks. In the mean time, the Committee had invited a Mr Cooper, from the Hoogly College, Kolkata, to out the duties of Principal temporarily. Cooper accepted the invitation and came to Chennai and he and his staff opened Presidency School, a preparatory school, in a rented building in Egmore known as Edinburgh Home on 15 October 1840. Cooper remained in the school for only a few months. Soon after Eyre Burton Powells arrival and before the opening of the school department in April 1841. The preparatory School was shifted to Pophams Broadway in 1841, the schools grew into Presidency College. When the University of Madras was founded in 1857, Presidency College was affiliated to it
18.
Chennai Port
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Chennai Port, formerly known as Madras Port, is the second largest container port of India, behind the Nhava Sheva Port, and the largest port in the Bay of Bengal. It is the third oldest port among the 12 major ports of India with official operations beginning in 1881. It is an artificial and all-weather port with wet docks, once a major travel port, it become a major container port in the post-Independence era. The port remains a primary reason for the growth of Tamil Nadu, especially for the manufacturing boom in South India. It is due of the existence of the port that the city of Chennai eventually became known as the Gateway of South India, the port has become a hub port for containers, cars and project cargo in the east coast of India. In 2008, the container traffic crossed 1 million twenty-foot equivalent units. It is currently ranked the 86th largest container port in the world and it is an ISO14001,2004 and ISPS-certified port and has become a main line port having direct connectivity to more than 50 ports around the world. Chief among them was the Pallava dynasty, which reigned from the 6th to 9th centuries AD, the ancient town of Mylapore, known to Roman traders as Meliapor, was an important port of the Pallavas and is now part of Chennai. The region also attracted many distant civilisations, with the Christian apostle St. Thomas having preached in the area between 52 and 70 AD. In 1522, the Portuguese built the São Tomé harbour, named after St. Thomas, on the site of todays port, the following years saw the arrival of other Europeans, namely, the Dutch arriving at Pulicat in 1613 and the British arriving in 1639. George and establishing a colony on the site of the port of Madras. In 1746, under the leadership of Admiral La Bourdonnais, French forces captured and plundered Madras, however, they returned the town along with the port to the British under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The British then strengthened the fort to defend the port not only from the French but also from the increasingly powerful Sultan of Mysore and other regional rulers. The British era By the late 18th century, most of the region of India had been conquered by the British. During this period, the port flourished under British rule, becoming an important naval base, a port at Madras was first suggested by Warren Hastings in 1770 when he was posted here, who later became the first Governor General of India. However, it was not until the 1850s that work began on a pier to berth vessels following suggestions from the Madras Chamber of Commerce, till 1815, it was an open roadstead and exposed sandy coast, swept by occasional storms and monsoons. At the time, the harbour was so shallow that ships had to anchor over 1 km offshore. Cargo losses were high, close to 90 percent, in addition to pilfering with several goods from the ships often taken to the evening bazaar
19.
Mudskipper
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Mudskippers are amphibious fish, presently included in the subfamily Oxudercinae, within the family Gobiidae. Mudskippers can be defined as oxudercine gobies that are fully terrestrial for some portion of the daily cycle and this would define the species of the genera Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon, Periophthalmus, and Scartelaos as mudskippers. However, field observations of Zappa confluentus suggest that this genus should be included in the definition. These genera presently include 32 species, mudskippers are quite active when out of water, feeding and interacting with one another, for example, to defend their territories and court potential partners. They are found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions, including the Indo-Pacific, compared with fully aquatic gobies, these fish present a range of peculiar behavioural and physiological adaptations to an amphibious lifestyle. Anatomical and behavioural adaptations that allow them to move effectively on land as well as in the water, as their name implies, these fish use their fins to move around in a series of skips. This mode of breathing, similar to that employed by amphibians, is known as air breathing. Another important adaptation that aids breathing while out of water is their enlarged gill chambers and these chambers close tightly when the fish is above water, due to a ventromedial valve of the gill slit, keeping the gills moist, and allowing them to function while exposed to air. Gill filaments are stiff and do not coalesce when out of water, digging deep burrows in soft sediments allow the fish to thermoregulate, avoid marine predators during the high tide when the fish and burrow are submerged, and lay their eggs. When the burrow is submerged, several mudskipper species maintain an air pocket inside it, the genus Periophthalmus is by far the most diverse and widespread genus of mudskipper. Periophthalmus argentilineatus is one of the most widespread and well-known species and it grows to a length of about 9.5 cm and is a carnivorous opportunist feeder. It feeds on prey such as small crabs and other arthropods. However, a recent molecular study suggests that P. argentilineatus is in fact a complex of species, another species, Periophthalmus barbarus, is the only oxudercine goby that inhabits the coastal areas of western Africa. Perciformes at DMOZ FishBase entry on Gobiidae Gobioid Research Institute The Mudskipper, a website on mudskippers or The Mudskipper Mudskipper photos by Daniel Trim
20.
M. E. Grant Duff
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Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff GCSI CIE PC FRS, known as M. E. Grant Duff before 1887 and as Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff thereafter, was a Scottish politician, administrator and author. He served as the Under-Secretary of State for India from 1868 to 1874, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881 and he was born in Eden, Aberdeenshire on 21 February 1829 to distinguished British historian James Grant Duff. He had his education at Grange School and Balliol College, Oxford and he practised and taught law for a short time before starting a political life and entering the House of Commons as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Elgin Burghs. His abilities won him government positions and he was Under-Secretary of State for India, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, on his return from Madras, he retired from politics and served in various art and scientific societies. He travelled extensively and wrote voluminously and he was made a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire and a Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India. He died on 12 January 1906 at the age of 76 and he was named after Mountstuart Elphinstone whom James Grant Duff regarded as his mentor. He had his schooling at Edinburgh Academy and Grange School and at Balliol College and he completed his masters degree in 1853. During these years he experienced problems with his vision, and for the rest of his life he relied on the sight of others and he studied law at the Inns of Court and passed with honours, appearing next to James Fitzjames Stephen. He was called to the bar at Inner Temple, London on 17 November 1854, during this time he lectured at the Working Mens College and wrote for the Saturday Review. Soon afterwards, he entered politics and joined the Liberal Party, in the 1857 election he was elected to the House of Commons as the Liberal Partys candidate for Elgin Burghs. He was a member of the House of Commons from 1857 to 1881, as a parliamentarian, he took up the cause of education in his constituency and gave regular annual speeches on foreign policy. In order to make these speeches as informative and realistic, he took trips abroad to study the situation in foreign countries and his proficiency and expertise on foreign issues won him positions in the foreign ministry. Sir Charles W. Dilke declined the role of Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Gladstone refused but appointed Grant Duff as Under-Secretary of State for India on 8 December 1868. A position he filled until 1874 when the Liberal Party government of Gladstone resigned and he worked well with the Secretary of State Argyll, their relationship was described by Duthie as ‘rather deliberately obedient to Argyll, and always in agreement with him on policy’. During Grant Duffs tenure, the Kuka insurrection broke out in India, the massacre of 50 rebelling Kukas sparked outrage in Parliament and Grant Duff was compelled to accept responsibility. When Gladstone was voted back to power in 1880, Grant Duff was appointed Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies and he served till 26 June 1881, when he was appointed Governor of Madras. During this time, he served on Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council. He was captivated by the beach at Madras on a visit to the city
21.
Promenade
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An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The original meaning of esplanade was a large, open, level area outside fortress or city walls to provide fields of fire for the fortress guns. In modern usage the space allows people to walk for recreational purposes, esplanades are often on sea fronts, esplanades became popular in Victorian times when it was fashionable to visit seaside resorts. A promenade, often abbreviated to Prom, was an area where people - couples and families especially - would go to walk for a while in order to be seen, in North America, esplanade has another meaning, being also a median dividing a roadway or boulevard. Sometimes they are just strips of grass, or some may have gardens, some roadway esplanades may be used as parks with a walking/jogging trail and benches. Esplanade and promenade are used interchangeably. The derivation of promenade indicates a place intended for walking, though many modern promenades and esplanades also allow bicycles. Some esplanades also include large boulevards or avenues where cars are permitted, a similar term with the same meaning in the eastern coastal region of Spain is rambla, but more widely referred to as paseo marítimo, paseo or explanada in the Hispanic world. C
22.
Erosion
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In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes that remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earths crust, then transport it away to another location. Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, the rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is carried by, for example. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, while erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. At well-known agriculture sites such as the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion up to 100x the speed of the rate of erosion in the region. Excessive erosion causes both on-site and off-site problems, on-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads. Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion, however, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils. Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four types of soil erosion, splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the erosion process. In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a crater in the soil. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m vertically and 1.5 m horizontally on level ground. If the soil is saturated, or if the rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles down the slope, sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes, generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres or less and this means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow
23.
Breakwater (structure)
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Breakwaters are structures constructed on coasts as part of coastal defense or to protect an anchorage from the effects of both weather and longshore drift. Breakwaters reduce the intensity of wave action in inshore waters and thereby reduce coastal erosion or provide safe harbourage, Breakwaters may also be small structures designed to protect a gently sloping beach and put one to three hundred thousand feet onshore in relatively shallow water. An anchorage is only safe if ships anchored there are protected from the force of high winds, natural harbours are formed by such barriers as headlands or reefs. Artificial harbours can be created with the help of breakwaters, mobile harbours, such as the D-Day Mulberry harbours, were floated into position and acted as breakwaters. Some natural harbours, such as those in Plymouth Sound, Portland Harbour, the dissipation of energy and relative calm water created in the lee of the breakwaters often encourage accretion of sediment. However, this can lead to excessive salient build up, resulting in tombolo formation and this trapping of sediment can cause adverse effects down-drift of the breakwaters, leading to beach sediment starvation and increased erosion. This may then lead to further engineering protection being needed down-drift of the breakwater development, Breakwaters are subject to damage, and overtopping in severe storms events. Breakwaters can be constructed with one end linked to the shore, length of gap is largely governed by the interacting wavelengths. Breakwaters may be fixed or floating, and impermeable or permeable to allow sediment transfer shoreward of the structures. They usually consist of pieces of rock weighing up to 16 tonnes each. Their design is influenced by the angle of approach and other environmental parameters. Breakwater construction can be parallel or perpendicular to the coast. Of these three, the angle at which the breakwater is built is most important in the formation of salients. The angle at which the breakwater is built determines the new direction of the waves, a breakwater structure is designed to absorb the energy of the waves that hit it, either by using mass, or by using a revetment slope. In coastal engineering, a revetment is a land backed structure whilst a breakwater is a sea backed structure, caisson breakwaters typically have vertical sides and are usually erected where it is desirable to berth one or more vessels on the inner face of the breakwater. They use the mass of the caisson and the fill within it to resist the forces applied by waves hitting them. They are relatively expensive to construct in shallow water, but in deeper sites they can offer a significant saving over revetment breakwaters, rubble mound breakwaters use structural voids to dissipate the wave energy. Rock or concrete armour units on the outside of the structure absorb most of the energy, the slopes of the revetment are typically between 1,1 and 1,2, depending upon the materials used
24.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
25.
Triumph of Labour
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The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour statue, is a statue at the Marina Beach, Chennai, India. Erected at the end of the beach at the Anna Square opposite University of Madras. The statue shows four men toiling to move a rock, depicting the work of the labouring class. It bears a semblance to the famed World War II photograph of the raising of the flag on Iwo Jima by the American Marines and it was sculpted by Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury. The statue is the earliest one to be erected on the beach and is installed close to the site where the countrys first commemoration of May Day was held. The statue was installed on the eve of the Republic Day in 1959, the statue remains the focal point of May Day celebrations in the city
26.
Parliament of India
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The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body of the Republic of India. The Parliament is composed of the President of India and the houses and it is bicameral with two houses, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. The President in his role as head of legislature has powers to summon. The president can exercise these powers only upon the advice of the Prime Minister and those elected or nominated to either house of Parliament are referred to as members of parliament. The Parliament meets at Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi, the Sansad Bhavan is located in New Delhi. It was designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, who were responsible for planning, the construction of buildings took six years and the opening ceremony was performed on 18 January 1927 by the then Governor-General of India, Irwin. The construction costs for the building were ₹8.3 million, the parliament is 560 feet in diameter and covers an area of 6 acres. The Central hall consists of the chambers of Lok sabha, Rajya Sabha, surrounding these three chambers is the four storied circular structure providing accommodations for members and houses Parliamentary committees, offices and the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs. A new Parliament building may replace the existing complex, the new building is being considered on account of the stability concerns regarding the current complex. A committee to suggest alternatives to the current building has been set up by the Ex, the present building, an 85-year-old structure suffers from inadequacy of space to house members and their staff and is thought to suffer from structural issues. The building also needs to be protected because of its heritage tag, the Indian Parliament consists of two houses called the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha with the President of India acting as their head. The President of India, the Head of state is a component of Parliament, the President of India is elected by the members of Parliament of India and the state legislatures and serves for a term of five years. Lok Sabha or the house has 545 members. It has a term of five years, Rajya Sabha or the upper house is a permanent body not subject to dissolution. One third of the members every second year, and are replaced by newly elected members. Each member is elected for a term of six years and its members are indirectly elected by members of legislative bodies of the states. The Rajya Sabha can have a maximum of 250 members and it currently has a sanctioned strength of 245 members, of which 233 are elected from States and Union Territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The number of members from a state depends on its population, the minimum age for a person to become a member of Rajya Sabha is 30 years
27.
Tamil literature
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Tamil literature refers to the literature in the Tamil language. Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years, the oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from Tamil people from South India, including the land now comprising Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Sri Lankan Tamils from Sri Lanka, and from Tamil diaspora. The history of Tamil literature follows the history of Tamil Nadu, the early Sangam literature, starting from the period of 2nd century BCE, contain anthologies of various poets dealing with many aspects of life, including love, war, social values and religion. This was followed by the early epics and moral literature, authored by Hindu, Jain and Buddhist authors, from the 6th to 12th century CE, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars and Azhvars, heralded the great Bhakti movement which later engulfed the entire Indian subcontinent. The later medieval period saw many assorted minor literary works and also contributions by a few Muslim and European authors. A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious, with growth of literacy, Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear, modern Tamil Literary criticism also evolved. The popularity of Tamil cinema has also interacted with Tamil literature in some mutually enriching ways, Sangam literature comprises some of the oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals with love, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Unfortunately much of the Tamil literature belonging to the Sangam period has been lost, the literature currently available from this period is perhaps just a fraction of the wealth of material produced during this golden age of Tamil civilization. The available literature from this period has been divided in antiquity into three categories based roughly on chronology. These are, the Major Eighteen Anthology Series comprising the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Idylls, Tolkaappiyam, a commentary on grammar, phonetics, rhetoric and poetics is dated from this period. Tamil legends hold that these were composed in three successive poetic assemblies that were held in ancient times on a now vanished continent far to the south of India. A significant amount of literature could have preceded Tolkappiyam as grammar books are written after the existence of literature over long periods. Tamil tradition holds the earliest Sangam poetry to be over twelve millennia old, modern linguistic scholarship places the poems between the 1st century BC and the 3rd century AD. Sangam age is considered by the Tamil people as the era of Tamil language. This was the period when the Tamil country was ruled by the three crowned kings the Cheras, Pandyas and the Cholas, the land was at peace with no major external threats. Asokas conquests did not impact on the Tamil land and the people were able to indulge in literary pursuits, the poets had a much more casual relationship with their rulers than can be imagined in later times
28.
Jayalalithaa
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Jayaram Jayalalithaa was an Indian actor turned politician who served five terms as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for over fourteen years between 1991 and 2016. From 1989 she was the secretary of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. Jayalalithaa first came into prominence as a film in the mid-1960s. Though she had entered the profession reluctantly, upon the urging of her mother to support the family and she appeared in 140 films between 1961 and 1980, primarily in the Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. Jayalalithaa received praise for her versatility as an actor and for her dancing skills, among her frequent co-stars was M. G. Ramachandran, or MGR, a Tamil cultural icon who leveraged his immense popularity with the masses into a successful political career. In 1982, when MGR was chief minister, Jayalalithaa joined the AIADMK and her political rise was rapid, within a few years she became AIADMK propaganda secretary and was elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Indias Parliament. After MGRs death in 1987, Jayalalithaa proclaimed herself his political heir and, having fought off the faction headed by Janaki Ramachandran, MGRs widow, following the 1989 election, she became Leader of the Opposition to the DMK-led government headed by Karunanidhi, her bête noire. In 1991 Jayalalithaa became chief minister, Tamil Nadus youngest, for the first time, the successful cradle-baby scheme, which enabled mothers to anonymously offer their newborns for adoption, emerged during this time. Despite an official salary of only a rupee a month, Jayalalithaa indulged in public displays of wealth, in the 1996 election, the AIADMK was nearly wiped out at the hustings, Jayalalithaa herself lost her seat. The new Karunanidhi government filed several cases against her. The AIADMK returned to power in 2001, although Jayalalithaa was personally disbarred from contesting due to the corruption cases. Within a few months of her oath as chief minister, in September 2001, she was disqualified from holding office. Upon her acquittal six months later, Jayalalithaa returned as minister to complete her term. During this term she was noted for her ruthlessness to political opponents, another period in the opposition followed, before Jayalalithaa was sworn in as chief minister for the fourth time after the AIADMK swept the 2011 assembly election. Her government received attention for its extensive social-welfare agenda, which included several subsidised Amma-branded goods such as canteens, bottled water, three years into her tenure, she was convicted in a disproportionate-assets case, rendering her disqualified to hold office. She returned as minister after being acquitted in May 2015. In the 2016 assembly election, she became the first Tamil Nadu chief minister since MGR in 1984 to be voted back into office and it was announced that she died on December 5 after having cardiac arrest. However, months after her death former chief minister O, however Sasikala and other co-accused were sentenced to four years of imprisonment and fined 10 crore rupees each
29.
Ecosystem
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An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
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Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
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Olive ridley sea turtle
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The olive ridley sea turtle, also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. They can also be found in waters of Atlantic ocean. Growing to about 2 feet in length, the Olive ridley gets its name from its olive colored carapace, males and females grow to the same size, however, females have a slightly more rounded carapace as compared to the male. The heart-shaped carapace is characterized by four pairs of pore-bearing inframarginal scutes on the bridge, two pairs of prefrontals, and up to 9 lateral scutes per side. Olive ridleys are unique in that they can have variable and asymmetrical lateral scute 6 to 8 counts ranging from five to 9 plates on each side, each side of the carapace has 12–14 marginal scutes. The carapace is flattened dorsally and highest anterior to the bridge and it has a medium–sized, broad head that appears triangular from above. The heads concave sides are most obvious on the part of the short snout. It has paddle-like forelimbs, each having two anterior claws, the upperparts are grayish green to olive in color, but sometimes appear reddish due to algae growing on the carapace. The bridge and hingeless plastron of an adult varies from white in younger individuals to a creamy yellow in older specimens. Hatchlings are dark gray with a pale yolk scar, but appear all black when wet, carapace length ranges from 37 to 50 mm. A thin, white line borders the carapace, as well as the edge of the fore. Both hatchlings and juveniles have serrated posterior marginal scutes, which become smooth with age, juveniles also have three dorsal keels, the central longitudinal keel gives younger turtles a serrated profile, which remains until sexual maturity is reached. Olive ridleys rarely weigh over 50 kg, a study in Oaxaca, Mexico, reported a sample of adults ranged from 25 to 46 kg, adult females weighed an average of 35.45 kg, while adult males weighed significantly less, averaging 33.00 kg. Hatchlings usually weigh between 12.0 and 23.3 g, males also have longer, more tapered carapaces than females, which have round, dome-like carapaces. Males also have more concave plastrons, believed to be another adaptation for mating, the plastrons of males may also be softer than females. In the Atlantic Ocean, it has been observed off the western coast of Africa and the coasts of northern Brazil, Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, additionally, the olive ridley has been recorded in the Caribbean Sea as far north as Puerto Rico. A female individual was found alive on an Irish Sea beach on the Isle of Anglesey, British Isles in November 2016 and it was taken in by the nearby Anglesey Sea Zoo while its health was being assessed. Historically, this species has been regarded as the most abundant sea turtle in the world
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Neelankarai
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Neelangarai is a census town and is a locality in the south of Chennai. It is situated in Kancheepuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu about seven kilometers south of Adyar, the name of Neelankarai Neelam + Karai means Blue Shore. The former name of the city was Thiruneelakandapuram named after the Thiruneelakandeshwarar temple, Neelankarai is located with Palavakkam in the North, Vettuvankeni in the South and the Bay of Bengal in the East. Over the years Neelankarai has developed tremendously and has made a significant name for itself in popularity for various reasons, as of 2001 India census, Neelangkarai had a population of 15,688. Males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%, Neelangkarai has an average literacy rate of 70%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 77%, and female literacy is 63%. In Neelangkarai, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age. L. R. I Nagar etc, neelangarai comes under South Chennai parliamentary constitution and Sholinganallur legislative constitution
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Fauna
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Fauna is all of the animal life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora, flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively referred to as biota. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a collection of animals found in a specific time or place. Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. Fauna comes from the Greek names Fauna, a Roman goddess of earth and fertility, the Roman god Faunus, all three words are cognates of the name of the Greek god Pan, and panis is the Greek equivalent of fauna. Fauna is also the word for a book that catalogues the animals in such a manner, the term was first used by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in the title of his 1745 work Fauna Suecica. Cryofauna are animals that live in, or very close to, cryptofauna are the fauna that exist in protected or concealed microhabitats. Infauna are benthic organisms that live within the substratum of a body of water, especially within the bottom-most oceanic sediments. Bacteria and microalgae may also live in the interstices of bottom sediments, epifauna, also called epibenthos, are aquatic animals that live on the bottom substratum as opposed to within it, that is, the benthic fauna that live on top of the sediment surface at the seafloor. Macrofauna are benthic or soil organisms which are retained on a 0.5 mm sieve, studies in the deep sea define macrofauna as animals retained on a 0.3 mm sieve to account for the small size of many of the taxa. Megafauna are large animals of any region or time. Meiofauna are small invertebrates that live in both marine and fresh water environments. The term Meiofauna loosely defines a group of organisms by their size, larger than microfauna but smaller than macrofauna, one environment for meiofauna is between grains of damp sand. In practice these are metazoan animals that can pass unharmed through a 0.5 –1 mm mesh but will be retained by a 30–45 μm mesh, but the exact dimensions will vary from researcher to researcher. Whether an organism passes through a 1 mm mesh also depends upon whether it is alive or dead at the time of sorting, mesofauna are macroscopic soil invertebrates such as arthropods or nematodes. Mesofauna are extremely diverse, considering just the springtails, as of 1998, microfauna are microscopic or very small animals. Other terms include avifauna, which means bird fauna and piscifauna, which means fish fauna
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Turbellarians
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The Turbellaria are one of the traditional sub-divisions of the phylum Platyhelminthes, and include all the sub-groups that are not exclusively parasitic. There are about 4,500 species, which range from 1 mm to large freshwater forms more than 500 mm long or terrestrial species like Bipalium kewense which can reach 600 mm in length, however, many of the smaller forms are round in cross section. Most are predators, and all live in water or in moist terrestrial environments, most forms reproduce sexually and with few exceptions all are simultaneous hermaphrodites. The Acoelomorpha and the genus Xenoturbella were formerly included in the Turbellaria, all the exclusively parasitic Platyhelminthes form a monophyletic group Neodermata, and it is agreed that these are descended from one small sub-group within the free-living Platyhelminthes. Hence the Turbellaria as traditionally defined are paraphyletic, traditional classifications divide the Platyhelminthes into four groups, Turbellaria and the wholly parasitic Trematoda, Monogenea and Cestoda. In this classification the Turbellaria include the Acoelomorpha, the name Turbellaria refers to the whirlpools of microscopic particles created close to the skins of aquatic species by the movement of their cilia. Like other bilaterians they are triploblastic, having three main cell layers. The radially symmetrical cnidarians and ctenophore are diploblastic having only two cell layers, unlike most other bilaterians, platyhelminthes have no internal body cavity and are therefore described as acoelomates. Hence many are microscopic and the species have flat ribbon-like or leaf-like shapes. The guts of large species have many branches, so that nutrients can diffuse to all parts of the body, the mesenchyme contains all the internal organs and allows the passage of oxygen, nutrients and waste products. Most platyhelminths have no anus and regurgitate undigested material through the mouth, however some long species have an anus and some with complex branched guts have more than one anus, since excretion only through the mouth would be difficult for them. The gut is lined with a layer of endodermal cells which absorb. Some species break up and soften food first by secreting enzymes in the gut or the pharynx, all animals need to keep the concentration of dissolved substances in their body fluids at a fairly constant level. Despite this difference in environments, most platyhelminths use the system to control the level of concentration in their body fluids. These combinations of flame cells and tubule cells are called protonephredia, in all platyhelminths the nervous system is concentrated at the head end. Most species have rings of ganglia in the head and main nerve trunks running along their bodies, planarians are famous for their ability to regenerate if divided by cuts across their bodies. Experiments show that, in fragments that do not already have a head and this suggests that the growth of a head is controlled by a chemical whose concentration diminishes from head to tail. These have about 4,500 species, are mostly free-living, most are predators or scavengers, and terrestrial species are mostly nocturnal and live in shaded humid locations such as leaf litter or rotting wood. However some are symbiotes of animals such as crustaceans
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Nematode
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The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are an animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Nematodes are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem from marine to fresh water, to soils, and from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are found in part of the earths lithosphere, even at great depths below the surface of the Earth in gold mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor, the many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. The location of towns would be decipherable, since for every massing of human beings there would be a corresponding massing of certain nematodes, trees would still stand in ghostly rows representing our streets and highways. In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera, then included in Vermes, the name of the group Nematoda, informally called nematodes, came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi, from Ancient Greek νῆμα and -eiδἠς. It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister, at its origin, the Nematoidea erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold. Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa and they were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete phylum Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur. In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda, in 1877, the taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae, was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum and he argued they should be called nema in English rather than nematodes and defined the taxon Nemates, listing Nematoidea sensu restricto as a synonym. Since Cobb was the first to all but nematodes from the group, some sources consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata. The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved, traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a taxon to the parasitic Nematomorpha. Together with the Scalidophora, the Nematoida form the clade Cycloneuralia, the Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum. Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious, an earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood—later revised by Chitwood—who divided the phylum into two—the Aphasmidia and the Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea and Secernentea, respectively, the Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division
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Polychaete
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The Polychaeta /ˌpɒlɪˈkiːtə/ or polychaetes are a paraphyletic class of annelid worms, generally marine. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, as such, polychaetes are sometimes referred to as bristle worms. More than 10,000 species are described in this class, common representatives include the lugworm and the sandworm or clam worm Alitta. Only 168 species are known from fresh waters, polychaetes are segmented worms, generally less than 10 cm in length, although ranging at the extremes from 1 mm to 3 m. They can sometimes be brightly coloured, and may be iridescent or even luminescent, each segment bears a pair of paddle-like and highly vascularized parapodia, which are used for movement and, in many species, act as the worms primary respiratory surfaces. Bundles of bristles, called setae, project from the parapodia, however, polychaetes vary widely from this generalised pattern, and can display a range of different body forms. The head, or prostomium, is well developed, compared with other annelids. It projects forward over the mouth, which lies on the animals underside. The head normally includes two to four pair of eyes, although species are blind. These are typically fairly simple structures, capable of distinguishing only light and dark, the head also includes a pair of antennae, tentacle-like palps, and a pair of pits lined with cilia, known as nuchal organs. These latter appear to be chemoreceptors, and help the worm to seek out food, the outer surface of the body wall consists of a simple columnar epithelium covered by a thin cuticle. Underneath this, in order, are a layer of connective tissue, a layer of circular muscle, a layer of longitudinal muscle. Additional oblique muscles move the parapodia, in most species the body cavity is divided into separate compartments by sheets of peritoneum between each segment, but in some species its more continuous. In general, however, they possess a pair of jaws, in some species, the pharynx is modified into a lengthy proboscis. The digestive tract is a tube, usually with a stomach part way along. The smallest species, and those adapted to burrowing, lack gills, most other species have external gills, often associated with the parapodia. A simple but well-developed circulatory system is usually present, the two main blood vessels furnish smaller vessels to supply the parapodia and the gut. Blood flows forward in the vessel, above the gut
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Oligochaeta
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Oligochaeta is a class of animals in the phylum Annelida, which is made up of many types of aquatic and terrestrial worms, and including all of the various earthworms. With around 10,000 known species, the Oligochaeta make up half of the phylum Annelida. These worms usually have few setae or bristles on their body surfaces. Oligochaetes are well-segmented worms and most have a body cavity used as a hydroskeleton. They range in length from less than 0.5 mm up to 2 to 3 metres in the giant species such as the giant Gippsland earthworm and the Mekong worm Amynthas mekongianus. The first segment, or prostomium, of oligochaetes is usually a smooth lobe or cone without sensory organs, the remaining segments have no appendages, but they do have a small number of bristles, or chaetae. These tend to be longer in aquatic forms than in the burrowing earthworms, each segment has four bundles of chaetae, with two on the underside, and the others on the sides. The bundles can contain one to 25 chaetae, and include muscles to pull them in and this enables the worm to gain a grip on the soil or mud as it burrows into the substrate. When burrowing, the body moves peristaltically, alternately contracting and stretching to push itself forward, a number of segments in the forward part of the body are modified by the presence of numerous secretory glands. Together, they form the clitellum, which is important in reproduction, most oligochaetes are detritus feeders, although some genera are predaceous, such as Agriodrilus and Phagodrilus. The digestive tract is essentially a tube running the length of the body, but has a powerful muscular pharynx immediately behind the mouth cavity. In many species, the pharynx simply helps the worm suck in food, the remainder of the digestive tract may include a crop for storage of food, and a gizzard for grinding it up, although these are not present in all species. The oesophagus includes calciferous glands that maintain balance by excreting indigestible calcium carbonate into the gut. A number of yellowish chloragogen cells surround the intestine and the blood vessel. Some of these cells also float freely in the body cavity, most oligochaetes have no gills or similar structures, and simply breathe through their moist skin. The few exceptions generally have simple, filamentous gills, excretion is through small ducts known as metanephridia. Terrestrial oligochaetes secrete urea, but the aquatic forms typically secrete ammonia, the vascular system consists of two main vessels connected by lateral vessels in each segment. Blood is carried forward in the vessel and back through the ventral vessel
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Harpacticoida
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Harpacticoida is an order of copepods, in the subphylum Crustacea. This order comprises 463 genera and about 3,000 species, its members are benthic copepods found throughout the world in the marine environment, a few of them are planktonic or live in association with other organisms. Harpacticoida represents the second-largest meiofaunal group in marine sediment milieu, after nematodes, in Arctic and Antarctic seas, Harpacticoida are common inhabitants of sea ice. The name Harpacticoida comes from the Greek noun harpacticon and the suffix -oid, harpacticoids are distinguished from other copepods by the presence of only a very short pair of first antennae. The second pair of antennae are biramous, and the major joint within the body is located between the fourth and fifth body segments and they typically have a wide abdomen, and often have a somewhat worm-like body
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Gastrotrich
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The gastrotrichs, commonly referred to as hairybacks, are a group of microscopic, worm-like, pseudocoelomate animals, and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and marine environments. They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton, the layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other water bodies. The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other submerged surfaces, but a few species are terrestrial, Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders, the Macrodasyida which are marine, and the Chaetonotida, some of which are marine and some freshwater. Nearly eight hundred species of gastrotrich have been described, Gastrotrichs have a simple body plan with a head region, with a brain and sensory organs, and a trunk with a simple gut and the reproductive organs. They have adhesive glands with which they can anchor themselves to the substrate and they feed on detritus, sucking up organic particles with their muscular pharynx. They are hermaphrodites, the marine species producing eggs which develop directly into miniature adults, the freshwater species are parthenogenetic, producing unfertilised eggs, and at least one species is viviparous. Gastrotrichs mature with great rapidity and have lifespans of only a few days, the name gastrotrich comes from the Greek γαστήρ gaster, meaning stomach, and θρίξ thrix, meaning hair. The name was coined by the Russian zoologist Élie Metchnikoff in 1865, the common name hairyback apparently arises from a mistranslation of gastrotrich. The relationship of gastrotrichs to other phyla is unclear, morphology suggests that they are close to the Gnathostomulida, the Rotifera, or the Nematoda. On the other hand, genetic studies place them as relatives of the Platyhelminthes. As of 2011, around 790 species have been described, the phylum contains a single class, divided into two orders, the Macrodasyida and the Chaetonotida. Edward Ruppert et al. report that the Macrodasyida are wholly marine, the Chaetonotida comprises both marine and freshwater species. Gastrotrichs vary in size from about 0.06 to 3 mm in body length and they are bilaterally symmetrical, with a transparent strap-shaped or bowling pin-shaped body, arched dorsally and flattened ventrally. The anterior end is not clearly defined as a head but contains the sense organs, brain, cilia are found around the mouth and on the ventral surface of the head and body. The trunk contains the gut and the reproductive organs, at the posterior end of the body are two projections with cement glands that serve in adhesion. This is a system where one gland secretes the glue. In the Macrodasyida, there are additional adhesive glands at the anterior end, the body wall consists of a cuticle, an epidermis and longitudinal and circular bands of muscle fibres. In some primitive species, each cell has a single cilium
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Besant Nagar
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Besant Nagar is one of Chennais neighborhoods, named after the noted lady theosophist Annie Besant. It is located on the coast of Bay of Bengal to the east, the Theosophical Society, a worldwide body whose primary objective is Universal Brotherhood, founded in 1875, has its headquarters in this area famed for its Banyan trees and serene settings. It is a part of Chennai which is inhabited by famous personalities. Alongside are many restaurants, cafes, shops and boutiques, the main attraction is the Elliots Beach, named after Edward Elliot, Governor of Madras. It forms the end-point of the Marina Beach shore and it has the Annai Velankanni Church and the Ashtalakshmi Temple along the shore and is sometimes nicknamed Bessie. In the colonial era it was an exclusive place limited to expatriates. The Arulmigu Mahalakshmi Temple is located on the shores of Besant Nagar Beach and this is the only temple dedicated to Sri Mahalaksahmi, the Consort of Sriman Narayanan, on the east coast in Tamil Nadu. In 1971, the present Velankanni Church was a substation of St Louis Church, Arulappa, the then Parish Priest, St Louis Church, Adyar and a great Missionary started Our Lady of Vailankanni Church under trying conditions. The Archbishop of Madras Mylapore, Most Rev Dr R Arulappa, the imposing 97 feet belfry was declared open by the then Chief Minister Dr M Karunanidhi 27 August 1972. On 15 August 1985 a bigger Church was blessed and consecrated by Archbishop Most Rev Dr R Arulappa, by the efforts of Rev Fr PJ Lawrence Raj, several extensions and renovations were made to this Shrine. A beautiful community hall, stalls, Museum and class room blocks were constructed, in May 2000, nearly 8 grounds were purchased and a beautiful stage was erected and dedicated to Jubilee 2000. In 2001 a small Chapel for the blessed Sacrament was built, in 2002 a grotto depicting the miracles of Our Lady of Good Health was created. In 2003, Mother Mary’s Square and Reconciliation Chapel was constructed, from 2000 to 2003,3 grounds were purchased in which the new Convent building stands. On 8 September 2005 this Church was decreed as a Shrine of the Archdiocese of Madras ‘ Mylapore by the Most Rev Dr AM Chinnappa SDB, Besant Nagar was developed by Tamil Nadu Housing Board in the early 1970s and up to the early 1980s. It was developed in an area of about 4 sq km encompassing the surroundings of Indra Nagar, TNHB developed residential plots, apartments, commercial complexes, wide roads, school zones, bus terminus and large parks. The Central Government Staff Quarters, popularly known as C. P. W. D, Quarters, is located here and contributed to the development of the locality. The St. Johns English School and Junior College established in 1981, just opposite to the school was the residence of World Chess Champion Viswanathan Anand. The Besant Theosophical High School, The School, Olcott Memorial School, spread over 10 acres of land, The Besant Theosophical High School founded in 1934, is the oldest unit of the Kalakshetra Foundation
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Greenway (landscape)
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A greenway is a strip of undeveloped land near an urban area, set aside for recreational use or environmental protection. A greenway is a trail, found in urban and rural settings, that is frequently created, out of a disused railway, canal towpath, utility, or similar right of way. Rail trails are one of the most common forms of greenway, in Southern England the term also refers to ancient trackways or green lanes, especially those found on chalk downlands, like the Ridgeway. Some greenways include community gardens as well as typical park-style landscaping of trees and they also tend to have a mostly contiguous pathway. Greenways resemble linear parks, but the latter are found in an urban and suburban environment. Tom Turner analyzed greenways in London, looking for patterns among successful examples. He was inspired by the pattern language technique of architect Christopher Alexander, Turner concluded there are seven types, or patterns, of greenway which he named, parkway, blueway, paveway, glazeway, skyway, ecoway and cycleway. These routes should meet satisfactory standards of width, gradient and surface condition to ensure that they are both user-friendly and low-risk for users of all abilities. Charles Little, describes five general types of greenways, Urban riverside greenways, usually created as part of a redevelopment program along neglected, often run-down, city waterfronts. Recreational greenways, featuring paths and trails of various kinds, often relatively long distance, based on natural corridors as well as canals, abandoned rail beds, and public rights-of-way. Ecologically significant natural corridors, usually along rivers and streams and less often ridgelines, to provide for wildlife migration and species interchange, nature study, Greenways are vegetated, linear, and multi-purpose. They incorporate a footpath or bikeway within a linear park, in urban design they are a component of planning for bicycle commuting and walkability. Greenways are found in areas as well as urban. Corridors redeveloped as greenways often travel through both city and country, connecting them together, however, most examples are in Europe and North America. In Australia, a foreshoreway is a greenway that provides a public right-of-way along the edge of the sea, foreshoreways include oceanways, and resemble promenades and boardwalks. Foreshoreways are usually concerned with the idea of sustainable transport and the term is used to avoid the suggestion that the route favours either pedestrians or cyclists, a foreshoreway is accessible to both pedestrians and cyclists and gives them the opportunity to move unimpeded along the seashore. Dead end paths that offer public access only to the ocean are not part of a foreshoreway, the network includes 36 kilometres of poor, medium and high quality pathways. Others include, The Chicago Lakefront Trail, the Dubai Marina, the East River Greenway, New Plymouth Coastal Walkway, public rights of way frequently exist on the foreshore of beaches throughout the world
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Government of Tamil Nadu
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The Government of Tamil Nadu is the governing authority for the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is seated at Fort St George, Chennai, the legislature of Tamil Nadu was bicameral until 1986, when it was replaced by a unicameral legislature, like most other states in India. The Governor is the head of the state while the Chief Minister heads the council of ministers. The Chief Justice of the Madras High Court is the head of the judiciary, presently Vidyasagar Rao is the acting governor and Edappadi K. Palanisamy is the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Indira Banerjee is the current Chief Justice of Madras High Court, the state of Tamil Nadu has a population of 7,21,38,958 as per the 2011 Census and covers an area of 1,30,058 km². The Tamil Nadu E-Governance Agency is the entity that facilitates e-governance efforts in Tamil Nadu, as part of the e-governance initiative, a large part of government records like land ownership records have been digitised. All major administrative offices like local governance bodies and various government departments have been computerised
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Artificial waterfall
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An artificial waterfall is a water feature or fountain which imitates a natural waterfall. Artificial waterfalls have long featured in traditional Japanese gardens, where they can serve to highlight a scene or to provide focus. The classic gardening manual Sakuteiki, written in the mid-to-late 11th century, the Cascata delle Marmore is an example of a man-made waterfall created by the ancient Romans. Artificial waterfalls were popular in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an early American example is Huntington Waterfalls in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California. In 1896, Gardening Magazine reported that it was the artificial waterfall in a public park in North America. Artificial waterfalls installed inside of buildings can be small or quite large, some of the benefits of indoor waterfalls are considered to be their production of white noise, humidity, as well as naturally peaceful feelings engendered among onlookers. Jurong Falls is 30 metres tall, and is located within the open-access Waterfall Aviary at the Jurong Bird Park in Singapore
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Cooum River
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The Cooum River is the shortest classified river draining into the Bay of Bengal. This river is about 72 km in length, flowing 32 km in the Urban part, the river is highly polluted in the urban area. Along with the Adyar River running parallel to the south, the river trifurcates the city and its source is in a place by the same name Cooum or Koovam in Tiruvallur district adjoining Chennai district. The classification of Unpolluted Vs Polluted Part, Polluted Part, Paruthipattu Anaikat to the River Mouth in Bay of Bengal, Unpolluted Part, The Origin in the Cooum Village to Paruthipattu Anaikat. In Chennai district, the flows through three corporation zones—Kilpauk, Nungambakkam and Triplicane—for a total length of 16 kilometres. The Cooum was earlier known as the Triplicane river, the name of Cooum appears to be derived from Tamil literature. The name may have derived from the Tamil term coopam meaning well or deep pit. The word coovalan denotes a person who is well versed in the science of ground water, well water, once this river was said to have its origin in Dharmapuri district, but now due to some earth table changes, it has shortened its course to Thiruvallur district. Ancient documents from the nearby temples states about one reaching salvation on having a dip in the Cooum, the Cooum river was then clean and unpolluted. For centuries, Cooum has been a part of the socio-economic. Till the early century, it was a clean river. In ancient times, it played a part in the far-flung maritime trade between the Roman empire, South India and Sri Lanka. Cooums proximity to the ancient port of Manarpha or Mylapore added to the strategic importance. Manarpha was frequented by Roman merchants who came here to buy Indian textiles, gemstones and spices, in return, India procured gold, silver, copper and high-quality wine from the Romans. Archaeologists have discovered ancient wine jars, Roman and Chinese coins on the banks of the river, in the late eighteenth century, Pachaiyappa Mudaliar, the renowned philanthropist, bathed in this river before offering prayers at the Komaleeswarar Temple in Komaleeswaranpet. Cooum River and the nearby Elambore River, which flows into the Cooum at its mouth, were running close to each other near the former Central Jail area opposite Chennai Central. During floods, both the watercourses inundated the whole area, in the 1700s, the two rivers were linked by a cut to equalise the floods in both the rivers and a bridge was constructed between these rivers in 1710 across the cut. Polluted part of the Cooum is presently spoiled by filth and pollution, the 2004 tsunami cleaned the mouth of the river, however, the river returned to its usual polluted self within a short period
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Marina Barrage
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The Marina Barrage is a dam in Singapore built at the confluence of five rivers, across the Marina Channel between Marina East and Marina South. It was officially opened on 1 November 2008 and it provides water storage, flood control and recreation. It won a 2009 AAEE award, the S$3 billion project turns Marina Bay and Kallang Basin into a new downtown freshwater Marina Reservoir. It provides water supply, flood control and a new lifestyle attraction, by keeping out seawater, the barrage forms Singapore’s 15th reservoir and first reservoir in the city. Marina Reservoir, together with the future Punggol and Serangoon reservoirs, Marina Barrage also acts as a tidal barrier to keep seawater out, helping to alleviate flooding in low-lying areas of the city such as Chinatown, Jalan Besar and Geylang. When it rains heavily during low-tide, the barrage’s crest gates will be lowered to release water from the reservoir into the sea. If heavy rain falls during high-tide, the crest gates remain closed, the building of the Marina Barrage required the relocation of Clifford Pier from Collyer Quay to Marina South. It has proved to be a tourist attraction, Marina Barrage is open for viewing 24/7. The information counter is open from 9. 00am to 9. 00pm daily, tours for a maximum capacity of 80 people to the Visitor Centre can be arranged prior to arrival. From 2012 onward, it played host to annual public youth community and cosplay event EOY Cosplay Festival
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San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
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British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
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World war
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A world war is a war involving many of the countries of the world or many of the most powerful and populous ones. World wars span multiple countries on multiple continents, with battles fought in multiple theaters. The Oxford English Dictionary cited the first known usage in the English language to a Scottish newspaper, the term World War I was coined by Time magazine in its issue of June 12,1939. In the same article, the term World War II was first used speculatively to describe the upcoming war, the first use for the actual war came in its issue of September 11,1939. m. Speculative fiction authors had been noting the concept of a Second World War in 1919 and 1920, due to this fact, a very minute conflict between two countries had the potential to set off a domino effect of alliances, triggering a world war. The fact that the powers involved had large overseas empires virtually guaranteed that such a war would be worldwide, the same strategic considerations also ensured that the combatants would strike at each others colonies, thus spreading the wars far more widely than those of pre-Colombian times. Both world wars had also seen war crimes, the First World War had seen major use of chemical weapons despite the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawing the use of such weapons in warfare. The Ottoman Empire had been considered responsible for the death of one million Armenians during the First World War. The Second World War was the first conflict in which atomic bombs had been used, nazi Germany had been responsible for multiple genocides, most notably the Holocaust, killing six million Jews. The outcome of the wars had a profound effect on the course of world history. The old European empires had collapsed or been dismantled as a result of the wars crushing costs. The United States of America had been established as the dominant global superpower, along with its ideological foe. These two superpowers exerted political influence over most of the worlds nation-states for decades after the end of the Second World War, the modern international security, economic and diplomatic system had been created in the aftermath of the wars. Institutions such as the United Nations were established to collectivize international affairs, the wars had also greatly changed the course of daily life. Technologies developed during wartime had an effect on peace-time life as well, for instance, advances in, jet aircraft, penicillin, nuclear energy. Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War, there has been a widespread and this war has been anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities, and explored in fiction in many countries. Concepts have ranged from purely conventional scenarios, to limited use of nuclear weapons, among these are former American, French, and Mexican government officials, military leaders, politicians, and authors, Despite their efforts, none of these wars are commonly deemed world wars. The Second Congo War involved nine nations and led to ongoing low-level warfare despite an official peace and it has often been referred to as Africas World War