1.
Marlboro College
–
Marlboro College is a small, private, academically rigorous liberal-arts college located in Marlboro, Vermont, United States, with an enrollment of 195 students. The College received a perfect rating of 99 from The Princeton Review in 2014. Students at Marlboro create a course of study in collaboration with faculty members. Students pursue a self-designed, often inter-disciplinary thesis, the Plan of Concentration, the Colleges unique facilities that can be used by students include an organic farm, a solar greenhouse, Marlboros own nature forestland preserve, and an aviary. Bi-monthly town meetings are held to vote for and change the Colleges bylaws, Marlboro College was founded in 1946 by Walter Hendricks on Potash Hill in Marlboro, Vermont, and many of the first students were returning World War II veterans. The schools operation was financed using money received from the GI Bill, as well as loans from Brattleboro Savings. The campus incorporates the buildings of two old farms that once operated on the college site, Marlboro has grown slowly but steadily since its inception, and 192 students currently attend, with an average enrollment of 250 students. The College, however, is intentionally small. The Marlboro College campus has also been the home for more than 50 years to the Marlboro Music Festival. The Marlboro College campus is located on South Road in the town of Marlboro, Vermont. Marlboro is just off Route 9, which runs east-west across southern Vermont, Boston is two and a half hours to the east, Burlington is three and a half hours to the north, and New York City is four hours to the south. The closest major town is Brattleboro, and students make the 25-minute downhill drive along Route 9 to hang out there at night. Brattleboro, like Marlboro College, is liberal in its social life, the town features a well-preserved historic main street with a strong gallery scene, boutiques, ethnic and health food, and a historic arthouse movie theater. The similar but much larger Amherst–Northampton area of western Massachusetts is also a favorite hangout but is almost an hour away down Interstate 91, Marlboros facilities are relatively small because of its size. Many of the buildings including the main building, the dining hall, the admissions building. The campus historic buildings require a lot of maintenance, in the summer of 2011, the half-circle driveway at the campus entrance was converted to green space and walking paths. The college also expanded the library, the studio, and added a new total health center. Marlboro is currently building a new,14, 000-square-foot visual arts center that will house studios, classrooms, freshman students usually take one or more classes designed to boost their writing skills to an acceptable undergraduate level
2.
Marlborough Boys' College
–
Marlborough Boys College is a single-sex secondary school in Blenheim, New Zealand. The first board of Marlborough High School met on 13 November 1899, three acres on Stephenson Street were purchased for £600 and another 3 acres were donated by Thomas Carter, taking the grounds through to Francis Street. Dr John Innes was appointed the first Head Teacher, the school opened in the Church Of Nativity Sunday School building on Alfred Street, on 26 March 1900, with 18 pupils attending on the first day. The cornerstone for the first school building on the Stephenson Street site was laid on 22 September 1900, Marlborough High School was co-educational and fee paying with free places to those who could not afford it but who had proved themselves able in the proficiency examination. The change in name from Marlborough High School to Marlborough College was made in 1919, in 1926 Mr Stewart was awarded a travelling scholarship to visit junior high schools in Canada and the United States. The department of education was interested in incorporating a Junior High into the College structure, in 1927 an intermediate was established on the site with 275 pupils taking the total roll to 557. The intermediate continued on the site until 1957, when roll pressures required the establishment of Bohally Intermediate on Mclauchlan Street, in 1963 the Marlborough Girls College was founded and Marlborough Boys College continued on the original site. The first official discussion on the division of the college having taken place in June 1947, X Static FM was a radio station in the Marlborough Region of New Zealand which originated as a Marlborough College-based radio station, X-Static FM operated by The X-Static Society. The station was based at the College and broadcast on 89FM with the callsign 2STA, two years earlier the school ran a temporary radio station as part of a school fundraiser called Artyfacts FM. This station was the first FM broadcast in the South Island, x- Static went on air in February 1986 and only operated on a part-time basis during school lunch times and some evenings. In 1990 the X-Static Society in partnership with Fifeshire FM from Nelson launched a new station Sounds 93FM using a commercial frequency purchased at auction from the government, Sounds FM broadcast in both Picton, Blenheim and Kaikoura. In 2003–04 a new hall was built to the rear of the complex, and it has a small swimming pool and is located in the vicinity of St Marys church. John Stewart, M. A. Herbert A H Insull, M. A. Dip. Soc. Sc
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
First Epistle to the Corinthians
–
The First Epistle to the Corinthians, usually referred to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1 Corinthians, is one of the Pauline epistles of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. This epistle contains some well-known phrases, including, all things to all men, through a glass, darkly, there is consensus among historians and Christian theologians that Paul is the author of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. The letter is quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, the personal and even embarrassing texts about immorality in the church increase consensus. However, two passages may have been inserted at a later stage, the first passage is 1 Corinthians 11, 2–16, dealing with praying and prophesying with head covering. The second passage is 1 Corinthians 14, 34–35, whose authenticity has been hotly debated, part of the reason for doubt is that in some manuscripts, the verses come at the end of the chapter instead of at its present location. Furthermore, Paul is here appealing to the law which is uncharacteristic of him, lastly, the verses come into conflict with 11,5 where women are described as praying and prophesying. The epistle was written from Ephesus, a city on the west coast of todays Turkey, according to Acts of the Apostles, Paul founded the church in Corinth, then spent approximately three years in Ephesus. The letter was written during time in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53–57. In 16,8 Paul declares his intention of staying in Ephesus until Pentecost and this statement, in turn, is clearly reminiscent of Pauls Second Missionary Journey, when Paul traveled from Corinth to Ephesus, before going to Jerusalem for Pentecost. Thus, it is possible that I Corinthians was written during Pauls first stay in Ephesus, at the end of his Second Journey, however, it is more likely that it was written during his extended stay in Ephesus, where he refers to sending Timothy to them. Also, his references to Apollos show that Apollos was known to Paul and the church at the time of writing, the salutation reinforces the legitimacy of Pauls apostolic claim. Thanksgiving The thanksgiving part of the letter is typical of Hellenistic letter writing, in a thanksgiving recitation the writer thanks God for health, a safe journey, deliverance from danger, or good fortune. In this letter, the thanksgiving introduces charismata and gnosis, topics to which Paul will return, greet one another with a holy kiss. I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand, if any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha. The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you and my love be with you all in Christ Jesus. Some time before 2 Corinthians was written, Paul paid them a visit to check some rising disorder. They had also visited by Apollos, perhaps by Peter. Paul wrote this letter to correct what he saw as erroneous views in the Corinthian church, Paul then wrote this letter to the Corinthians, urging uniformity of belief and expounding Christian doctrine
5.
Independent school (United Kingdom)
–
For example, pupils do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Seven of the older, expensive and more schools catering for the 13–18 age-range in England. The term public being derived from the fact that they were open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion, prep schools, educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other independent schools. Some former grammar schools converted to an independent fee paying model following the 1965 Circular 10/65 which marked the end of their state funding, others converted into comprehensive schools. There are around 2,500 independent schools in the UK, in addition to charging tuition fees, many also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Many of these schools are members of the Independent Schools Council and these schools were founded as part of the church and were under their complete dominion. However, it was during the late 14th & early 15th centuries that the first schools, winchester & Oswestry were the first of their kind and paved the way for the establishment of the modern Public school. These were often established for scholars from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds, however, English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself. For instance, the Queens Scholarships founded at Westminster in 1560, are for the sons of decayd gentlemen, also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few scholars could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. After a time, such fees would eclipse the original charitable income, in 2009 senior boarding schools were charging fees of between £16,000 and nearly £30,000 per annum. However, majority of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, christs Hospital in Horsham is one of the examples, large proposition of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes. They were schools for the elite of Victorian politics, armed forces. Often successful businessmen would send their sons to a school as a mark of participation in the elite. More recently heads of schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in disciplining. To an extent, the school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire. Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools, the Direct Grant Grammar Schools Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result,119 of these schools became independent, pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession
6.
Church of England
–
The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
7.
Nick Holtam
–
Nicholas Roderick Nick Holtam is a bishop of the Church of England. Since 2011, he has been the Bishop of Salisbury, Holtam grew up around Edmonton, London, where he attended the Latymer School before going to Collingwood College, Durham University, where he studied geography. After graduating, he studied for ordination at both Kings College, London and Westcott House theological college, University of Cambridge, Holtam was ordained deacon in 1979 and priest in 1980. He was an assistant curate at St Dunstans, Stepney, in 1983, he moved to Lincoln Theological College, where he was a tutor in Christian ethics and mission. In 1988, he became the vicar of The Isle of Dogs, St Martin’s has a ministry to homeless people as well as being the Royal Parish Church. Due to its location and tradition the church and its clergy have often had close connections to the Royal Family, the British Government, the Admiralty and he was installed in Salisbury on 15 October. In February 2012, Holtam became the first Church of England bishop to publicly support same-sex marriage, acknowledging that members of the Church of England hold varied views, the Archbishop of Canterbury said in the House of Lords that this was a “strong and welcome contribution”. Holtam is a trustee of the National Churches Trust and chairs the Church of England Ministry Division’s Committee for Ministry with and among Deaf and he is a vice-president of the Royal School of Church Music and in 2013 was made an Honorary Fellow of the Guild of Church Musicians. Holtam is married to Helen, a mathematics teacher, in 2005 he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Durham University and made a Fellow of King’s College London. The Reverend Nick Holtam The Right Reverend Nick Holtam
8.
Bishop of Salisbury
–
The Bishop of Salisbury is the ordinary of the Church of Englands Diocese of Salisbury in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers much of the counties of Wiltshire and Dorset, the see is in the City of Salisbury where the bishops seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The current bishop is Nick Holtam, the 78th Bishop of Salisbury, the Diocese of Sherborne was the origin of the present diocese, St Aldhelm was its first bishop. Ramsburys diocese was created from the territory of the bishop of Winchester in 909. The Anglo-Saxon Diocese of Sherborne was established by Saint Aldhelm in about 705 and comprised the counties of Devon, Somerset, Dorset, in 1058, the Sherborne chapter elected Herman of Ramsbury as their own bishop. Following the Norman conquest, the 1075 Council of London united his two sees as a diocese and translated them to the then-larger settlement around the royal castle at Salisbury. With papal approval, this was removed to New Sarum in the 1220s. Herman of Wilton, bishop of both Ramsbury and then Sherborne, obtained approval from Edward the Confessor to transfer his seat to Malmesbury, but this plan was blocked by local monks and Earl Godwin. Instead, following the Norman conquest, the 1075 Council of London named him bishop of Sarisberie, disputes between Bishops Herbert and Richard Poore and the sheriffs of Wiltshire led to the removal of the see in the 1220s to a new site in the plain. This was chartered as the city of New Sarum by King Henry III in 1227, the diocese, like the city it administers, is now known as Salisbury. The archdeaconry around Salisbury, however, retains the name of Sarum, reforms within the Church of England led to the annexation of Dorset from the abolished diocese of Bristol in 1836, Berkshire, however, was removed the same year and given to Oxford. In 1925 and 1974, new bishops were appointed to assist the Bishop of Salisbury. Until 2009 the bishops operated under an episcopal area scheme established in 1981, with each bishop having a formal geographical area of responsibility. The Bishop of Ramsbury had oversight of the parishes in Wiltshire. This scheme was replaced to reflect the increased working across the diocese by all three bishops. The two suffragans may now legally function anywhere in the diocese, and the Bishop of Salisbury may delegate any of his functions to them
9.
Justin Welby
–
Justin Portal Welby is the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury and the most senior bishop in the Church of England. Welby was the vicar of Southam, Warwickshire, and most recently was the Bishop of Durham, as Archbishop of Canterbury he is the Primate of All England and the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Welbys early career was in the oil industry, in 1989, he studied for ordination at St Johns College, Durham. After several parochial appointments he became the Dean of Liverpool in 2007, Welbys theology is reported as representing the evangelical tradition within Anglicanism. Justin Portal Welby was born in London, England, on 6 January 1956, Welby describes his early childhood as messy, Gavin and Jane Welby were both alcoholics. They divorced in 1959, when he was three years old, and he was placed in Gavin Welbys custody, a pretty rotten piece of work. Gavin Welby died in 1977 of alcohol-related causes, Welbys mother stopped drinking in 1968, and in 1975 married Charles Williams, a business executive and first-class cricketer who was made a life peer in 1985. Williams was the nephew of Elizabeth Laura Gurney, a member of the Gurney family of Norwich who were prominent Quakers, Welby describes his stepfather as being supportive of him. Paternity testing in 2016 showed that Welbys biological father was not Gavin Welby and their father was Sir Montagu Butler, Governor of the Central Provinces of British India and Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Jane Portals father was Gervas Portal, a half-brother of the World War II Chief of the Air Staff, Charles Portal, Gervas Portals mother Rose Leslie Portal née Napier was the granddaughter of General Sir William Napier and his wife Caroline Amelia Fox. General Napier and his brothers, Generals Sir Charles James Napier and Sir George Thomas Napier, were sons of George Napier and his second wife Lady Sarah Lennox. Welby was educated at St Peters School, Seaford, Eton College, and Trinity College, Cambridge and he graduated in 1978 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and law, as per tradition he was later promoted to a Master of Arts by seniority. In a 12 July 2013 interview with The Daily Telegraph, Welby related his experience when he was a student in Trinity College. He said that, while he was at Eton, he had “vaguely assumed there was a God and he said to his friend, “Please don’t tell anyone about this. ”Welby said that he was desperately embarrassed that this had happened to him. Welby worked for 11 years in the oil industry, five of them for the French oil company Elf Aquitaine based in Paris. In 1984 he became treasurer of the oil exploration group Enterprise Oil PLC in London and he retired from his executive position in 1989 and said that he sensed a calling from God to be ordained. During his oil industry career, Welby became a member at the evangelical Anglican church of Holy Trinity in Brompton, London. He also said he would possibly have behaved in the same way, Welby was at first rejected for ordination by John Hughes, the Bishop of Kensington, who told him, There is no place for you in the Church of England
10.
Mark Malloch Brown, Baron Malloch-Brown
–
He was Minister of State in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office of the British government with responsibility for Africa, Asia and the United Nations. Following his appointment to government, Malloch Brown was created a peer on 9 July 2007 as Baron Malloch-Brown. Malloch Brown was previously at the World Bank, the Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme and he had previously worked at the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. He is also a former journalist for The Economist, development specialist and he has served as Chair of the Royal African Society, among other non-governmental and private sector roles, such as membership of the Executive Committee of the International Crisis Group. Malloch Brown was born in England in 1953 to a South African diplomat who had been exiled and he was educated at Marlborough College, and earned a First Class Honours Degree in History from Magdalene College, Cambridge and a masters degree in Political Science from the University of Michigan. He is a child, but has four children with his wife. He was the correspondent at The Economist between 1977 and 1979. In this period the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded the 1981 Nobel Peace Prize, Malloch Brown contemplated running for the SDP in the 1983 UK General election but was not selected as a candidate. In 1983 Malloch Brown returned to The Economist as the editor of the Economist Development Report. Malloch Brown was the international partner at the US-based Sawyer-Miller Group communications consultancy from 1986 to 1994. The Group was among the first communication consultants to use US-style election campaign methods for foreign governments, companies, Malloch Brown worked extensively on privatisation and other economic reform issues with leaders in Eastern Europe and Russia. Malloch Brown focused much of his public relations energies on advising politicians in Latin America, in 1989 Malloch Brown advised Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozadas presidential campaign in Bolivia. In Peru, he assisted Mario Vargas Llosa with his 1990 presidential campaign), though Vargas Llosa did not heed his advice, in Chile, Malloch Brown advised the opposition in its successful challenge to former dictator Augusto Pinochet. On election day, Malloch Brown wrote Aquinos victory speech which she recited days before voting results were to be released since her campaign assumed that Marcos claim victory as well. Since then, it has reported that Malloch Brown has formed a close relationship with the Aquino family. In 1994 Malloch Brown joined the World Bank as Vice-President for External Affairs, to his credit, the institution gradually gained a reputation as a listening bank, unlike its more aloof sister institution, the International Monetary Fund. In July 1999 he moved back to the United Nations as Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme, remaining in this position until August 2005. In late 2002, Malloch Brown offered to assist talks between Hugo Chavezs Bolivarian government and the opposition, who was seeking to begin the process of attempting to recall Chávez a year later
11.
Marlborough, Wiltshire
–
Marlborough is a market town and civil parish in the English county of Wiltshire on the Old Bath Road, the old main road from London to Bath. It boasts the second widest high street in Britain, after Stockton-on-Tees, the town is on the River Kennet. The earliest sign of habitation is a 62 feet high prehistoric tumulus in the grounds of Marlborough College. Recent radiocarbon dating has found it to date from about 2400 BC and it is of similar age to the larger Silbury Hill about 5 miles west of the town. Legend has it that the Mound is the site of Merlin. On John Speeds map of Wiltshire, the name is recorded as Marlinges boroe. The towns motto is Ubi nunc sapientis ossa Merlini - Where now are the bones of wise Merlin, more plausibly, the towns name probably derives from the medieval term for chalky ground marl – thus town on chalk. Roman remains and the large Mildenhall Hoard of coins have found two miles to the east of Marlborough, at Mildenhall. A later Saxon settlement grew up around The Green and two river crossings were made at Isbury Lane and Stonebridge Lane. In 1067 William the Conqueror assumed control of the Marlborough area and set about building a motte and bailey castle. This was completed in around 1100, stone was used to strengthen the castle in around 1175. The first written record of Marlborough dates from the Domesday Book in 1087, William also established a mint in Marlborough, which coined the William I and the early William II silver pennies. The coins display the name of the town as Maerlebi or Maerleber and he also established the neighbouring Savernake Forest as a favourite Royal hunting ground and Marlborough castle became a Royal residence. Henry I observed Easter here in 1110, Henry II stayed at Marlborough castle in talks with the King of Scotland. His son, Richard I gave the castle to his brother John, King John was married here and spent time in Marlborough. He also established that weekly markets may be held on Wednesdays and Saturdays, later Henry III was also married here. Henry III held Parliament here, in 1267, when the Statute of Marlborough was passed and this seven-hundred-year-old law states that no-one shall seize his neighbours goods for alleged wrong without permission of the Court. Apart from Charters, it is the oldest statute in English law which has not yet been repealed, the castle fell into disrepair by the end of the 14th century but remained Crown property
12.
Wiltshire
–
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, the county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the new county town of Trowbridge. Wiltshire is characterised by its high downland and wide valleys, Salisbury Plain is noted for being the location of the Stonehenge and Avebury stone circles and other ancient landmarks, and as a training area for the British Army. The city of Salisbury is notable for its mediaeval cathedral, important country houses open to the public include Longleat, near Warminster, and the National Trusts Stourhead, near Mere. The county, in the 9th century written as Wiltunscir, later Wiltonshire, is named after the county town of Wilton. Wiltshire is notable for its pre-Roman archaeology, the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age people that occupied southern Britain built settlements on the hills and downland that cover Wiltshire. Stonehenge and Avebury are perhaps the most famous Neolithic sites in the UK, in the 6th and 7th centuries Wiltshire was at the western edge of Saxon Britain, as Cranborne Chase and the Somerset Levels prevented the advance to the west. The Battle of Bedwyn was fought in 675 between Escuin, a West Saxon nobleman who had seized the throne of Queen Saxburga, in 878 the Danes invaded the county. Following the Norman Conquest, large areas of the country came into the possession of the crown, at the time of the Domesday Survey the industry of Wiltshire was largely agricultural,390 mills are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock. In the 17th century English Civil War Wiltshire was largely Parliamentarian, the Battle of Roundway Down, a Royalist victory, was fought near Devizes. The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry currently lives on as Y Squadron, based in Swindon, around 1800 the Kennet and Avon Canal was built through Wiltshire, providing a route for transporting cargoes from Bristol to London until the development of the Great Western Railway. Information on the 261 civil parishes of Wiltshire is available on the Wiltshire Community History website, run by the Libraries and this site includes maps, demographic data, historic and modern pictures and short histories. The local nickname for Wiltshire natives is moonrakers and this originated from a story of smugglers who managed to foil the local Excise men by hiding their alcohol, possibly French brandy in barrels or kegs, in a village pond. The officials took them for simple yokels or mad and left them alone, many villages claim the tale for their own village pond, but the story is most commonly linked with The Crammer in Devizes. Two-thirds of Wiltshire, a rural county, lies on chalk. This chalk is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group, the largest area of chalk in Wiltshire is Salisbury Plain, which is used mainly for arable agriculture and by the British Army as training ranges. The highest point in the county is the Tan Hill–Milk Hill ridge in the Pewsey Vale, just to the north of Salisbury Plain, the chalk uplands run northeast into West Berkshire in the Marlborough Downs ridge, and southwest into Dorset as Cranborne Chase. Cranborne Chase, which straddles the border, has, like Salisbury Plain, yielded much Stone Age, the Marlborough Downs are part of the North Wessex Downs AONB, a 1,730 km2 conservation area
13.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
14.
Department for Education
–
The Department for Education is a department of Her Majestys Government responsible for child protection, education, apprenticeships and wider skills in England. The DfE is also responsible for women and equalities policy, the DfE was formed on 12 May 2010 by the incoming Cameron ministry, taking on the responsibilities and resources of the Department for Children, Schools and Families. In July 2016, the Department took over responsibilities for higher and further education and for apprenticeship from the dissolved Department for Business, Innovation, the Permanent Secretary is Jonathan Slater. DfE is responsible for education, children’s services, higher and further education policy, apprenticeships and wider skills in England, and equalities. The predecessor department employed the equivalent of 2,695 staff as of April 2008 and as at June 2016, in 2015-16, the DfE has a budget of £58. 2bn, which includes £53. 6bn resource spending and £4. 6bn of capital investments. The EFA was formed on 1 April 2012 by bringing together the functions of two non-departmental public bodies, the Young Peoples Learning Agency and Partnerships for Schools and it was established on 1 April 2013, when the Teaching Agency merged with the National College for School Leadership. The Skills Funding Agency is responsible for funding skills training for further education in England, as well as running the National Apprenticeship Service, the SFA was formed on 1 April 2010, following the closure of the Learning and Skills Council. It shares a Chief Executive, Peter Lauener, and Chief Financial Officer with the Education Funding Agency, the Standards and Testing Agency is responsible for developing and delivering all statutory assessments for school pupils in England. It was formed on 1 October 2011 and took over the functions of the Qualifications, the STA is regulated by the examinations regulator, Ofqual. The DfE is also supported by 10 public bodies, Education, youth, following Michael Goves speech in 2012, the subject of Information Communication Technology has been disapplied and replaced by Computing. With the new curriculum, materials have been written by companies, to support non-specialist teachers. The Computing at Schools organisation has created a Network of Teaching Excellence to support schools with the new curriculum, deflecting European Union influence on national education policy-making, the case of the United Kingdom. Official website Official department YouTube channel Official Flickr presence
15.
Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
–
The Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference is an association of the headmasters or headmistresses of 283 independent schools in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and the Republic of Ireland. For 2016/2017 the average day fees at a UK HMC school are £4,639 per term or £13,917 per annum, for 2016/2017 the average full boarding fees at a UK HMC school are £10,709 per term or £32,127 per annum. H. Stokoe, Daniel Harper, and James Welldon, john Dyne attended on the second day, and Alfred Carver did not turn up. From that date there have been annual meetings and it changed its name from the Headmasters Conference to the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference in 1996. The current Chairman is Christopher King, Headmaster of Leicester Grammar School, membership of the HMC is often considered to be what defines a school as a public school in England and Wales. Not all private, independent schools are in the HMC, in particular, many girls schools, are not members. Today HMCs membership includes boys, girls and co-educational schools, the size of the Conference has grown. As late as the 1970s, membership was confined to 200 schools. J. Jewel], Master, Haileybury,1990 J. G. Parker, High Master, The Manchester Grammar School,1991 D. L. Milroy, Headmaster, Ampleforth College,1992 R. J. Gould, Master, Marlborough College,2002 G. In these years they served alongside the Chairman of the Conference until, in 1921, in some schools other titles are used, such as High Master, Warden, Rector and Principal. The Abbey School, Reading — Rachel S. E, dent Abingdon School – Mike J. J. Jeffery Bradfield College — Christopher C. Stevens Bradford Grammar School — Simon Hinchliffe Brentwood School — D, muller Solihull School — David E. J. J. Lloyd South Hampstead High School — Helen Pike Stamford School — Will M. Phelan Stephen Perse Foundation — Tricia Kelleher Stockport Grammar School — Andrew H
16.
The Good Schools Guide
–
The Good Schools Guide is a guide to British schools. The guide is compiled by a team of editors, which according to the official website comprises some 50 editors, writers, researchers and contributors, mostly parents, since the first edition in 1986, the Guide has been republished 20 times. The chief editor is Ralph Lucas, an offshoot is the Good Schools Guide Education Consultants - a service for finding schools and offering educational or other advice to parents on a consultancy basis. The consultants are The Guide writers and other experts, the Times Educational Supplement stated that the Guide is. untroubled by the sensibilities of schools and. Cavalier in the face of squawks from those it has offended, the Daily Telegraph reviewed the guide in the following terms, Unique among the many guides available, it sets out to give frank answers to the questions every parent asks. Similarly, the Financial Times called the Guide One of the best aids for parents. informative, the FT has also described the Guide as one of Britains leading guides to schools. The GSGI is aimed at British parents who are living abroad, the GSGI is also mostly written and edited by expatriates. The GSG also publishes Uni in the USA, a guide to universities abroad written by, official website Good Schools Guide International official website Uni in the USA official website Good Schools Guide Advice Service official website
17.
Johor
–
Johor or Johore is a Malaysian state, located in the southern portion of Peninsular Malaysia. It is one of the most developed states in Malaysia, the state capital city of Johor is Johor Bahru. The royal city of the state is Muar and the old state capital is Johor Lama, Johor is surrounded by Pahang to the north, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest, and the Straits of Johor to the south, which separates Johor and the Republic of Singapore. Johor is also known by its Arabic honorific, Darul Tazim, or Abode of Dignity, the name Johor originated from the Persian word Jauhar, gem/jewel. Malays tend to name a place after natural objects in great abundance or having visual dominance. Before the name Johor was adopted, the south of the Muar River to Singapore island was known as Ujong Tanah or lands end in Malay. Coincidentally, Johor is the most southern point of the Asian continental mainland. In the early 16th century, the Sultanate of Johor was founded by the Alauddin Riayat Shah II, the son of Mahmud Shah, Johor sultanate was one of the two successor states of the Melaka empire. On Malaccas defeat by the Portuguese in 1511, Alauddin Riayat Shah II established a monarchy in Johor, the Sultanate of Perak—established by Mahmud Shahs other son, Muzaffar Shah I—was the other successor state of Malacca. During Johors peak, the whole of Pahang, present day Indonesian territories of the Riau archipelago, a series of succession struggles were interspersed with strategic alliances struck with regional clans and foreign powers, which maintained Johors political and economic hold in the Straits. In 1641, Johor in co-operation with the Dutch succeeded in capturing Malacca, by 1660, Johor had become a flourishing entrepôt, although weakening and splintering of the empire in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century reduced its sovereignty. In the 18th century, the Bugis of Sulawesi and the Minangkabau of Sumatra controlled the powers in the Johor-Riau Empire. However, in the early 19th century, Malay and Bugis rivalry commanded the scene, in 1819, the Johor-Riau Empire was divided up into the mainland Johor, controlled by the Temenggong, and the Sultanate of Riau-Lingga, controlled by the Bugis. Temenggong Ibrahim opened up Bandar Tanjung Puteri in south Johor as a major town, Temenggong Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Dato Temenggong Abu Bakar, who later took the title Seri Maharaja Johor by Queen Victoria of England. In 1886, he was crowned the Sultan of Johor. Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor implemented a constitution, developed a British-style administration and constructed the Istana Besar. For his achievements, Sultan Abu Bakar is known by the title Father of Modern Johor, the increased demand for black pepper and gambier in the nineteenth century lead to the opening up of farmlands to the influx of Chinese immigrants, which created Johors initial economic base. The Kangchu system was put in place with the first settlement of Kangkar Tebrau established in 1844, under the British Resident system, Sultan Ibrahim, Sultan Abu Bakars successor, was forced to accept a British adviser in 1904
18.
Malaysia
–
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
19.
Ben Pimlott
–
Benjamin John Pimlott FBA, known as Ben Pimlott, was a British historian of the post-war period in Britain. He made a contribution to the literary genre of political biography. Educated at Rokeby School, at the time in Wimbledon, Marlborough College and Worcester College, Oxford, where he took a degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics and a BPhil in politics. In 1970, he was appointed as a lecturer in the department of the University of Newcastle. In the February 1974 General Election, Pimlott contested Arundel on behalf of the Labour Party, during 1987–88, he was Political Editor of the New Statesman magazine and took on the post of Professor of Contemporary History at Birkbeck in 1988. For the following two years, Pimlott was responsible, with friends, for the short-lived journal Samizdat and his study of Dalton won him the Whitbread Prize. Many of Pimlotts theses have stood the test of time, even if they were controversial when originally published. Pimlott sincerely believed and argued consistently that the consensus in British politics was a veritable red-herring. In 1996 his works were recognised with a Fellowship of the British Academy, at the time of his death from leukemia in 2004, he was Warden of Goldsmiths, University of London. He was married to Jean Seaton, who lectures on communications, references Sources Julian Glover Labour historian Pimlott dies at 58, The Guardian,12 April 2004 D. R. Thorpe Obituary, Professor Ben Pimlott, The Independent,14 April 2004
20.
The Times
–
The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
21.
John Vickers
–
Sir John Vickers is a British economist and the Warden of All Souls College, Oxford. Sir John was educated at Eastbourne Grammar School and Oriel College, Oxford, after a period working in the oil industry, he taught economics at Oxford University and was Drummond Professor of Political Economy from 1991 to 2008. His visiting academic posts have included the London Business School, the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University. He was President of the Institute for Fiscal Studies, 2003–2007, from 1998 to 2000 he was Chief Economist at the Bank of England and a member of the Monetary Policy Committee. From 2000 to 2005 he was Director General/Chairman of the Office of Fair Trading, since October 2008, he has been Warden of All Souls College, Oxford. In June 2010, he became Chair of the UKs newly created Independent Commission on Banking, the ICBs task is to consider structural and related non-structural reforms to the UK banking sector to promote financial stability and competition. The reforms are to be implemented by 2019 at the latest at a cost to the banks of between £4bn-7bn, in the autumn of 2011, he returned to teaching at Oxford. He currently teaches the first-year undergraduate Introductory Macroeconomics course, John Vickers has written widely on economic topics. His current research concerns the economics of competition and regulation
22.
Motte-and-bailey castle
–
The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low Countries, by the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries. The term motte and bailey is a modern one, and is not medieval in origin. The word bailey comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, in medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles. One contemporary account of these comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height and this minimum height of 3 metres for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres high, a motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself. A keep and a wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege. The bailey was a courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte, the bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castles economic activity. The bailey was linked to the motte either by a bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle, wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences. In practice, there was a number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey, at Warkworth Castle an inner, some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln
23.
Castle
–
A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. Usage of the term has varied over time and has applied to structures as diverse as hill forts. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with different features, although some, such as curtain walls. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures served as centres of administration. Many castles were built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire, many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castles firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape, while castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture. The word castle is derived from the Latin word castellum, which is a diminutive of the word castrum, meaning fortified place. The Old English castel, Old French castel or chastel, French château, Spanish castillo, Italian castello, the word castle was introduced into English shortly before the Norman Conquest to denote this type of building, which was then new to England. In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is a fortified residence. Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for service and the expectation of loyalty. Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, as well as defensive structures, castles were also offensive tools which could be used as a base of operations in enemy territory
24.
Radiocarbon dating
–
Radiocarbon dating is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s, Libby received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1960. The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point onwards the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the samples calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14C in different types of organisms, additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14C atoms in a sample. The development of dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the radiocarbon revolution. Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the last ice age, and they synthesized 14C using the laboratorys cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atoms half-life was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by Serge A. Korff, then employed at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and it had previously been thought that 14C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13C. At some time during World War II, Willard Libby, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korffs research, in 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14C as well as non-radioactive carbon, by contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, Libby and James Arnold proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages
25.
Silbury Hill
–
Silbury Hill is a prehistoric artificial chalk mound near Avebury in the English county of Wiltshire. It is part of the Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites UNESCO World Heritage Site, and lies at grid reference SU099685. At 39.3 metres high, it is the tallest prehistoric man-made mound in Europe and one of the largest in the world, Silbury Hill is part of the complex of Neolithic monuments around Avebury, which includes the Avebury Ring and West Kennet Long Barrow. Its original purpose is still debated, composed mainly of chalk and clay excavated from the surrounding area, the mound stands 40 metres high and covers about 5 acres. The hill was constructed in stages between c. 2400–2300 BC and displays immense technical skill and prolonged control over labour and resources. Archaeologists calculate that it took 18 million man-hours, equivalent to 500 men working for 15 years to deposit and shape 248,000 cubic metres of earth, the base of the hill is circular and 167 metres in diameter. The summit is flat-topped and 30 metres in diameter, a smaller mound was constructed first, and in a later phase much enlarged. There are indications that the top originally had a rounded profile, the first clear evidence of construction, dated to around 2400 BC consisted of a gravel core with a revetting kerb of stakes and sarsen boulders. There have been excavations of the mound. The site was first illustrated by the seventeenth-century antiquarian John Aubrey, whose notes, later, William Stukeley wrote that a skeleton and bridle had been discovered during tree planting on the summit in 1723. It is probable that this was a later, secondary burial, the excavation came in October 1776 when a team of Cornish miners overseen by the Duke of Northumberland and Colonel Edward Drax sank a vertical shaft from the top. In 1849 a tunnel was dug horizontally from the edge into the centre, other excavations were undertaken in 1867 and 1886. Flinders Petrie investigated the hill after the First World War, in 1968 to 1970 professor Richard J. C. Atkinson undertook work at Silbury which was broadcast on BBC Television. This excavation revealed most of the evidence known about the site. He argued that the hill was constructed in steps, each tier being filled in with packed chalk, Atkinson reported the C14 date for the base layer of turf and decayed material indicated a corrected date for the commencement of Silbury was close to 2750 BC. After heavy rains in May 2002, a collapse of the 1776 excavation shaft caused a hole to form in the top of the hill, English Heritage undertook a seismic survey of the hill to identify the damage caused by earlier excavations and determine the hills stability. Repairs were undertaken but the site remained closed to the public, as part of this remedial work English Heritage excavated two further small trenches and made the important discovery of an antler fragment, the first from a secure archaeological context at the site. This produced a radiocarbon date of c
26.
Coaching inn
–
There are few motels with the function of refueling to motor vehicles, but the feeding function to horses was required for coaching inn. Coaching inns stabled teams of horses for stagecoaches and mail coaches, traditionally they were seven miles apart but this depended very much on the terrain. Hence any suspiciously elaborate tale would become a cock and bull story and this is a cock-and bull story in itself, however, as there is no evidence to suggest that this is where the phrase originated. The phrase, first recorded in 1621, may instead be an allusion to Aesops fables, as this slightly predates coaching inns, the names of the two inns could have been a reference to Cock and Bull stories as to encourage the passing of such anecdotes within their doors. Historic inns in Oxford include The Bear Inn and the Lamb & Flag, examples of historic inns in Wales include the Black Boy Inn and the Groes Inn. The Black Lion in Cardigan is probably the oldest Welsh coaching inn, Inn Public house Stagecoach Inn Coaching Era, The, Stage and Mail Coach Travel in and Around Bath, Bristol and Somerset, Roy Gallop, Fiducia, ISBN 1-85026-019-2 Coaching inns. Photos of examples of what may be considered coaching inns in geograph. org. uk
27.
Victorian architecture
–
Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
28.
Gothic architecture
–
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
29.
George Frederick Bodley
–
George Frederick Bodley RA was an English Gothic Revival architect. He was a pupil of Sir George Gilbert Scott, and worked in partnership with Thomas Garner for much of his career. Bodley was the youngest son of William Hulme Bodley, M. D. of Edinburgh, physician at Hull Royal Infirmary, Hull, who in 1838 retired to his wifes home town, Brighton, Sussex, England. Georges eldest brother, the Rev. W. H. Bodley, became a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and he married Minna F. H. Reavely, daughter of Thomas George Wood Reavely, at Kinnersley Castle in 1872. They had a son, George H. Bodley, born in 1874 and he is regarded as the leader of the resurgence of interest in English and Northern European late-medieval design. Bodley is said to have designed two of Morriss early wallpapers, Bodley worked with his lifelong friend, the stained glass designer Charles Eamer Kempe. From 1869 he worked in a twenty-eight year partnership with Thomas Garner, designing buildings in Oxford and Cambridge. One cathedral was completed to his design, St Davids Cathedral, in 1906 Bodley designed with his pupil Henry Vaughan the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D. C. He also provided a design for Grace Cathedral, San Francisco, in 1874 Bodley founded Watts and Co. with Garner and George Gilbert Scott, Jr. His secular work included the London School Board offices, and in collaboration with Garner, the new buildings at Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1902 Bodley was an assessor for the competition to design Liverpool Cathedral which selected a design by the young Giles Gilbert Scott. When construction of the began in 1904, Bodley was appointed to oversee Gilbert Scotts work. One of Bodleys final architectural works was the chapel at Bedford School, building took a year, the chapel was consecrated in July 1908, but by which time Bodley had died. The other was the Saint Chads parish church, Burton-on-Trent, work started in 1905 and the church was consecrated in 1910. After Bodleys death his partner Cecil Greenwood Hare took over the project, Bodley exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1854. He was elected an associate of the academy in 1881 and an academician in 1902. He served as warden of the Fishmongers Company in 1901–02. In early life he had been in alliance with the Pre-Raphaelites. Bodley died on 21 October 1907 at Water Eaton, Oxfordshire and is buried in the churchyard of St James parish church, Kinnersley, dictionary of National Biography,1912 supplement
30.
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
–
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form the seven-member brotherhood and their principles were shared by other artists, including Marie Spartali Stillman and Ford Madox Brown. A later, medievalising strain inspired by Rossetti included Edward Burne-Jones, the groups intention was to reform art by rejecting what it considered the mechanistic approach first adopted by Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. Its members believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been an influence on the academic teaching of art. In particular, the group objected to the influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts, to the Pre-Raphaelites, according to William Michael Rossetti, sloshy meant anything lax or scamped in the process of painting. Any thing or person of a commonplace or conventional kind, the brotherhood sought a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian art. The group associated their work with John Ruskin, an English critic whose influences were driven by his religious background, the group continued to accept the concepts of history painting and mimesis, imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. The Pre-Raphaelites defined themselves as a movement, created a distinct name for their form of art. The groups debates were recorded in the Pre-Raphaelite Journal, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in John Millaiss parents house on Gower Street, London in 1848. At the first meeting, the painters John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Hunt and Millais were students at the Royal Academy of Arts and had met in another loose association, the Cyclographic Club, a sketching society. At his own request Rossetti became a pupil of Ford Madox Brown in 1848, at that date, Rossetti and Hunt shared lodgings in Cleveland Street, Fitzrovia, Central London. Hunt had started painting The Eve of St. Agnes based on Keatss poem of the same name, as an aspiring poet, Rossetti wished to develop the links between Romantic poetry and art. Ford Madox Brown was invited to join, but the more senior artist remained independent but supported the group throughout the PRB period of Pre-Raphaelitism, other young painters and sculptors became close associates, including Charles Allston Collins, Thomas Tupper, and Alexander Munro. The PRB intended to keep the existence of the secret from members of the Royal Academy. The principles were deliberately non-dogmatic, since the brotherhood wished to emphasise the personal responsibility of artists to determine their own ideas. Influenced by Romanticism, the members thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable, nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras. The emphasis on medieval culture clashed with principles of realism which stress the independent observation of nature, in its early stages, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood believed its two interests were consistent with one another, but in later years the movement divided and moved in two directions. The realists were led by Hunt and Millais, while the medievalists were led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris
31.
John Roddam Spencer Stanhope
–
John Roddam Spencer Stanhope is an English artist associated with Edward Burne-Jones and George Frederic Watts and often regarded as a second-wave pre-Raphaelite. His work is studied within the context of Aestheticism and British Symbolism. As a painter, Stanhope worked in oil, watercolor, fresco and his subject matter was mythological, allegorical, biblical, and contemporary. Stanhope was born in Yorkshire, England, and died in Florence and he was the uncle and teacher of the painter Evelyn De Morgan. Stanhope was the son of John Spencer Stanhope of Horsforth and Cannon Hall, the artist’s mother was Elizabeth Wilhemina Coke, third and youngest daughter of Thomas William Coke of Norfolk, first Earl of Leicester, she and her sisters had studied art with Thomas Gainsborough. Stanhope had one brother, Walter, who inherited Cannon Hall, and four sisters, Anna Maria Wilhelmina, Eliza Anne, Anne Alicia. Anna married Percival Pickering and became the mother of Evelyn, not inheriting the family estates left Stanhope free to make a commitment to art. While a student at Oxford, he sought out Watts as a teacher and was Watts’ assistant for some of his architectural paintings, spencer-Stanhope traveled with Watts to Italy in 1853 and to Asia Minor in 1856–57. Upon his return, he was invited by Dante Gabriel Rossetti to participate in the Oxford murals project, painting Sir Gawaine and the Damsels. On 10 January 1859 he married Elizabeth King, the daughter of John James King, granddaughter of the third Earl of Egremont, and they settled in Hillhouse, Cawthorne, and had one daughter, Mary, in 1860. That same year, Spencer-Stanhope’s house Sandroyd, near Cobham in Surrey, was commissioned from the architect Philip Webb, finished by 1861, Sandroyd was only Webb’s second house, the first having been built for William Morris. The house was designed to accommodate Stanhope’s work as a painter, the fireplace featured figurative tiles designed by Burne-Jones based on Chaucer’s dream-vision poem The Legend of Good Women. For a person of Stanhope’s social standing, the house was considered “a modest artist’s dwelling, the move was intended to offer an improved environment for Stanhope’s chronic asthma. When his condition was not alleviated, he turned to wintering in Florence, in 1867, at the age of seven, Mary died of scarlet fever and was buried in at the English Cemetery in Florence. Considered among the avant-garde of the 1870s, Stanhope became an exhibitor at the Grosvenor Gallery. Stanhope moved permanently to Florence in 1880, there he painted the reredos of the English Church, and other work in the Chapel of Marlborough College. In 1873, he bought the Villa Nuti in Florence, where he was visited frequently by de Morgan, stirling, wrote a collection of biographical essays called A Painter of Dreams, including reminiscences of her uncle, “the Idealist, the seer of exquisite visions
32.
William Morris
–
William Morris was an English textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist. Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, he was a contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain. Born in Walthamstow, Essex, to a wealthy family, Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University. Webb and Morris designed a home, Red House, then in Kent. In 1861, Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Webb, and others, in 1875, Morris assumed total control of the company, which was renamed Morris & Co. Although retaining a main home in London, from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor, greatly influenced by visits to Iceland, with Eiríkr Magnússon he produced a series of English-language translations of Icelandic Sagas. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration, in 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited-edition, illuminated-style print books, a cause to which he devoted his final years. Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain, though best known in his lifetime as a poet, founded in 1955, the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy, while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication. Many of the associated with his life are open to visitors, much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums. Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy family, he was named after his father. His mother was Emma Morris, who came from Woodford Hall in Woodford, Essex and he also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough, Wiltshire and he despised his time there, being bullied, bored, and homesick. He did use the opportunity to many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire, such as Avebury and Silbury Hill. At Christmas 1851, Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House, guy, Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School. In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford Universitys Exeter College, although since the college was full and he disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics
33.
Jacobethan
–
The Jacobethan architectural style is also called Jacobean Revival. To save the time of those who do not wish to distinguish between these periods of uncertainty, I will henceforward use the term Jacobethan. The term caught on with art historians, examples of this style are Harlaxton Manor in Lincolnshire, Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire and Sandringham House in Norfolk, England. In June 1835, when the competition was announced for designs for new Houses of Parliament, of the ninety-seven designs submitted, six were in a self-described Elizabethan style. In 1838, with the Gothic revival was well under way in Britain, Joseph Nash, pugins office designing Gothic details, struck out on his own with a lithographed album Architecture of the Middle Ages, Drawn from Nature and on Stone in 1838. Two young architects already providing Jacobethan buildings were James Pennethorne and Anthony Salvin, salvins Jacobethan Harlaxton Manor, near Grantham, Lincolnshire, its first sections completed in 1837, is the great example that defines the style. The Jacobethan Revival survived the late 19th century and became a part of the commercial builders repertory through the first 20 years of the 20th century. Apart from its origins in the UK, the style became popular both in Canada and throughout the United States during those periods, for sturdy baronial dwellings in a free Renaissance style, a key exponent of the style in Britain was T. G. Jackson. Some examples can also be found in buildings in the former British Empire, such as Rashtrapati Niwas, more recently the term has proved useful to literary studies that are emphasizing the continuity of English literature in the half century 1575–1625. For example the 1603 death of Elizabeth I falls in the middle of Shakespeares career as dramatist, tudorbethan architecture Jacobean era Mowl, Tim
34.
John Betjeman
–
Sir John Betjeman, CBE was an English poet, writer, and broadcaster who described himself in Whos Who as a poet and hack. He was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1972 until his death and he was a founding member of the Victorian Society and a passionate defender of Victorian architecture. He began his career as a journalist and ended it as one of the most popular British Poets Laureate and his parents, Mabel and Ernest Betjemann, had a family firm at 34–42 Pentonville Road which manufactured the kind of ornamental household furniture and gadgets distinctive to Victorians. The family name was changed to the less German-looking Betjeman during the First World War, Betjeman was baptised at St Annes Church, Highgate Rise, a 19th-century church at the foot of Highgate West Hill. The family lived at Parliament Hill Mansions in the Lissenden Gardens private estate in Highgate in north London, in 1909, the Betjemanns moved half a mile north to more opulent Highgate. Betjemans early schooling was at the local Byron House and Highgate School, after this, he boarded at the Dragon School preparatory school in North Oxford and Marlborough College, a public school in Wiltshire. In his penultimate year, he joined the secret Society of Amici in which he was a contemporary of both Louis MacNeice and Graham Shepard and he founded The Heretick, a satirical magazine that lampooned Marlboroughs obsession with sport. While at school, his exposure to the works of Arthur Machen won him over to High Church Anglicanism, Betjeman entered the University of Oxford with difficulty, having failed the mathematics portion of the universitys matriculation exam, Responsions. He was, however, admitted as a commoner at Magdalen College and entered the newly created School of English Language, at Oxford, Betjeman made little use of the academic opportunities. His tutor, a young C. S. Lewis, regarded him as an idle prig and Betjeman in turn considered Lewis unfriendly, demanding, at Oxford he was a friend of Maurice Bowra, later to be Warden of Wadham. Betjeman had a poem published in Isis, the university magazine and his first book of poems was privately printed with the help of fellow student Edward James. Much of this period of his life is recorded in his verse autobiography Summoned by Bells published in 1960. In Hilary term 1928, Betjeman failed Divinity for the second time and he had to leave the university for the Trinity term to prepare for a retake of the exam, he was then allowed to return in October. Betjeman then wrote to the Secretary of the Tutorial Board at Magdalen, lee, asking to be entered for the Pass School, a set of examinations taken on rare occasions by undergraduates who are deemed unlikely to achieve an honours degree. Permission to sit the Pass School was granted, Betjeman famously decided to offer a paper in Welsh. Osbert Lancaster tells the story that a tutor came by train twice a week from Aberystwyth to teach Betjeman, however, Jesus College had a number of Welsh tutors who more probably would have taught him. Betjeman finally had to leave at the end of the Michaelmas term,1928, Betjeman did pass his Divinity examination on his third try but was sent down after failing the Pass School. He had achieved a result in only one of the three required papers
35.
Georgian architecture
–
Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable
36.
Edward Blore
–
Edward Blore was a 19th-century British landscape and architectural artist, architect and antiquary. He was born in Derby, the son of the antiquarian writer Thomas Blore, Blores background was in antiquarian draughtsmanship rather than architecture, in which he had no formal training. Charles Locke Eastlake, writing in 1872, believed that he had apprenticed to an engraver. In around 1822 Blore supplied the illustrations to Thomas Frognall Dibdins Aedes Althorpianæ, in 1823 he toured Northern England, making drawings for a work called the Monumental Remains of Noble and Eminent Persons. It was issued in parts with text by the Rev. Philip Bliss, Blore engraved many of the plates himself. In 1826, he was appointed surveyor to Westminster Abbey, the following year he was engaged to furnish plans for the chancel fittings of Peterborough Cathedral. Shortly afterwards he was employed to restore Lambeth Palace, then in a state of near ruin and his work there included the construction of a fire-proof room for the preservation of manuscripts and archives. Eastlake praised Blores careful detail in his work at Westminster Abbey, adding this was, in short and he had studied and drawn detail so long and zealously that its design came quite naturally to him, and in this respect he was incomparably superior to his contemporaries. Blore is most notable for his completion of John Nashs design of Buckingham Palace and he completed the palace in a style similar to but plainer than that intended by Nash. In 1847, Blore returned to the palace and designed the facade facing The Mall thus enclosing the central quadrangle. He also worked St James Palace in London, and a number of other designs in both England and Scotland, including restoring Salisbury Tower at Windsor Castle. Blore was a friend of Sir Walter Scott, having been introduced by Daniel Terry. This led to Prince Vorontsovs suggestion to design his extensive Vorontsovs Palace in Alupka, the Alupka palace was built between 1828 and 1846, in a mixture of styles ranging from Gothic Revival to Moorish Revival. The palaces guidebook describes the building as Blores tribute to Muslim architecture, the structure features two facades, contrasting the starkness of Scottish Baronial on its landward side with Arabian fantasy facing the sea. Such designs were unusual and display a more side to Blores work than can be seen from his work in London. Around 1840 he was responsible for alterations at Wythenshawe Hall. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1841, Blore died in London on 4 September 1879, and was buried in Highgate Cemetery, Highgate, London. The architects Philip Charles Hardwick and Frederick Marrable and Henry Clutton were his pupils, william Mason worked for him before going to Australia and New Zealand
