1.
Howard Pyle
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Howard Pyle was an American illustrator and author, primarily of books for young people. He was a native of Wilmington, Delaware, but he spent the last year of his life in Florence, in 1894, he began teaching illustration at the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry. After 1900, he founded his own school of art and illustration named the Howard Pyle School of Illustration Art, pitz later used the term Brandywine School for the illustration artists and Wyeth family artists of the Brandywine region, several of whom had studied with Pyle. Some of his notable students were N. C. Pyle taught his students at home and studio in Wilmington, which is standing and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. His 1883 classic publication The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood remains in print and he is also well known for his illustrations of pirates, and is credited with creating what has become the modern stereotype of pirate dress. He published his first novel Otto of the Silver Hand in 1888 and he also illustrated historical and adventure stories for periodicals such as Harpers Magazine and St. Nicholas Magazine. His novel Men of Iron was adapted as the movie The Black Shield of Falworth, Pyle travelled to Florence, Italy in 1910 to study mural painting. He died there in 1911 of a kidney infection. Pyle was the son of William Pyle and Margaret Churchman Painter, as a child, he attended private schools and was interested in drawing and writing from a very young age. He was an indifferent student, but his parents encouraged him to study art, in 1876, he visited the island of Chincoteague off Virginia and was inspired by what he saw. He wrote and illustrated an article about the island and submitted it to Scribners Monthly, one of the magazines owners was Roswell Smith, who encouraged him to move to New York and pursue illustration professionally. Pyle initially struggled in New York, his lack of experience made it difficult for him to translate his ideas into forms for publication. He was encouraged by several working artists, however, including Edwin Austin Abbey and he finally published a double-paged spread in the Harpers Weekly issue of March 9,1878 and was paid $75—five times what he had expected. He became increasingly successful and was an established artist by the time that he returned to Wilmington in 1880 and he also collaborated on several books, particularly in American history. He wrote and illustrated his own stories, beginning with The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood in 1883 and this book won international attention from critics such as William Morris. Over the following decades, he published many illustrated works for children. Pyle married singer Anne Poole on April 12,1881, in 1889, he and his wife sailed to Jamaica, leaving their children in the care of relatives
2.
Desert island
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A desert island, deserted island or uninhabited island is an island that is not permanently populated by humans. Uninhabited islands are used in movies or stories about shipwrecked people. Some uninhabited islands are protected as reserves and some are privately owned. Devon Island in Canada is claimed to be the largest uninhabited island in the world, small coral atolls or islands usually have no source of fresh water, but at times a fresh water lens can be reached with a well. Uninhabited islands are also called deserted islands or desert islands. In the latter, the adjective desert connotes not desert climate conditions, the word desert has been formerly applied more widely to any wild, uninhabited region, including forest-land, and it is this archaic meaning that appears in the phrase desert island. Similarly, the deserted island does not imply that the island was previously inhabited. The term desert island is commonly used figuratively to refer to objects or behavior in conditions of social isolation. Behavior on an island is a common thought experiment, for example. Appat Island, Greenland Kermadec Islands in the South Pacific, part of New Zealand Astola Island, Baluchistan Devon Island,55,247 km2, many small islands off the coast of Greece A majority of islands in the Barra Isles archipelago. The most famous of abandoned islands is located at the southernmost point of the outer Hebrides. The protagonists in both are children living in seclusion on a deserted island, until they eventually come in contact with castaways from the outside world who are stranded on the island. The story of Theologus Autodidactus, however, extends beyond the island setting when the castaways take Kamil back to civilization with them. William Shakespeares 1610–11 play, The Tempest, uses the idea of being stranded on an island as a pretext for the action of the play. In the late 17th century, Philosophus Autodidactus inspired Robert Boyle, Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus was also eventually translated into English in the early 20th century. The novel features Man Friday, Crusoes personal assistant and it is also likely that he was inspired by the Latin or English translations of Ibn Tufails Philosophus Autodidactus. Tom Neale was a New Zealander who voluntarily spent 16 years in three sessions in the 1950s and 1960s living alone on the island of Suwarrow in the northern Cook Islands group and his time there is documented in his autobiography, An Island To Oneself. Significant novels set on deserted islands include The Swiss Family Robinson, The Coral Island, The Mysterious Island, Lord of the Flies, The Cay, juana Maria, a Native American woman, was stranded for 18 years on San Nicolas Island off California in the 19th century
3.
Maroon (people)
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Maroons were Africans who had escaped from slavery in the Americas and formed independent settlements. The term can also be applied to their descendants, in all likelihood, the words Maroon and Seminole share the same origin in the Spanish word cimarrón, meaning wild or untamed. This word usually referred to runaways or castaways and is derived from the word for thicket in Old Spanish. In the New World, as early as 1512, enslaved Africans escaped from Spanish captors, Sir Francis Drake enlisted several cimarrones during his raids on the Spanish. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed their own communities in inland Jamaica, when runaway Blacks and Amerindians banded together and subsisted independently they were called Maroons. On the Caribbean islands, they formed bands and on some islands, Maroon communities faced great odds to survive from colonists, obtain food for subsistence living, and to reproduce and increase their numbers. As the planters took over land for crops, the Maroons began to lose ground on the small islands. Only on some of the islands were organized Maroon communities able to thrive by growing crops. Here they grew in number as more Blacks escaped from plantations, the early Maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, Maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands, Survival was always difficult as the Maroons had to fight off attackers as well as attempt to grow food. In Cuba, there were communities in the mountains, where African refugees who escaped the brutality of slavery. Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico, heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped Blacks sought refuge away from the plantations of Ponce. Remnants of these remain to this day for example in Viñales, Cuba. Maroon communities emerged in many places in the Caribbean, but none were seen as such a threat to the British as the Jamaican Maroons. A British governor signed a treaty in 1738 and 1739 promising them 2,500 acres in two locations, to bring an end to the warfare between the communities, in exchange they were to agree to capture other escaped Blacks. They were paid a bounty of two dollars for each African returned, to this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island, in their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St. Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600
4.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
5.
Mutiny
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Mutiny is a criminal conspiracy among a group of people to openly oppose, change, or overthrow a lawful authority to which they are subject. The term is used for a rebellion among members of the military against their superior officers. During the Age of Discovery, mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ships captain, until 1689, mutiny was regulated in England by Articles of War instituted by the monarch and effective only in a period of war. In 1689, the first Mutiny Act was passed which passed the responsibility to enforce discipline within the military to Parliament. The Mutiny Act, altered in 1803, and the Articles of War defined the nature and punishment of mutiny until the latter were replaced by the Army Discipline and this, in turn, was replaced by the Army Act in 1881. The same definition applies in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, the military law of England in early times existed, like the forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were raised for a service and were disbanded upon the cessation of hostilities. The crown, by prerogative, made known as Articles of War for the government and discipline of the troops while thus embodied. This power of law-making by prerogative was however held to be applicable during a state of war only. Subject to this limitation, it existed for more than a century after the passing of the first Mutiny Act. The Mutiny Act 1873 was passed in this manner, such matters remained until 1879 when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last Articles of War were promulgated. The act and the articles were not to harmonize in all respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their sometimes obscure. In 1869, a commission recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelligible shape. In 1878, a committee of the House of Commons endorsed this view, in 1879, passed into law a measure consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. This measure was called the Army Discipline and Regulation Act 1879, as the punishment of every conceivable offence was provided, any articles made under the act could be no more than an empty formality having no practical effect. These rules, however, must not be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or the close supervision of parliament. A further notable change took place at the same time, each session therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both Houses clause by clause and line by line
6.
Shoal
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Often it refers to those submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise near enough to the surface of a body of water as to constitute a danger to navigation. Shoals are also known as sandbanks, sandbars, or gravelbars, two or more shoals that are either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by past and or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes are referred to as a shoal complex. The term shoal is also used in a number of ways that can be similar or quite different from how it is used in the geologic, geomorphic. Shoals are characteristically long and narrow ridges and they can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current promotes deposition of sediment and granular material, resulting in localized shallowing of the water. Marine shoals also develop either by the in place drowning of barrier islands as the result of sea level rise or by the erosion. Shoals can appear as a coastal landform in the sea, where they are classified as a type of bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers, streams. A shoal–sandbar may seasonally separate a smaller body of water from the sea, such as, Marine lagoons Brackish water estuaries Freshwater seasonal stream and river mouths and deltas. They are typically composed of sand, although they could be of any matter that the moving water has access to and is capable of shifting around. Wave shoaling is the process when surface waves move towards shallow water, such as a beach, they slow down, their wave height increases and this behavior is called shoaling, and the waves are said to shoal. The waves may or may not build to the point where they break, depending on how large they were to begin with, in particular, waves shoal as they pass over submerged sandbanks or reefs. This can be treacherous for boats and ships, shoaling can also diffract waves, so the waves change direction. For example, if waves pass over a bank which is shallower at one end than the other. Thus the wave fronts will refract, changing direction like light passing through a prism, refraction also occurs as waves move towards a beach if the waves come in at an angle to the beach, or if the beach slopes more gradually at one end than the other. Sandbars, also known as a trough bars, form where the waves are breaking, sometimes this occurs seaward of a trough. Sand carried by the moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the point of even larger waves. A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at an entrance or river mouth by. Where beaches are suitably mobile, or the river’s suspended and/or bed loads are large enough, deposition can build up a sandbar that completely blocks a river mouth and damming the river
7.
Tide
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Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide—two nearly equal high and low tides each day, other locations experience a diurnal tide—only one high and low tide each day. A mixed tide—two uneven tides a day, or one high, Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time, gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the level usually called mean sea level. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field varies in time. For example, the part of the Earth is affected by tides. Tide changes proceed via the following stages, Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone, the water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide. Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone, the water stops falling, reaching low tide. Oscillating currents produced by tides are known as tidal streams, the moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning, slack water usually occurs near high water and low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high, Tides are commonly semi-diurnal, or diurnal. The two high waters on a day are typically not the same height, these are the higher high water. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is small when the Moon is over the equator. From the highest level to the lowest, Highest Astronomical Tide – The highest tide which can be predicted to occur, note that meteorological conditions may add extra height to the HAT. Mean High Water Springs – The average of the two high tides on the days of spring tides, mean High Water Neaps – The average of the two high tides on the days of neap tides. Mean Sea Level – This is the sea level
8.
Edward England
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Edward England, born Edward Seegar was a famous African coast and Indian Ocean pirate captain from 1717 to 1720. The ships he sailed on included the Pearl and later the Fancy and his flag was the classic Jolly Roger — almost exactly as Black Sam Bellamy used — with a skull above two crossed bones on a black background. Born in Wales as Edward Seegar sometime around 1685 He was probably raised as a Catholic and was said to be an educated man, Seegar changed his surname to England when he turned pirate. England made his way to Jamaica and during the War of Spanish Succession he served as a privateer and he was captured by the pirate captain Christopher Winter and forced to join the crew. Winter most likely took England to the base on Nassau. England took part in Henry Jennings assault on the Spanish salvage camp at Palma de Ayz, Florida, stealing £87,000 in gold, England is next reported as Charles Vanes quartermaster, in March 1718. Vanes sloop, the Lark was captured by the Royal Navy, but England, England was granted captaincy of his own ship in mid-1718. England decided not to accept the pardon along with Vane and a few others, along the way he and the crew took several ships. One of the ships was the Cadogan from Bristol, captained by a man named Skinner, some of Englands crew knew Skinner and recognized him instantly because he never paid them for their work previously. According to Charles Johnson, the member said, ″Ah. Captain Skinner is it you, I am much in your debt, next they simply executed the captain by shooting him in the head with a flintlock pistol. Given the crew of the Cadogan was without a captain, England offered them a choice to join his crew, aboard the crew was Howell Davis who refused to sign the articles of the pirates. Howell said he would die than become a pirate, however England refused to kill him. This began the start of Davis pirate career, Davis would go on to spawn the career of Bartholomew Roberts as well and the careers of many other pirates. After some time, England and his crew captured a larger brig or frigate named the Pearl, taking the ship as their own, they renamed it the Royal James and went off in search of plunder in Africa in the spring of 1719. Between the River Gambia and the Cape Coast the pirates seized and looted ten ships, after looting the ten ships, England made John Taylor the captain of his next prize, the Victory. After looting two additional ships, England and the decided to make port in a small African town. However the pirates grew increasingly belligerent and conflicts arose with the locals over the treatment of women, soon a fight broke out, resulting in the pirates burning the entire town and departing
9.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
10.
Pirate code
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A pirate code, pirate articles or articles of agreement were a code of conduct for governing pirates. A group of sailors, on turning pirate, would draw up their own code or articles, which provided rules for discipline, division of stolen goods, and compensation for injured pirates. Buccaneers began operating under a set of rules called the Chasse-Partie, Charter Party, Custom of the Coast. These eventually became known as Articles of Agreement, or the pirates code, each crew member was asked to sign or make his mark on the articles, then swear an oath of allegiance or honor. The oath was taken on a Bible, but John Phillips men, lacking a Bible. Legend suggests that other pirates swore on crossed pistols, swords, or on a human skull, or astride a cannon. This act formally inducted the signer into the crew, generally entitling him to vote for officers and on other affairs of moment, to bear arms. The articles having been signed, they were posted in a prominent place. After a piratical cruise began, new recruits from captured ships would sometimes sign the articles, in some cases voluntarily, in other cases under threat of torture or death. Valuable sea artisans, such as carpenters and navigators, were likely to be forced to sign articles under duress. In some cases, even willing recruits would ask the pirates to pretend to them to sign. Generally, men who had not signed the articles had a better chance of acquittal at trial if captured by the law. Pirate articles are related to, and in some cases derived from, privateering articles. By the 19th century, ordinary merchant ships also had articles specifying wages and rules, merchant articles and privateering articles can be traced back to Europe in the Middle Ages when there was a system of joint hands agreements between merchants, owners and seamen to share profits. Four complete or nearly complete sets of articles have survived, chiefly from Charles Johnsons A General History of the Pyrates. A partial code from Henry Morgan is preserved in Alexandre Exquemelins 1678 book The Buccaneers of America, many other pirates are known to have had articles. Few pirate articles have survived, because pirates on the verge of capture or surrender usually burned their articles or threw them overboard, No person to game at cards or dice for money. The lights and candles to be put out at eight oclock at night, if any of the crew, after that hour still remained inclined for drinking, to keep their piece, pistols, and cutlass clean and fit for service
11.
Bartholomew Roberts
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Bartholomew Roberts, born John Roberts, was a Welsh pirate who raided ships off the Americas and West Africa between 1719 and 1722. He was the most successful pirate of the Golden Age of Piracy as measured by vessels captured and he is also known as Black Bart, but this name was never used in his lifetime. He is sometimes confused with Charles Bolles, called the Black Bart of the American West and he was born John Roberts in 1682 in Casnewydd-Bach, between Fishguard and Haverfordwest in Pembrokeshire, Wales. His father was most likely George Roberts and its not clear why Roberts changed his name from John to Bartholomew, but pirates often adopted aliases. He may have chosen his first name after the well-known buccaneer Bartholomew Sharp and he is thought to have gone to sea when he was 13 in 1695, but there is no further record of him until 1718, when he was mate of a Barbados sloop. In 1719, Roberts was third mate on the slave ship Princess under Captain Abraham Plumb, in early June that year, the Princess was anchored at Anomabu when she was captured by pirates. The pirates were in two vessels, the Royal Rover and the Royal James, and were led by captain Howell Davis, Davis, like Roberts, was a Welshman, originally from Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire. Roberts and several other of the crew of the Princess were forced to join the pirates, Davis quickly discovered Roberts abilities as a navigator and took to consulting him. He was also able to confide information to Roberts in Welsh, Roberts is said to have been reluctant to become a pirate at first, but soon came to see the advantages of this new lifestyle. Captain Charles Johnson reports him as saying, In an honest service there is thin commons, low wages, no, a merry life and a short one shall be my motto. In the merchant navy, Roberts wage was less than £4 per month, a few weeks after Roberts capture, the Royal James had to be abandoned because of worm damage. The Royal Rover headed for the island of Príncipe, Davis hoisted the flags of a British man-of-war and was allowed to enter the harbour. After a few days, Davis invited the governor to lunch on board his ship, Davis had to send boats to collect the governor, and he was invited to call at the fort for a glass of wine first. The Portuguese had discovered that their visitors were pirates and they ambushed Davis party on its way to the fort, shooting Davis dead. A new captain had to be elected, Davis crew was divided into Lords and Commons, and it was the Lords who had the right to propose a name to the remainder of the crew. Within six weeks of his capture, Roberts was elected captain and this was unusual, especially as he had objected to serving on the vessel. Historians believe he was elected for his abilities and his personality. He accepted of the Honour, saying, that since he had dippd his Hands in Muddy Water, Roberts first act as captain was to lead the crew back to Príncipe to avenge the death of Captain Davis
12.
John Phillips (pirate)
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John Phillips was an English pirate captain. He started his career in 1721 under Thomas Anstis. He died in an attack by his own prisoners. He is noted for the articles of his ship, the Revenge, Phillips was a ships carpenter by trade. While voyaging from England to Newfoundland, his ship was captured on April 19,1721 by Thomas Anstiss pirates, Phillips was forced to join the pirates, as skilled artisans often were. Phillips was soon reconciled to the life of a Pirate, in April,1722, Anstis sent Phillips and some other men ashore on Tobago to careen a captured frigate. A British warship soon arrived, forcing Anstis to flee and abandon Phillips, Phillips avoided capture by hiding in the woods, and later returned to Bristol in England with other abandoned shipmates, where they gave up piracy for a time. Some of Phillips pirate comrades were arrested and imprisoned shortly after their arrival in Bristol, there, he conspired to steal a ship and return to piracy. On August 29,1723, with four companions, Phillips seized a schooner belonging to William Minott from Petty Harbour, renamed her Revenge. Phillips crewmen were John Nutt, James Sparks, Thomas Fern and they agreed promptly to a set of articles. Significantly, Phillips articles forbade rape under penalty of death, Anstiss crew had committed a notorious gang rape, Phillips set sail for the West Indies, capturing several fishing vessels on the way. Aboard one of these prizes was John Rose Archer, reputed to be a crewman of Blackbeard. On September 5, Phillips captured John Fillmore, great-grandfather of later U. S. president Millard Fillmore, aboard the sloop Dolphin and this increased the Revenges total crew to 11. Proceeding to the Caribbean, Phillips and his men hunted for merchantmen near Barbados and they made no captures for three months, and ran severely short of food and supplies, before finally taking some French and English vessels. They went on to Tobago, where Phillips searched for some of his comrades from Anstiss crew, but found only one survivor. Phillips careened the Revenge and took Pedro aboard, the Revenge captured another vessel after leaving Tobago, and the carpenter Thomas Fern, in charge of the prize crew, attempted to escape with the stolen vessel. The Revenge overtook Fern and captured him, killing one of the prize crew, Fern and one of his crewmates tried and failed to escape again later that winter, and Phillips killed them both. The pirates continued northward arriving at Cape Sable, Nova Scotia on April 1,1723, here Phillips met great success as he raided New England fishing vessels working the fishing banks between Cape Sable and Sable Island
13.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
14.
Treaty of Utrecht
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The treaties between several European states, including Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic, helped end the war. They marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the wars of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish Succession was occasioned by the failure of the Habsburg king, Charles II of Spain, to produce an heir. Dispute followed the death of Charles II in 1700, and fourteen years of war were the result, France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when the preliminaries of peace had been signed in London. The preliminaries were based on an acceptance of the partition of Spains European possessions. Following this, the Congress of Utrecht opened on 29 January 1712, with the British representatives being John Robinson, Bishop of Bristol, and Thomas Wentworth, Lord Strafford. Reluctantly the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, and this assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and the Kingdom of Portugal was represented by Luís da Cunha. With Great Britain and France having agreed upon a truce, the pace of negotiation now quickened, and the main treaties were finally signed on 11 April 1713. The treaty recognised Louis XIVs grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, as King of Spain, however, Philip was compelled to renounce for himself and his descendants any right to the French throne. In similar fashion various French princelings, including most notably the Duke of Berry, Utrecht marked the rise of Great Britain under Anne and later the House of Hanover, her exploits martial were due to Marlborough. Portugal had its sovereignty recognised over the lands between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers, in Brazil, in 1715, the Portuguese also recovered Colónia do Sacramento, previously taken by Spain in Uruguay. In North America, France ceded to Great Britain its claims to Newfoundland and they also ceded the Acadian colony of Nova Scotia. The formerly partitioned island of Saint Kitts was also ceded in its entirety to Britain, France was required to recognise British suzerainty over the Iroquois and commerce with the Far Indians was to be open to traders of all nations. France retained its other pre-war North American possessions, including Île-Saint-Jean, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, as well as Île Royale, a series of commercial treaties were also signed. The treatys territorial provisions did not go as far as the Whigs in Britain would have liked, considering that the French had made overtures for peace in 1706, the Whigs considered themselves the heirs of the staunch anti-French policies of William III and the Duke of Marlborough. However, in the Parliament of 1710 the Tories had gained control of the House of Commons, Queen Anne and her advisors had also come to agree. The French negotiator Melchior de Polignac taunted the Dutch with the scathing remark de vous, chez vous, sans vous, meaning that negotiations would be held about you, around you, without you. In any case, the Dutch achieved their condominium in the Austrian Netherlands with the Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty of 1715
15.
Sombrero, Anguilla
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Sombrero, also known as Hat Island, is part of the British overseas territory of Anguilla and is the northernmost island of the Lesser Antilles. It lies 54 km north-west of Anguilla across the Dog and Prickly Pear Passage, the distance to Dog Island, the next nearest island of Anguilla, is 38 kilometres. Sombrero is 1.67 kilometres long north-south, and 0.38 km wide, the land area is 0.38 km2. The surface of the island is rough, and vegetation is sparse, the guano-mining operation yielded some 3000 tons of phosphate a year by 1870. By 1890, the reserves had been exhausted. The lighthouse marks the Anegada Passage, which is the route from Europe into the Caribbean, the first lighthouse was erected in 1868. In 1960, Hurricane Donna damaged this lighthouse, with the result that a new lighthouse replaced it in 1962, the lighthouses were manned from 1868 to 2001. In that year, Trinity House donated and installed the current, automated tower, anguillas Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources is responsible for the maintenance of the navigational aids. As a result of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1714, Sombrero passed into the hands of the British, captain Warwick Lake of Recruit marooned an impressed seaman, Robert Jeffrey, there on 13 December 1807. As it turned out, Jeffrey survived, a passing American vessel, the schooner Adams from Marblehead, Massachusetts, had rescued him. Still, a court martial dismissed Lake from the Royal Navy, in 1814, and again in 1825, a British geologist surveyed the island and found that it abounded in guano and reported this to the British government. In 1856 the Americans claimed the island, and in a short period of time quarried 100,000 tons of phosphate that served as fertilizer for the exhausted lands of the Southern States. Uniquely, an important insurrection occurred when West Indian black workers revolted against the “slavery proclivities” of a white American superintendent vis-à-vis wage-earning free men, four of the 200 workers fatally injured Superintendent Snow and commandeered the island and company money and stores. The British later intervened and demanded compensation from the United States for the occupation, the conflicting claims to the island were settled in Britains favour in 1867. Sombrero, lying in the route of shipping from England to South and Central America, lay in an area with many hazards and in 1848 the Admiralty was asked to install a light on it. On 30 June 1859, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Companys ship Paramatta was wrecked on her voyage on Horseshoe Reef. The lighthouse was built and first exhibited its light on the evening of 1 January 1868. Paramatta was the last ship launched from their Middlesex bank, while the lighthouse was built on the Essex side, from the early 1870s until 1885, a Cornish mining engineer, Thomas Corfield, was Superintendent of Sombrero
16.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
17.
Viscount Lake
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Viscount Lake, of Delhi and Laswary and of Aston Clinton in the County of Buckingham, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1807 for the prominent soldier Gerard Lake and he was Commander-in-Chief of India from 1801 to 1805 and from 1805 to 1807. Lake had already been created Baron Lake, of Delhi and Laswary and of Aston Clinton in the County of Buckingham, in 1804, the titles became extinct on the death of the third Viscount in 1848. Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake Francis Gerard Lake, 2nd Viscount Lake Warwick Lake, 3rd Viscount Lake. On 13 December 1807, when he was captain of HMS Recruit, Lake marooned an impressed seaman, Robert Jeffrey, on Sombrero Island for having stolen rum. John Dennis of the American schooner Adam, out of Marblehead, saw Jeffrey waving his arms, apparently, Jeffrey was only slightly emaciated but initially incapable of speech. He went on to live in Marblehead, where he pursued his trade of blacksmith. Some months later, Lakes commanding officer, Sir Alexander Cochrane, discovered what had happened, when Recruit arrived at Sombrero, Jeffrey could not be found. Eventually, when the Royal Navy found out Jeffreys whereabouts, it repatriated him, on 14 June 1810, HMS Frolic arrived at Sombrero Island in the West Indies. A party from the vessel searched the island to assess the prospects for someone landed at this place without food. A subsequent court-martial dismissed Lake, who in the meantime had become captain of HMS Ulysses, Lake settled with Jeffrey out of court for £600 to avoid a civil suit. Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages David Beamishs Peerage Page
18.
HMS Recruit (1806)
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HMS Recruit was an 18-gun Cruizer class brig-sloop of the Royal Navy, launched in 1806 at Sandwich, Kent. She is best known for an act of pique by Cmdr, Warwick Lake, who marooned a seaman, and for an inconclusive but hard fought ship action under Cmdr. Charles John Napier against the French corvette Diligente and she captured a number of American vessels as prizes during the War of 1812 before being laid up in 1815 and sold for breaking up in 1822. Recruit was ordered on 27 January 1806 from the shipwright Andrew Hills, of Sandwich and she was laid down in April 1806 and launched on 31 August 1806. Recruit was commissioned under Commander George Ackholm in March 1807, on 28 August, Tromp detained the Danish ships Diamond and Karen Louisa. Recruit, Humber, Cheerful, and experiment were in sight, next, Recruit sailed to the Caribbean under Commander Warwick Lake, supposedly in July, but clearly later. During the voyage, a sailor named Robert Jeffery was discovered to have stolen the midshipmens beer. Some months later, Lakes commanding officer Sir Alexander Cochrane discovered what had happened, when Recruit arrived at Sombrero, Jeffery could not be found. Eventually the story got out and a court martial dismissed Lake from the service for his actions, as it turned out, Jeffery had been picked up by an American ship and was eventually discovered in Massachusetts three years later, working as a blacksmith. He returned to Britain and received compensation, command passed to Commander Charles Napier, who led Recruit into action against the French corvette Diligente, under Jean-François Lemaresquier, on 6 September 1808. The action was fierce and resulted in Recruit losing her mainmast and suffering casualties, including Napier. Diligente was only driven off after a shot from Recruit ignited an ammunition store. Recruit lost six killed and 23 wounded, half of them mortally, following repairs, Recruit participated in the invasion of Martinique in January 1809. Napier observed that Fort Edward at Fort Royal Bay appeared abandoned and he took a gig and with four men, landed, scaled the forts walls, and hoisted a British flag. Sir Alexander Cochrane immediately landed marines to occupy the fort and turn its mortars, in 1847 the Admiralty authorized the issuance of the Naval General Service Medal with clasp Martinique to all survivors of the campaign. Shortly thereafter, Napier received promotion to Post-captain and appointment to command of Jason, in April 1809, a strong French squadron arrived at the Îles des Saintes, south of Guadeloupe. There they were blockaded until 14 April, when a British force under Major-General Frederick Maitland and Captain Philip Beaver in Acasta, Recruit was among the naval vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of the islands. Recruit participated in the defeat of a French reinforcement squadron in April, Recruit was present at the surrender of the DHautpoult and Napier was temporarily appointed to command the captured ship of the line, but then transferred to Jason and sailed her back to Britain
19.
Impressment
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Impressment, colloquially, the press or the press gang, refers to the act of taking men into a military or naval force by compulsion, with or without notice. Navies of several nations used forced recruitment by various means, the large size of the British Royal Navy in the Age of Sail meant impressment was most commonly associated with Britain. The Royal Navy impressed many merchant sailors, as well as some sailors from other nations, people liable to impressment were eligible men of seafaring habits between the ages of 18 and 55 years. Non-seamen were impressed as well, though rarely, though the public opposed conscription in general, impressment was repeatedly upheld by the courts, as it was deemed vital to the strength of the navy and, by extension, to the survival of the realm. Impressment was essentially a Royal Navy practice, reflecting the size of the British fleet, Continental Navy did however apply a form of impressment during the American War of Independence. The impressment of seamen from American ships caused serious tensions between Britain and the United States in the leading up to the War of 1812. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended the practice, later conscription was not limited to the Royal Navy, working and living conditions for the average sailor in the Royal Navy in the 18th century were harsh by modern standards. Naval pay was attractive in the 1750s, but towards the end of the century its value had been eroded by rising prices, sailors pay on merchant ships was somewhat higher during peacetime, and could increase to double naval pay during wartime. Until 19th century reforms improved conditions, the Royal Navy was additionally known to pay wages up to two years in arrears, and it always withheld six months pay to discourage desertion. Naval wages had been set in 1653, and were not increased until April 1797 after sailors on 80 ships of the Channel Fleet based at Spithead mutinied, despite this, there were many volunteers for naval service. Also the food supplied by the Navy was plentiful and good by the standards of the day. The main problem with recruitment, though, was a shortage of qualified seamen during wartime, privateers, the Royal Navy, and the Merchant Navy all competed for a small pool of ordinary and able seamen in wartime, and all three groups were usually short-handed. Volunteering also protected the sailor from creditors, as the law forbade collecting debts accrued before enlistment, the main disadvantage was that enlisted deserters who were recaptured would be hanged, whereas pressed men would simply be returned to service. Other records confirm similar percentages throughout the 18th century, average annual recruitment 1736–1783 All three groups also suffered high levels of desertion. In the 18th century, British desertion rates on naval ships averaged 25% annually, if a naval ship had taken a prize, a deserting seaman would also forfeit his share of the prize money. In a report on proposed changes to the RN written by Admiral Nelson in 1803, the Impress Service was formed to force sailors to serve on naval vessels. There was no concept of joining the navy as a fixed career-path for non-officers at the time since seamen remained attached to a ship only for the duration of its commission. They were encouraged to stay in the Navy after the commission, Impressment relied on the legal power of the King to call men to military service, as well as to recruit volunteers
20.
Robert Louis Stevenson
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Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson was a Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer. His most famous works are Treasure Island, Kidnapped, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, a literary celebrity during his lifetime, Stevenson now ranks as the 26th most translated author in the world. M. Barrie, and G. K. Chesterton, who said of him that he seemed to pick the word up on the point of his pen. Stevenson was born at 8 Howard Place, Edinburgh, Scotland, on 13 November 1850, to Thomas Stevenson, a lighthouse engineer. He was christened Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson, at about age 18, Stevenson was to change the spelling of Lewis to Louis, and in 1873, he dropped Balfour. Lighthouse design was the profession, Thomass father was the famous Robert Stevenson. Indeed, even Thomass maternal grandfather, Thomas Smith, had been in the same profession, however, Roberts mothers family were not of the same profession. Margarets natal family, the Balfours, were gentry, tracing their lineage back to a certain Alexander Balfour who had held the lands of Inchyra in Fife in the fifteenth century. Margarets father, Lewis Balfour, was a minister of the Church of Scotland at nearby Colinton, and her siblings included the physician George William Balfour, Stevenson spent the greater part of his boyhood holidays in his maternal grandfathers house. Now I often wonder, wrote Stevenson, what I inherited from this old minister, I must suppose, indeed, that he was fond of preaching sermons, and so am I, though I never heard it maintained that either of us loved to hear them. Lewis Balfour and his daughter both had weak chests, so they often needed to stay in warmer climates for their health, Stevenson inherited a tendency to coughs and fevers, exacerbated when the family moved to a damp, chilly house at 1 Inverleith Terrace in 1851. The family moved again to the sunnier 17 Heriot Row when Stevenson was six years old, illness would be a recurrent feature of his adult life and left him extraordinarily thin. Contemporary views were that he had tuberculosis, but more recent views are that it was bronchiectasis or even sarcoidosis, Stevensons parents were both devout and serious Presbyterians, but the household was not strict in its adherence to Calvinist principles. His nurse, Alison Cunningham, was fervently religious. Her Calvinism and folk beliefs were a source of nightmares for the child. But she also cared for him tenderly in illness, reading to him from Bunyan, Stevenson recalled this time of sickness in The Land of Counterpane in A Childs Garden of Verses, dedicating the book to his nurse. In any case, his frequent illnesses often kept him away from his first school and he was a late reader, first learning at age seven or eight, but even before this he dictated stories to his mother and nurse. He compulsively wrote stories throughout his childhood and his father was proud of this interest, he had also written stories in his spare time until his own father found them and told him to give up such nonsense and mind your business
21.
Treasure Island
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Treasure Island is an adventure novel by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson, narrating a tale of buccaneers and buried gold. Treasure Island is traditionally considered a story and is noted for its atmosphere, characters. It is one of the most frequently dramatized of all novels and it was first published as a book on 14 November 1883, by Cassell & Co. A seaman with intact legs shows up, frightening Billy—who drinks far too much rum—into a stroke, and Billy tells Jim that his former shipmates covet the contents of his sea chest. After a visit from yet another man, Billy has another stroke and dies, Jim and his mother unlock the sea chest, finding some money, a journal, and a map. The local physician, Dr. Livesey, deduces that the map is of an island where a deceased pirate—Captain Flint—buried a vast treasure, the district squire, Trelawney, proposes buying a ship and going after the treasure, taking Livesey as ships doctor and Jim as cabin boy. PART II—THE SEA COOK Several weeks later, Trelawney sends for Jim and Livesey and introduces them to Long John Silver, a one-legged Bristol tavern-keeper whom he has hired as ships cook. They also meet Captain Smollett, who tells them that he dislikes most of the crew on the voyage, after taking a few precautions, however, they set sail on Trelawnys schooner, the Hispaniola, for the distant island. During the voyage, the first mate, a drunkard, disappears overboard, and just before the island is sighted, Jim—concealed in an apple barrel—overhears Silver talking with two other crewmen. They are all former gentlemen ofortune in Flints crew and have planned a mutiny, the men still on the ship, led by the coxswain Israel Hands, run up the pirate flag. The next morning, Silver appears under a flag of truce, offering terms that the captain refuses, at Smolletts refusal to surrender the map, Silver threatens an attack, and, within a short while, the attack on the stockade is launched. PART V—MY SEA ADVENTURE After a battle, the surviving mutineers retreat, having lost six men, when Livesey leaves in search of Gunn, Jim runs away without permission and finds Gunns homemade coracle. After dark, he goes out and cuts the ship adrift, the two pirates on board, Hands and OBrien, interrupt their drunken quarrel to run on deck, but the ship—with Jims boat in her wake—is swept out to sea on the ebb tide. Exhausted, Jim falls asleep in the boat and wakens the next morning, bobbing along on the west coast of the island, eventually, he encounters the ship, which seems deserted, but getting on board, he finds OBrien dead and Hands badly wounded. He and Hands agree that they will beach the ship at an inlet on the northern coast of the island, as the ship is finally beached, Hands attempts to kill Jim but is himself killed in the attempt. Then, after securing the ship as well as he can, Jim goes back ashore, once there, in utter darkness, he enters the blockhouse—to be greeted by Silver and the remaining five mutineers, who have somehow taken over the stockade in his absence. PART VI—CAPTAIN SILVER Silver and the others argue about whether to kill Jim and he tells Jim that, when everyone found the ship was gone, the captains party agreed to a treaty whereby they gave up the stockade and the map. In the morning, the doctor arrives to treat the wounded and sick pirates, after he leaves, Silver and the others set out with the map, taking Jim along as hostage
22.
Ben Gunn (Treasure Island)
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Benjamin Ben Gunn is a fictional character in the Treasure Island novel by Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson. Ben Gunn is an ex-crewman of Captain Flints who has been marooned for three years on Treasure Island by his crewmates, after his failure to find the treasure without the map, during his time alone on the island Gunn develops an obsessional craving for cheese. He first appears in the novel when Jim Hawkins encounters him, Ben treats Jim kindly in return for a chance of getting back to his real home. Jim leaves Ben Gunn behind, but escapes to the Hispaniola on Bens coracle, Ben appears later making ghostly sounds to delay Long John Silvers party on its search for the treasure, but Silver recognizes his voice, which restores the pirates confidence. They forge ahead and locate the place where Flints treasure was buried, the pirates discover that the cache has been rifled and all of the treasure is gone. The enraged pirates turn on Silver and Jim, but Ben Gunn and several others attack the pirates by surprise, Silver surrenders to Dr. Livesey, promising to return to his dooty. They go to Ben Gunns cave home, where Gunn has had the treasure hidden for some months, the treasure is divided amongst Squire Trelawney and his loyal men, including Jim and Ben Gunn, and they return to England, leaving the surviving pirates marooned on the island. Once in England, Gunn manages to spend all his part of the treasure in just a few days, Ben Gunn is the main character in The Adventures of Ben Gunn, a prequel to Treasure Island written by R. F. Delderfield. The story follows Ben Gunn from parsons son to pirate and is narrated by Jim in Gunns words, by the end of the film she and Smollett rekindle their relationship and she helps him against Silvers pirate crew. In Disneys animated film Treasure Planet, Ben Gunn is portrayed as BEN-GUNN, Jim and his group meet BEN while exploring the Treasure Planets forest, and the robot invites them to his house to care for the wounded Captain Amelia. When Silvers pirates corner the group here, using a back-door, Jim, BEN, working to sabotage the ships artillery, accidentally turns off the artificial gravity, whereupon Jim and Scroop, who were fighting, threaten to float off into space, which happens to Scroop. Later, Jim and BEN obtain the map, upon their return, they are captured by Silver, who has already captured Doppler and Amelia. In the stash of treasure, Jim comes across the remains of Flint himself. Jim replaces this piece, causing BEN to remember that the planet is set to explode upon the treasures discovery, after narrowly escaping the explosion of the planet, BEN joins Jims family and is finally seen working in the rebuilt Benbow Inn. Comedian Spike Milligan would often play Ben Gunn in these productions, the Ben Gunn Society album released in 2003 presents the story centered around the character of Ben Gunn, based primarily on Chapter XV Man of the Island and other relevant parts of the book. Ben Gunn was the inspiration for Herman Toothrot character in Monkey Island game series. Ben Gunn is portrayed by Chris Fisher in the Starz television series Black Sails and he is first encountered by Captain Flint and his crew when they are captured and imprisoned after landing on an island inhabited by a large group of escaped slaves. Gunn is already a prisoner in the settlement, being the last surviving member of an unnamed slave trading vessel
23.
Alexander Selkirk
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Alexander Selkirk was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent more than four years as a castaway after being marooned by his captain on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived that ordeal, but succumbed to illness a dozen years later while serving aboard HMS Weymouth off West Africa. Selkirk was a youth, and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on Cinque Ports, commanded by William Dampier, the ship called in for provisions at the Juan Fernández Islands, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. When he was rescued by follow-on English privateer Woodes Rogers. His story of survival was widely publicised after their return to England, Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition and he was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his indecent conduct in church, but he did not appear, being gone to sea. He was back at Largo in 1701, when he came to the attention of church authorities for beating up his brothers. Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering, in 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. Dampier was captain of St George, and Selkirk served on Cinque Ports, St Georges companion ship, by this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their party was ambushed. The easy capture of Asunción, a merchantman, revived the mens hopes of plunder. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar and flour, then set the ship free. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and probably wanted to make the needed repairs before going any farther. He declared that he would stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Glad to be rid of a troublemaker, Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, Selkirk regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board. Cinque Ports did indeed later founder off the coast of what is now Colombia, Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Peru where they endured a harsh imprisonment, at first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Juan Fernández
24.
Robinson Crusoe Island
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Robinson Crusoe Island, formerly known as Más a Tierra, is the second largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, situated 670 km west of San Antonio, Chile, in the South Pacific Ocean. It is the populous of the inhabited islands in the archipelago. The island was home to the marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk from 1704 to 1709 and this was just one of several survival stories from the period that Defoe would have been aware of. To reflect the literary lore associated with the island and attract tourists, Robinson Crusoe Island has a mountainous and undulating terrain, formed by ancient lava flows which have built up from numerous volcanic episodes. The highest point on the island is 915 m above sea level at El Yunque, intense erosion has resulted in the formation of steep valleys and ridges. A narrow peninsula is formed in the part of the island called Cordón Escarpado. The island of Santa Clara is located just off the southwest coast, Robinson Crusoe Island lies to the west of the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, and rose from the ocean 3.8 –4.2 million years ago. A volcanic eruption on the island was reported in 1743 from El Yunque, on 20 February 1835, a day-long eruption began from a submarine vent 1.6 kilometres north of Punta Bacalao. The event was quite minor—only a Volcanic Explosivity Index 1 eruption—but it produced explosions and flames lit up the island. Robinson Crusoe has a climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current, which flows to the east of the island. Temperatures range from 3 °C to 34 °C, with a mean of 15.4 °C. Higher elevations are cooler, with occasional frosts. The Fernandezian Region is a region which includes the Juan Fernández Islands archipelago. It is in the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom, but often included within the Neotropical Kingdom. As World Biosphere Reserves since 1977, these islands have been considered of maximum scientific importance because of the plant families, genera. Out of 211 native plant species,132 are endemic, as well as more than 230 species of insects, Robinson Crusoe Island has one endemic plant family, Lactoridaceae. The Magellanic penguin is found there. The Juan Fernández firecrown is an endemic and critically endangered red hummingbird, the Masatierra petrel is named after the islands former name
25.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
26.
William Dampier
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William Dampier was an English explorer and navigator who became the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnavigate the world three times. He has also described as Australias first natural historian, as well as one of the most important British explorers of the period between Sir Walter Raleigh and James Cook. On a later voyage he rescued Alexander Selkirk, a former crewmate who may have inspired Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe, others influenced by Dampier include James Cook, Horatio Nelson, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace. William Dampier was born at Hymerford House in East Coker, Somerset and he was baptised on 5 September, but his precise date of birth is not recorded. He was educated at Kings School, Bruton, Dampier sailed on two merchant voyages to Newfoundland and Java before joining the Royal Navy in 1673. He took part in the two Battles of Schooneveld in June of that year, Dampiers service was cut short by a catastrophic illness, and he returned to England for several months of recuperation. For the next years he tried his hand at various careers, including plantation management in Jamaica and logging in Mexico. Returning to England, he married Judith around 1679, only to leave for the sea a few months later. This led to his first circumnavigation, during which he accompanied a raid across the Isthmus of Darién in Panama, the pirates then raided Spanish settlements in Peru before returning to the Caribbean. Dampier made his way to Virginia, where in 1683 he was engaged by the privateer John Cooke, Cooke entered the Pacific via Cape Horn and spent a year raiding Spanish possessions in Peru, the Galápagos Islands, and Mexico. This expedition collected buccaneers and ships as it went along, at one time having a fleet of ten vessels, Cooke died in Mexico, and a new leader, Edward Davis, was elected captain by the crew. Dampier transferred to the privateer Charles Swans ship, Cygnet, and on 31 March 1686 they set out across the Pacific to raid the East Indies, calling at Guam, Spanish witnesses saw the predominantly English crew as not only pirates and heretics but also cannibals. Leaving Swan and 36 others behind on Mindanao, the rest of the privateers sailed on to Manila, Poulo Condor, China, the Spice Islands, and New Holland. On 5 January 1688, Cygnet anchored two miles from shore in 29 fathoms on the northwest coast of Australia, near King Sound. Dampier and his ship remained there until March 12, and while the ship was being careened Dampier made notes on the fauna and flora, among his fellows were a significant number of Spanish sailors, most notably Alonso Ramírez, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Later that year, by agreement, Dampier and two shipmates were marooned on one of the Nicobar Islands and they obtained a small canoe which they modified after first capsizing and then, after surviving a great storm at sea, called at Acheen in Sumatra. Dampier returned to England in 1691 via the Cape of Good Hope, penniless and he also had as a source of income a slave known as Prince Jeoly, from Miangas, who became famous for his tattoos. Dampier exhibited Jeoly in London, thereby also generating publicity for a book based on his diaries, the publication of the book, A New Voyage Round the World, in 1697 was a popular sensation, creating interest at the Admiralty
27.
Cinque Ports (1703 ship)
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Cinque Ports is also the name for a group of five English port towns, the namesake of this ship. Cinque Ports was an English ship whose sailing master was Alexander Selkirk, the ship was part of a 1703 expedition commanded by William Dampier, who captained an accompanying ship, the 26-gun St George with a complement of 120 men. When the War of the Spanish Succession broke out in 1701, English privateers were recruited to act against French, William Dampiers original companions dropped out of the scheme and a new agreement was made with Captain Charles Pickering of Cinque Ports. Cinque Ports was fitted out with 16 guns and a crew of 63, the two ships left Kinsale on 11 September 1703 with the intention of attacking Spanish galleons returning from Buenos Aires. When this plan fell through the privateers decided to make for the South Sea by way of Cape Horn, after rounding the Horn and cruising up the South American coast as far as Panama, capturing several Spanish ships on the way, the two captains decided to separate. Captain Stradling stopped at one of the islands of the Juan Fernández Archipelago off the Chilean coast in September 1704 to resupply, there was a dispute between Stradling and Alexander Selkirk regarding Cinque Ports seaworthiness, and Selkirk impetuously chose to be put ashore on the uninhabited island. Selkirk remained on Juan Fernández in solitude for four years and four months and his experience was one of the likely sources of inspiration for the character Robinson Crusoe in the novel by Daniel Defoe. The owners of Cinque Ports subsequently took legal action against Dampier over the loss of their ship, the shipowners would be disappointed, however, as Dampier died in 1715, leaving nothing but debts. Leslie in Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls, True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors
28.
Woodes Rogers
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Woodes Rogers was an English sea captain and privateer and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk, Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father held shares in ships, but he died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, Duke and Duchess, and was the captain of Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean, en route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernandez Island on 1 February 1709. The expedition made Rogers a national hero, but his brother was killed, on his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, however, his first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53, Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol, in November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship, little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans ship on the Newfoundland fleet. Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704, the following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family, in 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes. Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son, at least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers father in law and it did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French. Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book and he turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses. In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers father and this was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career. Commanding two frigates, Duke and Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe, the ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708
29.
Daniel Defoe
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Daniel Defoe, born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer, journalist, pamphleteer, and spy, most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe. He was also a pioneer of economic journalism, Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding De to his name, and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux and his birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659–1662, with 1660 considered the most likely. His father James Foe was a tallow chandler and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and his mother Annie had died by the time he was about ten. Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fishers boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, during this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England. Defoe entered the world of business as a merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate, in 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley, the daughter of a London merchant, receiving a dowry of £3,700 – a huge amount by the standards of the day. With his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, in 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1688, and Defoe became one of Williams close allies, some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe, who had established himself as a merchant. In 1692, Defoe was arrested for debts of £700, though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000 and his laments were loud and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest. Following his release, he travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto. By 1695, he was back in England, now using the name Defoe and serving as a commissioner of the glass duty. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex, Defoes first notable publication was An Essay upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to an army during disarmament. His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman, defended the king against the perceived xenophobia of his enemies, satirising the English claim to racial purity. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legions Memorial to the Speaker of the House of Commons, later his employer Robert Harley and it demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France. The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, in it, he ruthlessly satirised both the High church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called occasional conformity, such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney
30.
Robinson Crusoe
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Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the works protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading readers to believe he was a real person. Despite its simple style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. It is generally seen as a contender for the first English novel, Crusoe sets sail from the Queens Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm and this journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury, the ship is en route to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain, with the captains help, Crusoe procures a plantation. He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north and he sees penguins and seals on his island. As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the dog and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and he builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from ironwood, he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery and he also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing, more years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to them for committing an abomination but later realizes he has no right to do so. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing prisoners, when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion Friday after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity, after more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the natives and save two prisoners. One is Fridays father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Fridays father and bring back the others, build a ship, before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears, mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island
31.
Alejandro Selkirk Island
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It is situated 180 km west of Robinson Crusoe Island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The island measures 11 km north–south and 6 km east–west, and has an area of 49.5 km2. It is densely wooded and very mountainous and is marked by ridges and numerous deep ravines lead to a steep, the coastal cliffs are up to 1,000 m high. The south, west and north sides of the island have sandy strips of beach which extend 161 m offshore in places. The highest peak, Cerro de Los Innocentes, rises to 1,650 m in the southwest part of Alejandro Selkirk Island, where there is also a prominent rock with a hole through it. Landing is possible near the center of the east shore at Quebrada Sánchez, and at the foot of Quebrada Las Casas 33°45′S 80°43′W), anchorage can be taken about 0.3 mi east-northeast of Quebrada Sánchez, in depths of 40.2 m to 49.4 m. The ravine is recognized by a patch on a hill near it. Anchorage can also be taken, in depths of 31.1 m to 50 m, with sand bottom, dating of rocks on the island show that it is the youngest of the Juan Fernández Islands at an age of 1 –2 million years old. Due to its age, the island shows little evidence of erosion. According to some reports, now disputed, about 59 km southwest of the island is the submerged Sefton Reef, almost reaching sea level. Podesta Island, once reported to lay farther to the west, is a phantom island, Alejandro Selkirk has a subtropical climate, moderated by the cold Humboldt Current and the southeast trade winds. Temperatures range from 3 °C to 34 °C, with a mean of 15.4 °C. Average annual precipitation is 1,081 mm, varying from 318 mm to 1,698 mm year to year, rainfall is higher in the winter months, and varies with elevation and exposure, elevations above 500 m experience almost daily rainfall. A census of 1797 estimated a population 2 –3 million fur seals, the species was hunted to near extinction by the 19th century and was thought to be extinct for 100 years until 200 were found on the island in 1965. Since then, the population has grown steadily at 15% to 20% every year, the Masafuera rayadito is endemic to Alejandro Selkirk and one of the rarest South American birds with only 140 individuals left. The Alejandro Selkirk firecrown Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi an endemic subspecies of the Juan Fernández firecrown became extinct in 1908 by feral goats, the flora on the island is in the Fernandezian Region Floristic Region, in the Antarctic Floristic Kingdom, but often also included within the Neotropical Kingdom. Endemic plant families include Lactoridaceae, with endemic plant genera also found, throughout much of its history, the island has been uninhabited. There was formerly a settlement along the middle of the east coast
32.
Ed Stafford
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Edward James Stafford, known as Ed Stafford, is an English explorer. He holds the Guinness World Record for being the first human ever to walk the length of the Amazon River, Stafford now hosts shows on Discovery Channel. Stafford was born in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, England and raised in Leicestershire and he was adopted as a baby by Barbara and Jeremy Stafford, who were both solicitors in Leicestershire. Stafford joined the British Army in 1998, serving as an officer in the Devonshire. After completing a tour of Northern Ireland in 2000, Stafford left the Army as a captain in 2002. It was after his expedition to the Amazon in 2010 that Stafford began a search for his biological parents, says Stafford upon the reason for searching for his biological family, “There had always been this background intrigue. I looked for my family, not because I needed new parents in my life. Ed was educated at Uppingham and was a Cub and a Scout in Leicestershire as a boy, on 9 August 2010, he became the first person to walk the entire length of the Amazon River, documented in the 2011 TV series Walking the Amazon on Channel 5. Staffords expedition began with a friend, Luke Collyer, on 2 April 2008, Collyer left after three months, and Stafford completed the journey with Gadiel “Cho” Sánchez Rivera. He undertook the attempt for several charities, in May 2009 Stafford appeared on the cover of the Royal Geographical Societys Geographical magazine. In April 2010 Stafford passed the barrier, having been walking since 2 April 2008. In May that year Stafford was made Diane Sawyers ABC News Person of the Week, Staffords accomplishment of walking the Amazon river has been described by Sir Ranulph Fiennes as being truly extraordinary. in the top league of expeditions past and present. Stafford was announced as one of National Geographic Adventurers of the Year 2010 and then in March 2011 he was awarded European Adventurer of the Year in a ceremony in Stockholm, in 2011 Guinness World Records formally recognised Staffords achievement and he appears in the 2012 Guinness Book of Records. Also in 2011, Stafford was awarded the Mungo Park Medal by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in recognition of outstanding contributions to knowledge through exploration. He was not presented the award until 2014 at an event in Perth Scotland, Ed Stafford, Naked and Marooned was aired on Discovery Channel in the UK in March 2013 and Naked Castaway aired in the USA in April of the same year. Staffords book of the 60 days in isolation was released in the UK in June 2014 and is due to be released in the USA in September 2014. Stafford is now a face of Discovery Channel and has his own self-filmed series Marooned with Ed Stafford that is a joint Europe. The program will air on Discovery Channel UK and its subsidiaries in the latter part of 2015
33.
Fiji
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Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fijis principal cruise port, about three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levus coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi or Lautoka. Viti Levus interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain, Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry. The countrys currency is the Fijian dollar, Fijis local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development. The majority of Fijis islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago, today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm, a republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups détat. In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power, later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, an election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimaramas FijiFirst party won with 59. 2% of the vote, Fijis main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name Fiji is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows, Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. Feejee, the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, the first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago
34.
Discovery Channel
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Discovery Channel is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is the flagship television property of Discovery Communications, a publicly traded company run by CEO David Zaslav. S. Flagship channel and its various owned or licensed television channels internationally, programming on the flagship Discovery Channel in the U. S. A popular annual feature on the channel is Shark Week, which airs on Discovery during the summer months, as of February 2015, Discovery Channel is available to approximately 96,589,000 pay television households in the United States. John Hendricks founded the channel and its parent company, Cable Educational Network Inc. in 1982, several investors raised $5 million in start-up capital to launch the network. The Discovery Channel began broadcasting on June 17,1985 and it was initially available to 156,000 households and broadcast for 12 hours each day between 3 p. m. and 3 a. m. About 75 percent of its content had never been broadcast on U. S. television before. In its early years, the focus centered on educational programming in the form of cultural and wildlife documentaries. It also broadcast some Soviet programming during this time, including the news program Vremya, in 1988, the channel premiered the nightly program World Monitor. By 1990, the channel was available in over 50 million households, the drop in viewership was widely attributed to an over-reliance on a few hit series, such as Monster Garage and American Chopper. Some critics said such shows strayed from Discoverys intention of providing more educationally based shows aimed at helping viewers learn about the world around them, in 2005, Discovery changed its programming focus to include more popular science and historical themes. The networks ratings eventually recovered in 2006, the network was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards that year for shows including The Flight that Fought Back and Deadliest Catch. In 2007, Discovery Channels top series included the Emmy Award- and Peabody Award-winning Planet Earth, Dirty Jobs, MythBusters, Discovery Channels 2008 lineup included Fight Quest and Smash Lab. On September 1,2010, 43-year-old James Jay Lee entered the Discovery Communications headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, Lee fired at least one shot and held several employees hostage, he was later shot dead by police. Lee had published criticisms of the network at Savetheplanetprotest. com, in December 2015, Discovery Communications launched its TV Everywhere service, Discovery Go, which features live and video-on-demand content from Discovery Channel and eight of its sister networks. Popular programs on the channel have included the Shark Week programming event, Deadliest Catch, MythBusters, How Its Made, Dirty Jobs, Cash Cab, Christopher Lowell won a Daytime Emmy Award in 2000 for The Christopher Lowell Show. After the 2007 victory with the Spaniard Alberto Contador, Discovery Channel discontinued the cycling sponsorship, Discovery Channel Radio was a radio network, whose programming consisted of audio versions of popular programs from the Discovery Communications family of television channels. Discovery Channel Radio was previously carried by XM Satellite Radio, until its removal from the provider in early September 2005, sirius Satellite Radio dropped Discovery Radio from its lineup on February 21,2007, it was also carried on both of Canadas major satellite radio services. Discovery Channel lent its brand to stores in malls and other locations across America
35.
Castaway
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A castaway is a person who is cast adrift or ashore. While the situation usually happens after a shipwreck, some people voluntarily stay behind on a deserted island, a person may also be left ashore as punishment. The provisions and resources available to castaways may allow them to live on the island until other people arrive to take them off the island. However, such rescue missions may never happen if the person is not known to still be alive and these scenarios have given rise to the plots of numerous stories in the form of novels and film. Icelander Thorgisl set out to travel to Greenland and he and his party were first driven into a remote sound on the east coast of Greenland. Thorgisl, his infant son and several others were abandoned there by their thralls. Thorgisl and his party traveled slowly along the coast to the Eystribyggð settlement of Erik the Red on the southwest coast of Greenland, along the way they met a Viking, an outlaw who had escaped to East Greenland. This history is told in Flóamanna saga and Origines Islandicae and occurred during the years of Viking Greenland. Icelander Grettir Ásmundarson was outlawed by the assembly in Iceland, after many years on the run he and two companions went to the forbidden island of Drangey, where he lived several more years before his pursuers managed to kill him in 1031. The Portuguese Fernão Lopes was marooned on the island of Saint Helena in 1513 and he had lost his right hand, the thumb of his left hand, his nose and his ears as punishment for mutiny and apostasy for converting to Islam. In April 1520, a mutiny broke out in Magellans fleet while at the Patagonian seashore, Magellan put it down and executed some of the ringleaders. He then punished two others, the King of Spains delegate, Juan de Cartagena and the priest, Pedro Sánchez Reina and they were never heard from again. Gonzalo de Vigo was a Spanish sailor who deserted from Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosas Trinidad, part of the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, Gonzalo de Vigo was the first recorded European castaway in the history of the Pacific Ocean. A French noblewoman, Marguerite de la Rocque was marooned in 1542 on an island in the Gulf of St Lawrence, off the coast of Quebec. She was left by her near relative Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval, the young man joined her, as did a servant woman, both of whom later died, as did the baby de la Rocque bore. Marguerite survived by hunting animals and was later rescued by fishermen. She returned to France and became well-known when her story was recorded by the Queen of Navarre in her work Heptaméron, in 1629 Jan Pelgrom de Bye van Bemel, a cabin boy, and Wouter Loos, a 24-year-old soldier, had been on board the Dutch ship Batavia. The ship was famous because it was wrecked on Morning Reef of the Wallabi Group of the Houtman Abrolhos, leading to the infamous Batavia Mutiny, when all culprits were arrested on the islets, most of them were either hanged or sent to court in the town of Batavia
36.
Exile
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To be in exile means to be away from ones home, while either being explicitly refused permission to return or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return. It can be a form of punishment and solitude and it is common to distinguish between internal exile, i. e. forced resettlement within the country of residence, and external exile, which is deportation outside the country of residence. Although most commonly used to describe a situation, the term is also used for groups. Exile can also be a departure from ones homeland. Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. In some cases the head of state is allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government. A wealthy citizen who departs from an abode for a lower tax jurisdiction in order to reduce his/her tax burden is termed a tax exile. Creative people such as authors and musicians who achieve sudden wealth sometimes find themselves among this group, in 2012, Eduardo Saverin, one of the founders of Facebook, made headlines by renouncing his U. S. citizenship before his companys IPO. In some cases a person lives in exile to avoid legal issues. For example, nuns were exiled following the Communist coup détat of 1948 in Czechoslovakia, many Jewish prayers include a yearning to return to Jerusalem and the Jewish homeland. The entire population of Crimean Tatars that remained in their homeland Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations. At Diego Garcia, between 1967 and 1973 the British Government forcibly removed some 2,000 Chagossian resident islanders to make way for a military base today jointly operated by the US, since the Cuban Revolution over one million Cubans have left Cuba. Most of these self-identify as exiles as their motivation for leaving the island is political in nature, most of the exiles children also consider themselves to be Cuban exiles. It is to be noted that under Cuban law, children of Cubans born abroad are considered Cuban citizens, during a foreign occupation or after a coup détat, a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. Exile is a motif in ancient Greek tragedy. In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a worse than death. The motif reaches its peak on the play Medea, written by Euripides in the fifth century BC, euripides’ Medea has remained the most frequently performed Greek tragedy through the 20th century. After Medea was abandoned by Jason and had become a murderer out of revenge, she fled to Athens and married king Aigeus there, due to a conflict with him, she must leave the Polis and go away into exile
37.
Walking the plank
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Walking the plank was a method of execution practiced on special occasion by pirates, mutineers, and other rogue seafarers. For the amusement of the perpetrators, captives were bound so they could not swim or tread water and forced to walk off a wooden plank or beam extended over the side of a ship. Although forcing captives to walk the plank is a motif of pirates in popular culture in the 19th through 21st centuries, few instances are documented, the phrase is recorded in English lexicographer Francis Groses Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, which was published in 1788. In 1769, mutineer George Wood confessed to his chaplain at Londons Newgate Prison that he, author Douglas Botting, in describing the account, characterized it as an alleged confession and an obscure account. Which may or may not be true, and in any case had nothing to do with pirates. In July 1822, William Smith, captain of the British sloop Blessing, was forced to walk the plank by the Spanish pirate crew of the schooner Emanuel in the West Indies. The Times of London reported on February 14,1829 that the packet Redpole was captured by the pirate schooner President, the commander was shot and the crew were made to walk the plank. It was said that forcing loyal seamen to walk the plank was supposed, by the perpetrators, to avoid the penalty for murder, but this legal argument would hardly have worked. Not only would most legal authorities not have hesitated to prosecute any person who forced another to his death, despite the likely rarity of the practice in actual history, walking the plank entered popular myth and folklore via depictions in popular literature. The title page of Charles Ellmss sensationalist 1837 work The Pirates Own Book, apparently drawing on Defoes description, contains an illustration titled A Piratical Scene – Walking the Death Plank. The term has been used in times to describe the resignation of a public figure which occurs amidst controversy, or was demanded by the public, corporate shareholders. Walking the Plank, The Mariners Mirror, vol
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
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Capital punishment by country
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The following is a summary of the use of capital punishment by country. Historically, capital punishment has been used in almost every part of the world, currently, the large majority of countries have either abolished or discontinued the practice. The U. S. is the only Western country to use the death penalty, the use of capital punishment is usually divided into the four categories set out below. As of 1 April 2017, of the 195 independent states that are UN members or have UN observer status,55 retain it in law and practice. 6 have abolished it, but retain it for exceptional or special circumstances,103 have abolished it for all crimes. Recent complete abolition of capital punishment Madagascar, Fiji, Suriname, Republic of the Congo, Nauru, Guinea, execution of minors Since 2009, Iran and Saudi Arabia have executed offenders who were under the age of 18 at the time the crime was committed. Public execution In 2013, public executions were carried out by the governments of Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, extrajudicial execution In some countries the practice of extrajudicial execution outside their own formal legal frameworks occurs sporadically or systematically. Information on this is not covered in this article, of the countries considered to be industrialized, just four countries continue to perform capital punishment, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan. The European Union holds a position against the death penalty. Abolition is also a pre-condition for entry into the Union, in Europe, only Belarus continues to actively use capital punishment. Russia retains the death penalty in law, but there is a moratorium, the last execution on Russian territory was in Chechnya in 1999. Of the other former Soviet republics, only Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan have not formally abolished capital punishment, in Kazakhstan, it may only be used in exceptional/special circumstances such as for crimes committed in wartime. Most executions worldwide take place in Asia, China is the worlds most active death penalty country. North Korea often uses capital punishment, in Islamic countries such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, the numbers of executions are also very high. Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan belong to the few industrialized democracies that have the death penalty, in 2016, Nauru & Mongolia repealed the death penalty, while in the Philippines, the newly elected President, Rodrigo Duterte, wants to bring it back. India executes criminals only in extreme cases, a total of 26 executions have taken place in India since 1991 which is a low execution rate compared to other countries. In Africa, there are countries that use the death penalty. Chad abolished the death penalty in 2014, but reintroduced it for acts of terrorism in 2015, botswana and Equatorial Guinea are examples of countries that still execute people
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