1.
Order of Australia
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Before the establishment of the order, Australian citizens received British honours. The Queen of Australia is Sovereign Head of the Order, while the Governor-General is Principal Companion/Dame/Knight, the Governor-Generals Official Secretary is Secretary of the Order. The order is divided into a general and a military division, honorary awards at all levels may be made to deserving non-citizens – these awards are made additional to the quotas. The badge of the Order of Australia is a convex disc representing the Golden Wattle flower, at the centre is a ring, representing the sea, with the word Australia below two branches of golden wattle. The whole disc is topped by the Crown of St Edward, the AC badge is decorated with citrines, blue enamelled ring and enamelled crown. The AO badge is similar, without the citrines, for the AM badge only the crown is enamelled, and the OAM badge is plain. The AK/AD badge is similar to that of the AC badge, the star for knights and dames is a convex golden disc decorated with citrines, with a blue royally crowned inner disc bearing an image of the coat of arms of Australia. The ribbon of the order is blue with a stripe of golden wattle flower designs. AKs, male ACs and AOs wear their badges on a necklet, women usually wear their badges on a bow on the left shoulder, although they may wear the same insignia as males, if so desired. The orders insignia were designed by Stuart Devlin, the Order currently consists of four levels and the medal, in both general and military divisions. Since 2015, the level has been discontinued. Awards of Knight and Dame of the Order have been made in the division only. Military Division – Not awarded in the military division. There was a quota of four per year, excluding honorary appointments, the Knight- and Damehoods were conferred between 1976 and 1983, and again from 2014 till 2015. Although this level is not awarded anymore, several knight and dames of the Order are still alive, Companion General Division – Eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in service to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Eminent service in duties of great responsibility. Excluding honorary appointments, until 2003, no more than 25 Companions were appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 30. This was increased in 2016 to 35, Officer General Division – Distinguished service of a high degree to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Distinguished service in responsible positions. Prior to 2003, the quota was 100 Officers appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 125. This was increased in 2016 to 140, Member General Division – Service in a particular locality or field of activity or to a particular group. Military Division – Exceptional service or performance of duty
2.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
3.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
4.
Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science
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The Fellowship of the Australian Academy of Science is made up of about 500 Australian scientists. Scientists judged by their peers to have made a contribution to knowledge in their field may be elected to Fellowship of the Academy. Fellows are often denoted using the post-nominal FAA, a small number of distinguished foreign scientists with substantial connections to Australian science are elected as Corresponding Members. Fellows are appointed for life, this also contains deceased fellows. Fellowship list From http, //www. sciencearchive. org. au Fellows elected in 2005, from https, //www. science. org. au Fellows elected in 2010
5.
Adelaide
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Adelaide is the capital city of the state of South Australia, and the fifth-most populous city of Australia. In June 2016, Adelaide had a resident population of 1,326,354 million. South Australia, with a total of 1, the demonym Adelaidean is used in reference to the city and its residents. Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges which surround the city. Adelaide stretches 20 km from the coast to the foothills, and 94 to 104 km from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. Named in honour of Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, queen consort to King William IV, Colonel William Light, one of Adelaides founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the River Torrens, in the area originally inhabited by the Kaurna people. Lights design set out Adelaide in a layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares. Early Adelaide was shaped by prosperity and wealth—until the Second World War, it was Australias third-largest city and it has been noted for early examples of religious freedom, a commitment to political progressivism and civil liberties. It has been known as the City of Churches since the mid-19th century, as South Australias seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the boulevard of North Terrace, King William Street. Today, Adelaide is noted for its festivals and sporting events, its food and wine, its long beachfronts. It ranks highly in terms of liveability, being listed in the Top 10 of The Economist Intelligence Units Worlds Most Liveable Cities index in 2010,2011,2012 and 2015. It was also ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia in 2011,2012 and 2013, prior to its proclamation as a British settlement in 1836, the area around Adelaide was inhabited by the indigenous Kaurna Aboriginal nation. Kaurna culture and language was almost completely destroyed within a few decades of the European settlement of South Australia in 1836, however, extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both language and culture. South Australia was officially proclaimed as a new British colony on 28 December 1836, the event is commemorated in South Australia as Proclamation Day. The site of the capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light. Adelaide was established as a colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution. Wakefields idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen
6.
Canberra
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Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of 381,488, it is Australias largest inland city, the city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory,280 km south-west of Sydney, and 660 km north-east of Melbourne. A resident of Canberra is known as a Canberran, the site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nations capital in 1908 as a compromise between rivals Sydney and Melbourne, Australias two largest cities. It is unusual among Australian cities, being a planned city outside of any state, similar to Washington, D. C. in the United States. Following an international contest for the design, a blueprint by American architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin was selected. The Griffins plan featured geometric motifs such as circles, hexagons and triangles, the citys design was influenced by the garden city movement and incorporates significant areas of natural vegetation that have earned Canberra the title of the bush capital. Although the Australian Capital Territory is now self-governing, the Commonwealth Government retains some influence through the National Capital Authority, the Australian Armys officer corps is trained at the Royal Military College, Duntroon and the Australian Defence Force Academy is also located in the capital. The ACT is independent of any state to prevent any one state from gaining an advantage by hosting the seat of Commonwealth power, the ACT has voting representation in the Commonwealth Parliament, and has its own independent Legislative Assembly and government, similar to the states. Compared to the averages, the unemployment rate is lower. Property prices are high, in part due to comparatively restrictive development regulations. An 1830s map of the region by Major Mitchell indeed does mark the Sullivans Creek floodplain between two mountains as Nganbra. Nganbra or Nganbira could readily have been anglicised to the name Canberry, survey plans of the district dated 1837 refer to the area as the Canberry Plain. Although popularly pronounced /ˈkænbərə/ or /ˈkænbɛrə/, the pronunciation at its official naming in 1913 was /ˈkæn. brə/. Before white settlement, the area in which Canberra would eventually be constructed was seasonally inhabited by Indigenous Australians, archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabited rock shelters, rock paintings and engravings, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements. Artefacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point in the area 21,000 years previously, European exploration and settlement started in the Canberra area as early as the 1820s. There were four expeditions between 1820 and 1824, white settlement of the area probably dates from 1823, when a homestead or station was built on what is now the Acton peninsula by stockmen employed by Joshua John Moore. He formally applied to purchase the site on 16 December 1826, on 30 April 1827, Moore was told by letter that he could retain possession of 1,000 acres at Canberry. The European population in the Canberra area continued to grow throughout the 19th century
7.
University of Adelaide
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The University of Adelaide is a public university located in Adelaide, South Australia. Established in 1874, it is the third-oldest university in Australia, the University is associated with five Nobel laureates and 104 Rhodes scholars. It is a member of the Group of Eight and the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the University is also a member of the Sandstone universities, which mostly consist of Colonial-era Universities within Australia. The University of Adelaide is composed of five faculties, with each containing constituent schools, the University of Adelaide is widely regarded as one of Australias leading Universities, and it has considerably impacted the public life of South Australia. Many of the states leading businesspeople, lawyers, medical professionals and it has a sixth campus, the Ngee Ann – Adelaide Education Centre, in Singapore. The university operates several associated and independent research institutes and groups and these include the South Australian Centre for Economic Studies, the Hanson Institute for Medical Research, and the South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute. SAHMRI is based at the health and biomedical precinct on North Terrace, the University of Adelaide was established on 6 November 1874 after a £20,000 donation by grazier and copper miner Walter Watson Hughes, along with support and donations from Thomas Elder. The first Chancellor was Sir Richard Hanson and the first vice-chancellor was Dr Augustus Short, the first degree offered was the Bachelor of Arts and the university started teaching in March 1876. John Davidson was the first Hughes professor of English literature and mental and moral philosophy, the University has a long history of championing the rights of women in higher education. Its first female graduate was Edith Emily Dornwell, who was also the first person in Australia to receive the degree of Bachelor of Science, the university also graduated Australias first female surgeon Laura Fowler. Ruby Davy was the first Australian woman to receive a doctorate in music, the University was also the first to elect a woman to a University Council in Australia, Helen Mayo. On 2 July 2010, the University officially implemented its Smoke-Free Policy, security have the right to eject people smoking within the University buildings and also fine people smoking in the gardens or walkways. Also, It is the first higher institution in South Australia to institute a smoke-free policy. The main campus of the University is on North Terrace, the vast majority of students and staff of the University are based at the North Terrace campus, where the majority of courses are taught and schools are based. The central administration of the University and the library, the Barr Smith Library, are both located on this campus. Bonython Hall, the Mitchell Building, the Elder Hall, the Napier building, bonython Hall is one of the many historic and heritage listed buildings located at the North Terrace campus. Others include the Mitchell Building, Elder Hall, and the Reading Room of the Barr Smith Library, in 2016, the university commenced work on a $1 billion, 20-year Masterplan for its three campuses. At North Terrace, the Schulz building will be repurposed as a residential college, with accommodation
8.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
9.
Tritium
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Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The nucleus of tritium contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of protium contains one proton and no neutrons, naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth, where trace amounts are formed by the interaction of the atmosphere with cosmic rays. It can be produced by irradiating lithium metal or lithium bearing ceramic pebbles in a nuclear reactor, the name of this isotope is derived from the Greek word τρίτος meaning third. While tritium has several different experimentally determined values of its half-life and it decays into helium-3 by beta decay as in this nuclear equation, and it releases 18.6 keV of energy in the process. The electrons kinetic energy varies, with an average of 5.7 keV, beta particles from tritium can penetrate only about 6.0 mm of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin. The unusually low energy released in the beta decay makes the decay appropriate for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory. The low energy of tritiums radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using liquid scintillation counting, Tritium is produced in nuclear reactors by neutron activation of lithium-6. This is possible with neutrons of any energy, and is an exothermic reaction yielding 4.8 MeV, in comparison, the fusion of deuterium with tritium releases about 17.6 MeV of energy. High-energy neutrons can produce tritium from lithium-7 in an endothermic reaction. This was discovered when the 1954 Castle Bravo nuclear test produced a high yield. High-energy neutrons irradiating boron-10 will also produce tritium, A more common result of boron-10 neutron capture is 7Li. The reactions requiring high neutron energies are not attractive production methods for peaceful applications, Tritium is also produced in heavy water-moderated reactors whenever a deuterium nucleus captures a neutron. This reaction has a quite small absorption cross section, making water a good neutron moderator. Even so, cleaning tritium from the moderator may be desirable after several years to reduce the risk of its escaping to the environment. Ontario Power Generations Tritium Removal Facility processes up to 2,500 tonnes of water a year. Deuteriums absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is about 0.52 millibarns, whereas that of oxygen-16 is about 0.19 millibarns and that of oxygen-17 is about 240 millibarns. Tritium is a product of the nuclear fission of uranium-235, plutonium-239. The release or recovery of tritium needs to be considered in the operation of reactors, especially in the reprocessing of nuclear fuels
10.
Helium-3
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Helium-3 is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron. Its hypothetical existence was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian nuclear physicist Mark Oliphant while he was working at the University of Cambridge Cavendish Laboratory, Oliphant had performed experiments in which fast deuterons collided with deuteron targets. Helium-3 was thought to be a radioactive isotope until it was found in samples of natural helium. Other than 1H, helium-3 is the stable isotope of any element with more protons than neutrons. Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from the Earths crust into the atmosphere, some of the helium-3 found in the terrestrial atmosphere is also a relic of atmospheric and underwater nuclear weapons testing. Most of this comes from the decay of tritium, which decays into helium-3 with a life of 12.3 years. Furthermore, some nuclear reactors periodically release some helium-3 and tritium into the atmosphere, the nuclear reactor disaster at Chernobyl released a huge amount of radioactive tritium into the atmosphere, and smaller accidents have caused smaller releases. Furthermore, significant amounts of tritium and helium-3 have been produced in national arsenal nuclear reactors by the irradiation of lithium-6. The tritium is used to boost nuclear weapons, and some of this inevitably escapes during its production, transportation, hence, helium-3 enters the atmosphere both through its direct release and through the radioactive decay of tritium. Because of its atomic mass of 3.02 atomic mass units, helium-3 has some physical properties different from those of helium-4. Because of the weak, induced dipole–dipole interaction between atoms, their macroscopic physical properties are mainly determined by their zero-point energy. Also, the properties of helium-3 cause it to have a higher zero-point energy than helium-4. This implies that helium-3 can overcome dipole–dipole interactions with less energy than helium-4 can. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026 kilojoule per mole compared with the 0.0829 kilojoule per mole of helium-4, the appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the aneutronic nature of its reaction products. The lone high-energy by-product, the proton, can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, the momentum energy of this proton will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation. Because of the higher Coulomb barrier, the temperatures required for 21H + 32He fusion are much higher than those of conventional D-T fusion. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction does produce a neutron. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D-3He reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate
11.
Nuclear fusion
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In nuclear physics, nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The difference in mass between the products and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy and this difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic binding energy between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or main sequence stars, the fusion process that produces a nucleus lighter than iron-56 or nickel-62 will generally yield a net energy release. These elements have the smallest mass per nucleon and the largest binding energy per nucleon, the opposite is true for the reverse process, nuclear fission. This means that the elements, such as hydrogen and helium, are in general more fusable, while the heavier elements. The extreme astrophysical event of a supernova can produce energy to fuse nuclei into elements heavier than iron. During the remainder of that decade the steps of the cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were worked out by Hans Bethe. Research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project, fusion was accomplished in 1951 with the Greenhouse Item nuclear test. Nuclear fusion on a scale in an explosion was first carried out on November 1,1952. Research into developing controlled thermonuclear fusion for civil purposes also began in earnest in the 1950s, the protons are positively charged and repel each other but they nonetheless stick together, demonstrating the existence of another force referred to as nuclear attraction. This force, called the nuclear force, overcomes electric repulsion at very close range. The effect of force is not observed outside the nucleus. The same force also pulls the nucleons together allowing ordinary matter to exist, light nuclei, are sufficiently small and proton-poor allowing the nuclear force to overcome the repulsive Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive force at least as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb repulsion. Building up these nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion thus releases the energy from the net attraction of these particles. For larger nuclei, however, no energy is released, since the force is short-range. Thus, energy is no longer released when such nuclei are made by fusion, instead, fusion reactions create the light elements that power the stars and produce virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. The fusion of elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it
12.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
13.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
14.
ANZAAS Medal
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It was modelled on the British Association for the Advancement of Science. For many years, its meetings were a popular and influential way of promoting science in Australia. The current name has been used since 1930, in the 1990s, membership and attendance at the annual meetings decreased as specialised scientific societies increased in popularity. Proposals to close the Association were discussed, but it continued after closing its office in Adelaide and it now operates on a smaller scale but is beginning to grow. The Annual Meetings are no longer held and it holds lectures, for the medals and for other named lectures, both nationally and at state level. Each year it organises Youth ANZAAS, an annual residential scientific forum attended by senior students from Australian schools. The Association awards two important medals, the Mueller medal, named in honour of Ferdinand von Mueller, botanist and pioneer environmentalist, sculptor Andor Meszaros designed the Medal, which was first awarded in 1965. It is named ofter Ferdinand von Mueller, the German/Australian botanist who was Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, initiated in 1902, it was designed by Baldwin Spencer. Youth ANZAAS is an annual residential scientific forum for senior Australasian secondary school students from Years 9,10,11 and 12 and it gives students the opportunity to visit world-class facilities where cutting edge research is undertaken and meet leading scientists. Recent forums have been, The ANZAAS – Australian Synchrotron Inaugural Winter School was launched in July 2009, the four-day program aims to give young researchers – Honours, Masters and early PhD students – an understanding of synchrotron techniques and operation for research purposes. Participants attend lectures, tour the facility and perform experiments that complement their lectures. August–September 1888 – Conference President – H. C, january 1890 – Conference President – Baron Sir Ferdinand Jacob Heinrich von Mueller Digital Copy at archive. org. January 1891 – Conference President – Sir James Hector Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1892 – Conference President – Sir Robert G. C. September 1893 – Conference President – Prof Ralph Tate Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1895 – Conference President – Sir Augustus Charles Gregory. January 1898 – Conference President – Prof. Archibald Liversidge Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1900 – Conference President – Lt Col. Robert L. J. Ellery Digital Copy at archive. org. January 1902 – Conference President – Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1904 – Conference President – Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth David Digital Copy at archive. org. January 1907 – Conference President – Alfred William Howitt Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1909 – Conference President – Sir William Henry Bragg Digital Copy at archive. org. January 1911 – Conference President – Sir David Orme Masson Digital Copy at archive. org, january 1913 – Conference President – Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth David Digital Copy at archive. org
15.
Cavendish Laboratory
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The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the School of Physical Sciences. The laboratory was opened in 1874 on the New Museums Site as a laboratory for experimental physics, the laboratory moved to its present site in West Cambridge in 1974. As of 2011,29 Cavendish researchers have won Nobel Prizes, the Cavendish Laboratory was initially located on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge. After perennial space problems, it moved to its present site in West Cambridge in the early 1970s. The oak door of the new Cavendish Laboratory is known for its inscription from the Book of Psalms in the Bible, The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein. Professor James Clerk Maxwell, the developer of electromagnetic theory, was a founder of the lab, the Duke of Devonshire had given to Maxwell, as Head of the Laboratory, the manuscripts of Henry Cavendishs unpublished Electrical Works. The editing and publishing of these was Maxwells main scientific work while he was at the laboratory, Cavendishs work aroused Maxwells intense admiration and he decided to call the Laboratory the Cavendish Laboratory and thus to commemorate both the Duke and Henry Cavendish. In World War II the laboratory carried out research for the MAUD Committee, researchers included Nicholas Kemmer, Alan Nunn May, Anthony French, Samuel Curran and the French scientists including Lew Kowarski and Hans von Halban. Several transferred to Canada in 1943, the Montreal Laboratory and some later to the Chalk River Laboratories, mcMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. The Cavendish Laboratory has had an important influence on biology, mainly through the application of X-ray crystallography to the study of structures of biological molecules, the discovery was made on 28 February 1953, the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day, the article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Braggs original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press, sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory, Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. The Cavendish Professors were the Heads of the Department until the tenure of Professor Sir Brian Pippard, areas in which the Laboratory has been very influential include, - As of 2015 the laboratory is headed by Andy Parker and the Cavendish Professor of Physics is Sir Richard Friend. As of 2015 senior academic staff include, The Cavendish is home to a number of Emeritus Scientists, besides the Nobel Laureates, the Cavendish has many distinguished alumni including, Austin Memories—History of Austin and Longbridge Cavendish Article
16.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
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It is managed and operated by the University of California. The laboratory overlooks the University of California, Berkeleys main campus, the laboratory was founded in August 26,1931 by Ernest Lawrence as the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley associated with the Physics Department. It centered physics research around his new instrument, the cyclotron, throughout the 1930s, Lawrence pushed to create larger and larger machines for physics research, courting private philanthropists for funding. The lab moved to its site atop the hill above campus in 1940 as its machines, specifically the 184-inch cyclotron, lawrences lab helped contribute to what has been judged to be the three most valuable technology developments of the war. The cyclotron was finished in November 1946, the Manhattan Project shut down two months later, after the war, Lawrence maintained strong government and military ties at his lab, which became incorporated into the new system of Atomic Energy Commission National Laboratories. For security purposes, classified weapons research was assigned to the isolated locations, the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. Livermore, about an hours drive southeast of Berkeley, was established at a naval air station in 1952 by Lawrence. Weapons-related and collaborative research continued at Berkeley Lab until the 1970s, shortly after the death of Lawrence in August 1958, the UC Radiation Laboratory was renamed the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The Berkeley location became the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1971, although continued to call it the Rad Lab. Gradually, another shortened form came into common usage, LBL and its formal name was amended to Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1995, when National was added to the names of all DOE labs. Ernest Orlando was later dropped to shorten the name, today, the lab is commonly referred to as Berkeley Lab. Over 1700 memos are available on-line, hosted by the Laboratory and it was Lawrence’s belief that scientific research is best done through teams of individuals with different fields of expertise, working together. His teamwork concept is a Berkeley Lab tradition that continues today, about 2,500 scientist-users carry out research at ALS every year. Berkeley Lab is proposing an upgrade of ALS which would increase the coherent flux of soft x-rays by two-three orders of magnitude, the Joint Genome Institute supports genomic research in support of the DOE missions in alternative energy, glocal carbon cycling, and environmental management. The JGIs partner laboratories are Berkeley Lab, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, approximately 1,200 scientist-users take advantage of JGIs capabilities for their research every year. The Molecular Foundry is a multidisciplinary nanoscience research facility that provides users access to cutting-edge instrumentation. Approximately 700 scientist-users make use of facilities in their research every year. The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center is the computing facility that provides large-scale state-of-the-art computing for the DOEs unclassified research programs
17.
University of Birmingham
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The University of Birmingham is a public research university located in Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom. It is a member of both the Russell Group of British research universities and the international network of research universities, Universitas 21. The university was ranked 15th in the UK and 82nd in the world in the QS World University Rankings for 2016-17, in 2013, Birmingham was named University of the Year 2014 in the Times Higher Education awards. The 2016 Global Employability University Ranking places Birmingham at 90th world-wide, Birmingham is also ranked 9th in the UK for Graduate Prospects in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2017. The student population includes 21,495 undergraduate and 12,335 postgraduate students, the annual income of the institution for 2015–16 was £625.6 million of which £135.5 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £562.1 million. Academics and alumni of the university include former British Prime Ministers Neville Chamberlain, and Stanley Baldwin and these classes were the first ever held outside London or south of the Scottish border in the winter of 1767–68. The first clinical teaching was undertaken by medical and surgical apprentices at the General Hospital, the medical school which grew out of the Birmingham Workhouse Infirmary was founded in 1828 but Cox began teaching in December 1825. Queen Victoria granted her patronage to the Clinical Hospital in Birmingham and it was the first provincial teaching hospital in England. In 1843, the college became known as Queens College. The college was founded in 1875 and it was this institution that would eventually form the nucleus of the University of Birmingham. In 1882, the Departments of Chemistry, Botany and Physiology were transferred to Mason Science College, soon followed by the Departments of Physics and Comparative Anatomy. The transfer of the Medical School to Mason Science College gave considerable impetus to the importance of that college. As the result of the Mason University College Act 1897 it became incorporated as Mason University College on 1 January 1898 and it was largely due to Chamberlains enthusiasm that the university was granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria on 24 March 1900. The Calthorpe family offered twenty-five acres of land on the Bournbrook side of their estate in July, the Court of Governors received the Birmingham University Act 1900, which put the royal charter into effect on 31 May. Birmingham was therefore arguably the first so-called red brick university, although several other universities claim this title, the transfer of Mason University College to the new University of Birmingham, with Chamberlain as its first chancellor and Sir Oliver Lodge as the first principal, was complete. All that remained of Josiah Masons legacy was his Mermaid in the chief of the university shield and of his college. It became the first civic and campus university in England, consequently, the faculty, the first of its kind in Britain, was founded by Sir William Ashley in 1901, who from 1902 until 1923 served as first Professor of Commerce and Dean of the Faculty. From 1905 to 1908, Edward Elgar held the position of Peyton Professor of Music at the university and he was succeeded by his friend Granville Bantock
18.
Australian National University
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The Australian National University is a national research university located in Canberra, the capital of Australia. Its main campus in Acton encompasses seven teaching and research colleges, founded in 1946, it is the only university to have been created by the Parliament of Australia. ANU enrolls 10,052 undergraduate and 10,840 postgraduate students, the universitys endowment stood at A$1.13 billion in 2012. ANU is ranked 22nd in the world by the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings, ANU was named the worlds 7th most international university in a 2017 study by Times Higher Education. In the 2016 Times Higher Education Global Employability University Ranking, a ranking of university graduates employability. ANU is ranked 100th in the CWTS Leiden ranking, ANU counts six Nobel laureates and 49 Rhodes scholars among its faculty and alumni. The university has educated two prime ministers,30 current Australian ambassadors and more than a dozen current heads of Government departments of Australia, calls for the establishment of a national university in Australia began as early as 1900. After the location of the capital, Canberra, was determined in 1908. A group of eminent Australian scholars returned from overseas to join the university, including Sir Howard Florey, Sir Mark Oliphant, Sir Keith Hancock, economist Sir Douglas Copland was appointed as ANUs first Vice-Chancellor and former Prime Minister Stanley Bruce served as the first Chancellor. ANU was originally organised into four centres—the Research Schools of Physical Sciences, Social Sciences and Pacific Studies, the first residents’ hall, University House, was opened in 1954 for faculty members and postgraduate students. Mount Stromlo Observatory, established by the government in 1924. The first locations of the ANU Library, the Menzies and Chifley buildings, the Australian Forestry School, located in Canberra since 1927, was amalgamated by ANU in 1965. Canberra University College was the first institution of education in the national capital, having been established in 1929. Its founding was led by Sir Robert Garran, one of the drafters of the Australian Constitution, CUC was affiliated with the University of Melbourne and its degrees were granted by that university. Academic leaders at CUC included historian Manning Clark, political scientist Finlay Crisp, in 1960, CUC was integrated into ANU as the School of General Studies, initially with faculties in arts, economics, law and science. Faculties in Oriental studies and engineering were introduced later, Bruce Hall, the first residential college for undergraduates, opened in 1961. The Canberra School of Music and the Canberra School of Art were amalgamated by ANU in 1992, ANU established its Medical School in 2002, after obtaining federal government approval in 2000. On 18 January 2003, the Canberra bushfires largely destroyed the Mount Stromlo Observatory, ANU astronomers now conduct research from the Siding Spring Observatory, which contains 10 telescopes including the Anglo-Australian Telescope
19.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
20.
Ernest Rutherford
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Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, FRS was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics. Encyclopædia Britannica considers him to be the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday and this work was done at McGill University in Canada. Rutherford moved in 1907 to the Victoria University of Manchester in the UK, Rutherford performed his most famous work after he became a Nobel laureate. He conducted research that led to the first splitting of the atom in 1917 in a reaction between nitrogen and alpha particles, in which he also discovered the proton. Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919, after his death in 1937, he was honoured by being interred with the greatest scientists of the United Kingdom, near Sir Isaac Newtons tomb in Westminster Abbey. The chemical element rutherfordium was named after him in 1997, Ernest Rutherford was the son of James Rutherford, a farmer, and his wife Martha Thompson, originally from Hornchurch, Essex, England. James had emigrated to New Zealand from Perth, Scotland, to raise a little flax, Ernest was born at Brightwater, near Nelson, New Zealand. His first name was mistakenly spelled Earnest when his birth was registered, Rutherfords mother Martha Thompson was a schoolteacher. He studied at Havelock School and then Nelson College and won a scholarship to study at Canterbury College, University of New Zealand, in 1898 Thomson recommended Rutherford for a position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. He was to replace Hugh Longbourne Callendar who held the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics and was coming to Cambridge, in 1901 he gained a DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1907 Rutherford returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester, during World War I, he worked on a top secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection by sonar. In 1916 he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal, in 1919 he returned to the Cavendish succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and Director. Between 1925 and 1930 he served as President of the Royal Society, in 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, set up by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research. For some time before his death, Rutherford had a hernia, which he had neglected to have fixed. Despite an emergency operation in London, he died four days afterwards of what physicians termed intestinal paralysis, after cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton and other illustrious British scientists. At Cambridge, Rutherford started to work with J. J. Thomson on the effects of X-rays on gases. Hearing of Becquerels experience with uranium, Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity, continuing his research in Canada, he coined the terms alpha ray and beta ray in 1899 to describe the two distinct types of radiation. He then discovered that thorium gave off a gas which produced an emanation which was itself radioactive and he found that a sample of this radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay – its half-life
21.
Governor of South Australia
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The Governor of South Australia is the representative in the Australian state of South Australia of Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the level as does the Governor-General of Australia at the national level. The Governors official residence is Government House, in Adelaide, the states capital, nevertheless, the Governor retains the reserve powers of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. The Westminster system is a form of constitutional monarchy, the first Australian-born Governor of South Australia was Major-General Sir James Harrison, and most subsequent governors have been Australian-born. The first South Australian-born governor was Sir Mark Oliphant, the current governor is Hieu Van Le. The term of the governor, Rear Admiral Kevin Scarce. As from June 2014, the Queen, upon the recommendation of the Premier, accorded all current, future and these people administered the government in the absence of the official governor. Three former governors are alive, the oldest being Sir Eric Neal, the latest-serving former governor to die was Dame Roma Mitchell, on 5 March 2000. The most recent death of a governor was that of Sir Keith Seaman. The Official Website of the Governor of South Australia Previous governors on official website
22.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
23.
Don Dunstan
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Donald Allan Don Dunstan AC, QC was a South Australian politician. Dustans father was a manager for the Morris Hedstrom chain in Fiji. However, from an early age Don was educated in Australia and he excelled academically before experiencing his progressive political awakening while training in law and arts at the University of Adelaide. His upper-class background and scholarly bearing made him unusual for the Labor Party at the time, Dunstan quickly achieved prominence as Labors standout performer, a charismatic and aggressive debater in an era of sedate political conduct. Dunstan stridently pursued the LCL over the Playmander, in the late 1950s, Dunstan became well known for his campaign against the death penalty being imposed on Max Stuart, who was convicted of rape and murder of a small girl. He harried Playford aggressively over the matter, creating an uproar over what he saw as an unfair process, Playford eventually relented, and appeared shaken thereafter, the event was seen as a turning point in the LCLs decline, and Labor gained momentum. During Labors time in opposition, Dunstan was prominent in securing some reforms in Aboriginal rights, Labor conducted an extensive campaign in marginal LCL seats at the 1965 election, resulting in 21 of 39 seats, with Frank Walsh and the Labor Party taking power. As Deputy Premier and Attorney-General, the youthful and charismatic Dunstan made his older peers look lethargic as television became increasingly ubiquitous, the LCL opposition changed leaders and installed the young Steele Hall, worrying Labor as the elderly Walsh appeared bumbling in contrast. This resulted in Labor replacing Walsh with Dunstan, despite maintaining a much larger vote over the LCL, Labor lost two seats at the 1968 election, with the LCL forming government with support of an independent. Dunstan responded by increasing his attacks on the Playmander and was able to convincingly sustain Playmander attacks with the effect of convincing the LCL into watering down the malapportionment. Again with little change in Labors vote but with the Playmander removed, with a fairer seat and boundary system in place, Dunstan won three more elections, in 1973,1975 and 1977. A reformist, Dunstan brought profound change to South Australian society and he encouraged cultural exchanges with Asia, multiculturalism and an increase in the states culinary awareness and sophistication. He is recognised for his role in reinvigorating the social, artistic and cultural life of South Australia during his nine years in office, however, there were also problems, the economy began to stagnate, and the large increases to burgeoning public service generated claims of waste. In addition, policy problems and unemployment began to mount, as well as unsubstantiated rumours of corruption, Dunstan became increasingly short-tempered, and the strain was increased by the death of his second wife. Dunstan was born on 21 September 1926 in Suva, Fiji to Francis Vivian Dunstan and his parents had moved to Fiji in 1916 after his father took up a position as manager of the Adelaide Steamship Company. He spent the first seven years of his life in Fiji, Dunstan was beset by illness, and his parents sent him to South Australia hoping that the drier climate would assist his recovery. He lived in Murray Bridge for three years with his mothers parents before returning to Suva for a period during his secondary education. During his time in Fiji, Dunstan mixed easily with the Indian settlers and indigenous people and he won a scholarship in classical studies and attended St Peters College, a traditional private school for the sons of the Adelaide establishment
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Mellis Napier
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Order of St Michael and St George The Napier Mountains were named by Sir Douglas Mawson after the Hon. The Napier Mountains were first charted in January 1930 by the British Australian New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition under Mawson and this mountain range was first visited by an ANARE party in 1960. Members of this party included Syd Kirkby and Terence James Elkins, the highest in the Napier Mountains is Mount Elkins, at about 2,300 meters above sea level. Judiciary of Australia P. A. Howell, Napier, Sir Thomas John Mellis, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 15, Melbourne University Press,2000, pp 461–463
25.
Walter Crocker
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Sir Walter Russell Crocker KBE was an Australian diplomat, writer and war veteran. Crocker was born in Broken Hill, New South Wales, the eldest son of Robert Crocker and he served in World War II with the British Army, becoming a lieutenant colonel. He was ambassador or high commissioner to eleven countries, including India, Indonesia, Canada, Italy, Belgium, Nepal, Crocker was a Lieutenant-Governor of South Australia for more than nine years. He had two sons, Robert and Christopher, Crocker has authored a well received biography of Nehru titled Nehru, A Contemporarys Estimate. Crocker was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1955 while Australian Ambassador to Indonesia and he was later promoted to become a Knight Commander of the Order in December 1977, in recognition of his service to the public
26.
James Harrison (Australian governor)
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Major General Sir James William Harrison KCMG, CB, CBE was an Australian Army officer and the first Australian-born Governor of South Australia. James Harrison was born at Camperdown, Victoria, the child of Victorian-born parents James Samuel Harrison, farmer. He was educated at Geelong College, Melbourne High School and the Royal Military College, Duntroon and he was sworn in as Governor of South Australia on 4 December 1968. Don Dunstan later concluded, Sir James fulfilled his role as Governor quietly and in the traditional way, in 1969 and 1970 both he and his wife were hospitalised, in his case with a coronary occlusion. In 1971 he and his wife set off on an overseas holiday, Sir James died suddenly on 16 September 1971 while flying to Honolulu. He was survived by his wife and two sons, and he was cremated and he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1953 and promoted to Commander in 1958. He was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in January 1968, and knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in October 1968
27.
Douglas Nicholls
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Sir Douglas Ralph Doug Nicholls, KCVO OBE was a prominent Aboriginal Australian from the Yorta Yorta people. He was an athlete, Churches of Christ pastor and church planter, ceremonial officer. Douglas Nicholls was born on 9 December 1906 on the Cummeragunja Reserve in New South Wales, schooling at the mission was provided to Grade 3 standard and strict religious principles were emphasised. At 13 he worked with his uncle as a tar boy and general hand on sheep stations and he worked hard and had a cheerful disposition. This annoyed one of the shearers so much that he challenged Nicholls to a fight, after six rounds the shearer who challenged him conceded defeat. He subsequently joined the Northcote Football Club in the VFA, and he made his name as an energetic and speedy wingman, capable of spectacular feats, and came to be regarded as the best wingman in the VFA at the time. At 52, he was one of the shortest players in the game and he was a member of Northcotes 1929 premiership team, and finished third in the Recorder Cup voting in 1931, his final season with Northcote. In 1932, Nicholls joined the VFLs Fitzroy Football Club, in 1934, he was third in the Brownlow Medal count, and in 1935, he was the first Aboriginal player to be selected to play for the Victorian interstate team, ultimately playing four interstate games. He played a total of six seasons for Fitzroy, before returned to Northcote in 1938, knee injuries forced him to retire in 1939. He returned to Northcote as non-playing coach in 1947, during his career, particularly in the early years, Nicholls was subjected to onfield taunts or ostracised by his team-mates due to his colour. Who ensured he was made welcome within the team, like his close relative Lynch Cooper, Nicholls was also a very capable sprinter. He competed in races around Victoria during the athletics seasons. Following this, the race organisers paid him a fee, board. He was the chairman of the National Aboriginal Sports Foundation. Playing football provided employment during the winter, to earn a living during the rest of the year, he boxed with Jimmy Sharmans Boxing Troupe, a travelling sideshow in which Sharman offered his fighters for challenge against all comers. During World War II, Nicholls was an adept boomerang thrower, there is a photograph depicting this on the Australian War Memorial archives. He also organised and captained Aboriginal teams in football matches used for patriotic fundraisers during the war, Nicholls was a minister and social worker with Aboriginal people. Following his mothers death he took a renewed interest in Christianity and was baptised at Northcote Church of Christ in 1935 and he officiated at church and hymn services as a lay preacher at the Gore Street Mission Centre in Fitzroy
28.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
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Humanitarianism
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Humanitarianism is a moral of kindness, benevolence, and sympathy extended to all human beings. Humanitarianism has been an evolving concept historically, but universality is a theme in its evolution. No distinction is to be made on the grounds of gender, sexual orientation, race, caste, age, religion, ability, the historian G. M. Trevelyan viewed humanitarianism as the product of rationalism upon Puritanism. The idea that mankind could be improved by deliberate social change distinct from the conferring of charity was relatively new, reform distinguished the humanitarian movement from philanthropy. Christian philanthropy tended to reform as political. In contrast, the movement thought reform essential to remove abuses. European individualism can be traced to the Greeks and it was the stoics, who like Aristotle, attributed significance to the human soul, but who, unlike Aristotle, considered all human beings equal in that significance. Natural law, as the stoics conceived it, was based upon this principle of spiritual equality, positive law was subject to the law of nature and, hence, uniquely to the ancient world, the stoics opposed slavery. In 18th century Enlightenment Europe, the idea of the equal moral significance of the individual in this world re-emerged grounded upon reason. Prevention of cruelty to animals involved extension of the principle to non-humans, the stoics had grounded moral significance on capacity to reason. In the 18th century, conflicting religious belief became tolerated to a degree unthinkable a century earlier, in England, pressure on Parliament led to regulation of working hours and amelioration of working conditions. An international dimension was added to humanitarian reform with the founding of the International Red Cross, finally, cruelty to animals became punishable. In contrast, social action in the 19th century was influenced by feeling and, in some instances. The initiative remained with small groups of reformers, which set about influencing public opinion, one reason for the change was the advent of democracy - limited though it was until well into the 19th century. The industrial proletariat crowding into cities made it feasible to hold mass meetings, Political pamphlets had first circulated in England during the civil war. In fiction, novels like Uncle Toms Cabin and those of Charles Dickens drew attention to social wrongs and this led to a change in approach which became less philosophical and more emotive, fastening on the inhumanity to which social action was directed. In 1503, the Spanish Governor in the Indies, Nicolás de Ovando, las Casas, who accompanied him, observed the toll of the work, and suggested the Indians be replaced by Negroes, thus beginning the transatlantic slave trade. Some 900,000 slaves were landed in the Americas by 1600, from the 17th century, demand for African labour expanded greatly with the increased importation of sugar into Europe
30.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
31.
Mercury (element)
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Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
32.
Particle accelerator
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A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams. Large accelerators are used in physics as colliders, or as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world, there are two basic classes of accelerators, electrostatic and electrodynamic accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator, a small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set. The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the accelerating field multiple times. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators, because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general. Beams of high-energy particles are useful for both fundamental and applied research in the sciences, and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research and it has been estimated that there are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide. The bar graph shows the breakdown of the number of industrial accelerators according to their applications, for the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many GeV, and the interactions of the simplest kinds of particles, leptons and quarks for the matter, the largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, operating since 2009. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei – of atoms like iron or gold – at energies of several GeV per nucleon, the largest such particle accelerator is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. An example of type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos. A large number of light sources exist worldwide. The ESRF in Grenoble, France has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of trapped in amber. Thus there is a demand for electron accelerators of moderate energy. Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and these low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them
33.
Deuterium
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Deuterium is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen. The nucleus of deuterium, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common hydrogen isotope, Deuterium has a natural abundance in Earths oceans of about one atom in 6420 of hydrogen. Thus deuterium accounts for approximately 0. 0156% of all the naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans, the abundance of deuterium changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another. The deuterium isotopes name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning second, Deuterium was discovered and named in 1931 by Harold Urey. When the neutron was discovered in 1932, this made the structure of deuterium obvious. Soon after deuteriums discovery, Urey and others produced samples of water in which the deuterium content had been highly concentrated. Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced, other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago and this is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter. However, other bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1. This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets, like the water-cycle in Earths weather, such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium. The analysis of ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earths oceans. This reinforces theories that much of Earths ocean water is of cometary origin, the deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, as measured by the Rosetta space probe, is about three times that of earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet, deuterium/protium ratios thus continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology. Deuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D, since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by 2H. IUPAC allows both D and 2H, although 2H is preferred, a distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotopes common use in various scientific processes. In quantum mechanics the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the mass of the system of electron. For hydrogen, this amount is about 1837/1836, or 1.000545, the energies of spectroscopic lines for deuterium and light-hydrogen therefore differ by the ratios of these two numbers, which is 1.000272. The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the lines of light hydrogen
34.
Atomic nucleus
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After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force. The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175000000000000♠1.75 fm for hydrogen to about 6986150000000000000♠15 fm for the heaviest atoms and these dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself, by a factor of about 23,000 to about 145,000. The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the nucleus, including its composition. The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherfords efforts to test Thomsons plum pudding model of the atom, the electron had already been discovered earlier by J. J. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, Thomson postulated that there must be a charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge, to his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. This justified the idea of an atom with a dense center of positive charge. The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux, in 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the central point of an atom. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912, the adoption of the term nucleus to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N, the nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations, which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus, the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons and it is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nucleus that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world. Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity, neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons explain the phenomenon of isotopes – varieties of the chemical element which differ only in their atomic mass. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the particle, the nucleon
35.
John Henry Poynting
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John Henry Poynting was an English physicist. He was a professor of physics at Mason Science College, from 1880 to 1900, and then the successor institution, Poynting was the youngest son of Thomas Elford Poynting, a Unitarian minister. He was born at the parsonage of the Monton Unitarian Chapel in Eccles, from 1867 to 1872 he attended Owens College, now the University of Manchester, where his physics teachers included Osborne Reynolds and Balfour Stewart. From 1872 to 1876 he was a student at Cambridge University, in the late 1870s he worked in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge under James Clerk Maxwell. This work was first published in 1884 and he performed a measurement of Newtons gravitational constant by innovative means during 1893. In 1903 he was the first to realise that the Suns radiation can draw in small particles towards it and he discovered the torsion-extension coupling in finite strain elasticity. This is now known as the Poynting effect in torsion and he was awarded an honorary MSc in Pure Science in 1901 by Birmingham University. Poynting lived at 11 St Augustines Road, Edgbaston with his family and he previously lived at 66 Beaufort Road, Edgbaston and died of a diabetic coma, aged 61, at 10 Ampton Road, Edgbaston in 1914. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour, as is the main Physics building at the University of Birmingham and the society there
36.
Cyclotron
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A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1934 in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path. The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a magnetic field. Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention, the largest single-magnet cyclotron was the 4.67 m synchrocyclotron built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley, which could accelerate protons to 730 MeV. The largest cyclotron is the 17.1 m multimagnet TRIUMF accelerator at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, there are over 1200 cyclotrons used in nuclear medicine worldwide for the production of radionuclides. The cyclotron was conceived in Germany in the 1920s, at Aachen University in 1926, the cyclotron was proposed by a co-student of Rolf Widerøe, who rejected the idea as too complicated to construct. In 1927, Max Steenbeck developed the concept of the cyclotron at Siemens, the first cyclotron patent was filed by Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard in 1929, while working at Humboldt University of Berlin. The cyclotron was developed and patented by Ernest Lawrence of the University of California, Berkeley. Lawrence went on to make a working cyclotron using large electromagnets from Poulsen arc radio transmitters provided by the Federal Telegraph Company. A graduate student, M. Stanley Livingston, did much of the work of translating the idea into working hardware, Lawrence read an article about the concept of a drift tube linac by Rolf Widerøe, who had also been working along similar lines with the betatron concept. He also developed a 467 cm synchrocyclotron, the first European cyclotron was constructed in Leningrad in the physics department of the Radium Institute, headed by Vitaly Khlopin. This Leningrad instrument was first proposed in 1932 by George Gamow and Lev Mysovskii and was installed, in Nazi Germany a cyclotron was built in Heidelberg under supervision of Walther Bothe and Wolfgang Gentner, with support from the Heereswaffenamt, and became operative in 1943. A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam using a high alternating voltage which is applied between two hollow D-shaped sheet metal electrodes called dees inside a vacuum chamber. The dees are placed face to face with a gap between them, creating a cylindrical space within them for the particles to move. The particles are injected into the center of this space, the dees are located between the poles of a large electromagnet which applies a static magnetic field B perpendicular to the electrode plane. The magnetic field causes the path to bend in a circle due to the Lorentz force perpendicular to their direction of motion. If the particles speed were constant, they would travel in a path within the dees under the influence of the magnetic field. However a radio frequency alternating voltage of several thousand volts is applied between the dees, the frequency is set so that the particles make one circuit during a single cycle of the voltage. Each time after the pass to the other dee electrode the polarity of the RF voltage reverses
37.
John Randall (physicist)
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It is also the key component of microwave ovens. Randall also led the Kings College, London team which worked on the structure of DNA and his other staff included Rosalind Franklin, Raymond Gosling, Alex Stokes and Herbert Wilson, all involved in research on DNA. He married Doris, daughter of Josiah John Duckworth, a colliery surveyor and they had one son, Christopher, born in 1935. He also took an active interest in the mechanisms of such luminescence, when the war began in 1939, Oliphant was approached by the Admiralty about the possibility of building a radio source that operated at microwave frequencies. Such a system would allow a radar using it to see small objects like the periscopes of submerged U-boats, Oliphant began research using the klystron, a device introduced by Russell and Sigurd Varian between 1937 and 1939, and the only system known to efficiently generate microwaves. Klystrons of the era were very low-power devices, and Oliphants efforts were directed to greatly increasing their output. If this were successful, it created a problem, the klystron was an amplifier only. Oliphant put Randall and Harry Boot on this issue of producing a microwave oscillator, asking them to explore miniature Barkhausen–Kurz tubes for this role and their work quickly demonstrated that these offered no improvement in the microwave range. Randall and Boot, given no other projects to work on, in contrast, the magnetron used a conventional hot filament cathode, a system that was widely used in radio systems producing hundreds of kilowatts. This seemed to offer a more likely path to higher power. The problem with existing magnetrons was not power, but efficiency, in the klystron, a beam of electrons was passed through a metal disk known as a resonator. The mechanical layout of the copper resonator caused it to influence the electrons, speeding them up and slowing them down and this was reasonably efficient, and power was limited by the guns. There was no limit to the number of electrons this could accelerate. The two then considered what would happen if the two plates of the magnetron were replaced by resonators, essentially combining the existing magnetron and klystron concepts. More importantly, they was no limit to the number or size of these loops. One could greatly improve the power of the system by extending the loops into cylinders, efficiency could be improved by increasing the number of resonators, as each electron could thus interact with more resonators during its orbits. The only practical limits were based on the frequency and desired physical size of the tube. A test of their new cavity magnetron design in February 1940 produced 400 watts, the design was then demonstrated to engineers from GEC, who were asked to try to improve it
38.
Harry Boot
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He was born in Birmingham and attended King Edwards School, Birmingham and the University of Birmingham. While working on his PhD the war broke out and his professor Mark Oliphant had seen the klystron at Stanford University but it produced insufficient power to be useful as a radar transmitter. He assigned John Randall and Boot to the problem, by late February 1940, they had invented the much more powerful cavity magnetron which was fitted in an experimental radar by May 1940. James Sayers later refined the magnetron still further by strapping alternate cavities, as with many British inventions of this period, the magnetron was provided to the US for free when they entered World War II. Initially Boot and Randall were awarded £50 each for the magnetron for improving the safety of life at sea but later Boot, Randall and Sayers received a £36,000 prize in 1949 for their work. After a brief time at British Thomson-Houston, Rugby, in the years of the war. After some work on physics, Boot returned to magnetrons. He enjoyed sailing, owning two boats at Salcombe in Devon and he frequently went down there to the family holiday home with his wife Penelope, and his two sons, Christopher and Nicholas. He retired in 1977 and died in Cambridge on 8 February 1983
39.
Cavity magnetron
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The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field while moving past a series of open metal cavities. Electrons pass by the openings to these cavities and cause radio waves to oscillate within, the frequency of the microwaves produced, the resonant frequency, is determined by the cavities physical dimensions. An early form of magnetron was invented by H. Gerdien in 1910, another form of magnetron tube, the split-anode magnetron, was invented by Albert Hull in 1920, but it wasnt capable of high frequencies and was of little use. Similar devices were experimented with by many teams through the 1920s and 1930s, the cavity magnetron tube was later improved by John Randall and Harry Boot in 1940 at the University of Birmingham, England. The compact cavity magnetron tube drastically reduced the size of radar sets so that they could be easily installed in night-fighter aircraft, anti-submarine aircraft. In the post-war era the magnetron became less used in the radar role. This was because the output changes from pulse to pulse. This makes the signal unsuitable for pulse-to-pulse comparisons, which is used for detecting and removing clutter from the radar display. The magnetron remains in use in some radars, but has much more common as a low-cost microwave source for microwave ovens. In this form, approximately one billion magnetrons are in use today, in a conventional electron tube, electrons are emitted from a negatively charged, heated component called the cathode and are attracted to a positively charged component called the anode. The idea of using a grid for control was patented by Lee de Forest, one concept used a magnetic field instead of an electrical charge to control current flow, leading to the development of the magnetron tube. In this design, the tube was made with two electrodes, typically with the cathode in the form of a rod in the center. The tube was placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet arranged such that the field was aligned parallel to the axis of the electrodes. With no magnetic field present, the tube operates as a diode, in the presence of the magnetic field, the electrons will experience a force at right angles to their direction of motion, according to the left-hand rule. In this case, the electrons follow a path between the cathode and anode. The curvature of the path can be controlled by varying either the field, using an electromagnet. At very high magnetic field settings the electrons are forced back onto the cathode, at the opposite extreme, with no field, the electrons are free to flow straight from the cathode to the anode. There is a point between the two extremes, the value or Hull cut-off magnetic field, where the electrons just reach the anode
40.
MAUD Committee
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The MAUD Committee was founded by Winston Churchill, in response to Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frischs memorandum, in June 1940. Their memorandum was a discussion of the relative ease of obtaining a nuclear bomb. All the work in the Frisch-Peierls Memorandum was purely theoretical, so the purpose of the MAUD committee was to do the research required for what Frisch, the MAUD Committee investigated if applying nuclear technology to make a bomb was, in reality, feasible. The chair of the committee was Thomson, each university where research was being done had a commander as well. All the research finally culminated, after fifteen months, in two reports - Use of Uranium for a Bomb and Use of Uranium as a source of power - known collectively as the MAUD report and these reports discussed the necessity of a super-bomb for the war effort. In order to research this further, the British created their own nuclear program officially named Tube Alloys, frédéric Joliot-Curie and his colleagues in Paris in April 1939 raised the possibility of an explosive chain reaction in a paper published in Nature. The calculation of criticality was deposited at the Academy of sciences on May 1,1939, the first two are for the production of nuclear energy, and the third was titled Development of Explosive Charges. In the same year Leo Szilard and Enrico Fermi also independently discovered similar results, despite almost universal scepticism that an atomic bomb was feasible, George Thomson and Marcus Oliphant then began separate work in their British laboratories. Thompson was unsuccessful because he did not yet have the water that the French has used. However in Oliphants laboratory were two refugees, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls who did some calculations on critical masses, just before the invasion of France in June 1940, Hans Halban and Lew Kowarski and the records and papers of Joliot-Curies team were smuggled out of France to England. Halban and Kowarksi continued their research at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge for the MAUD Committee, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls produced their memorandum in March 1940. It was a three-page memorandum examining the possibility of a so-called super-bomb. Its three pages were split up into two parts, the first part was a technical blueprint for a hypothetical atomic weapon. In Joliot-Curies laboratory Francis Perrin had projected that it would take about 44 tonnes to produce the critical mass needed for an explosion. Frisch and Peierls now reported a far less amount of uranium needed to produce a critical mass, however, even a one kilogram bomb would be impressive. The second portion of the memorandum dealt with possible strategies of using the atomic bomb and they were the first to realize that there could be an issue with fallout. Because of the fallout, they thought that the British would find it morally unacceptable. Shortly after, Winston Churchill formed the Maud Committee to research this problem in more detail, a Committee was created as a response to the Peierls-Frischs memorandum
41.
Manhattan Project
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
42.
Ernest Lawrence
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Ernest Orlando Lawrence was a pioneering American nuclear scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron. A graduate of the University of South Dakota and University of Minnesota, in 1928, he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the University of California, becoming the youngest full professor there two years later. In its library one evening, Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced high-energy particles and he contemplated how it could be made compact, and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet. The result was the first cyclotron, Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons. His Radiation Laboratory became a department of the University of California in 1936. In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics, Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes, during World War II, Lawrence developed electromagnetic isotope separation at the Radiation Laboratory. It used devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer, a huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which came to be called Y-12. The process was inefficient, but it worked, Lawrence strongly backed Edward Tellers campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory, which Lawrence located in Livermore, California. After his death, the Regents of the University of California renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, chemical element number 103 was named lawrencium in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961. Ernest Orlando Lawrence was born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8,1901 and he had a younger brother, John H. Lawrence, who would become a physician, and was a pioneer in the field of nuclear medicine. Growing up, his best friend was Merle Tuve, who would go on to become a highly accomplished nuclear physicist. Lawrence attended the schools of Canton and Pierre, then enrolled at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. He completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1922, and his Master of Arts degree in physics from the University of Minnesota in 1923 under the supervision of William Francis Gray Swann. For his masters thesis, Lawrence built an apparatus that rotated an ellipsoid through a magnetic field. He was elected a member of Sigma Xi, and, on Swanns recommendation, instead of using it to travel to Europe, as was customary at the time, he remained at Yale University with Swann as a researcher. With Jesse Beams from the University of Virginia, Lawrence continued to research the photoelectric effect and they showed that photoelectrons appeared within 2 x 10−9 seconds of the photons striking the photoelectric surface—close to the limit of measurement at the time. Reducing the emission time by switching the light source on and off rapidly made the spectrum of energy emitted broader, in conformance with Werner Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. In 1926 and 1927, Lawrence received offers of assistant professorships from the University of Washington in Seattle, Yale promptly matched the offer of the assistant professorship, but at a salary of $3,000
43.
MIT Radiation Laboratory
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The Radiation Laboratory, commonly called the Rad Lab, was located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts and functioned from October 1940 until December 31,1945. It was formed by, and initially operated under, the National Defense Research Committee, in 1941, the NDRC was enlarged to become the Office of Scientific Research and Development, with Bush remaining as chairman. Lee A. DuBridge served as the Rad Lab director and it remained the most widely used long-range navigation system until it was gradually replaced by Loran-C. Loran-A was discontinued by the United States in 1980 and these usually operated at Very High Frequency wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum and carried several cover names, such as Ranging and Direction Finding in Great Britain. In 1941, the U. S. Navy coined the acronym RADAR for such systems, the potential advantages of operating such systems in the Ultra High Frequency region were well known and vigorously pursued. One of these advantages was smaller antennas, a critical need for systems on aircraft. The primary technical barrier to developing UHF systems was the lack of a source for generating high-power microwaves. At the initiation of this exchange in the summer of 1940. American researchers and officials were amazed at the magnetron, and the NDRC immediately started plans for manufacturing and incorporating these devices, at the time, nuclear physics was regarded as relatively theoretical and inapplicable to military equipment, as this was before atomic bomb development had begun. Ernest Lawrence was a participant in forming the Rad Lab. Most of the staff were Ph. D. physicists who came from university positions. They usually had no more than an academic knowledge of microwaves and their capability, however, to attack complex problems of almost any type was outstanding. Later in life, nine members of the staff were recipients of the Nobel Prize for their other accomplishments, in June 1941, the NDRC became part of the new Office of Scientific Research and Development, also administered by Vannevar Bush, who reported directly to President Roosevelt. The OSRD was given almost unlimited access to funding and resources, with the Rad Lab receiving a share for radar research. Starting in 1942, the Manhattan Project absorbed a number of the Rad Lab physicists into Los Alamos and this was made simpler by Lawrence and Loomis being involved in all of these projects. The Radiation Laboratory officially opened in November 1940, using 4,000 square feet of space in MITs Building 4, in addition to the Director, Lee DuBridge, I. I. Rabi was the deputy director for scientific matters, and F. Wheeler Loomis was deputy director for administration, E. G. Bowen was assigned as a representative of Great Britain. Even before opening, the identified the first three projects for the Rad Lab
44.
Berkeley, California
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Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley and it borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills, the 2010 census recorded a population of 112,580. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world and it is one of the most politically liberal cities in the United States. The site of todays City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived, other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European descent arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776, today, this is noted by signage on Interstate 80, which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay for a ranch, luis Peralta named his holding Rancho San Antonio. The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peraltas son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, no artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names. However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant, the Peraltas Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes, the rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants. Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County, on March 25,1853, Alameda County was created from a division within Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of land, farms and ranches. It was not yet Berkeley, but merely the part of the Oakland Township subdivision of Alameda County. In 1866, Oaklands private College of California looked for a new site, according to the Centennial Record of the University of California, In 1866…at Founders Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. Although the philosophers name is pronounced bark-lee, the pronunciation of the name has evolved to suit American English as burk-lee. The College of Californias College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land, to this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeleys modern street plan