1.
De Sade (film)
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De Sade is a 1969 American-German drama film starring Keir Dullea and Senta Berger. It is based on the life of Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade, Dullea, in his first film role since the 1968 release of 2001, A Space Odyssey, plays the title character in a film characterized by its psychedelic imagery and go-go sensibilities. As the dying Marquis recalls his life out of sequence, he is terrorized by his uncle, the middle-aged Marquis de Sade arrives at his ancestral estate of La Coste, having escaped incarceration. In the theater at the castle, he meets his uncle, the Abbe, the play is a parody of the Marquis parents haggling with M. and Mme. Montreuil over the marriage of their children, leading to a flashback in time to the actual negotiations. The young Louis flees the proposed marriage to Mlle, Renée de Montreuil, but returns and marries her under threat of imprisonment. Louis would prefer Renées younger sister Anne, finding Renée to be very frightened and cold to his charms. At an orgy with several prostitutes, Louis begins to get very rough in his play and explains some of his philosophy to the women. Released into the custody of his mother-in-law Mme. de Montreuil, when Anne is sent away to a convent school, Louis begins liaisons first with his mother-in-laws protégé, Mlle. Collette, and then with an actress, La Beauvoisin, for whom he builds a theater at La Coste, the first play performed is for the benefit of the Abbe, who is chagrined to see that the performance is about his own misuse of the young boy Louis. In a flashback, the event is played out, the Marquiss later deeds. Mme. de Montreuil is forced to pay Rose for her silence, Louis continues to pursue Anne, and after an elaborate orgy where he is whipped into unconsciousness, he flees to Italy with the young woman. Returned to prison, Louis is tormented with visions of Mme. de Montreuil disowning Anne, Mme. de Montreuil visits him in prison, and tearfully tells him he has ruined her family and that he will remain imprisoned forever. Back on the stage, a trial is held where the Marquis is accused of murdering Anne. The mysterious old man is present at the proceedings, and Anne herself appears to accuse Louis of her murder, Louis ruefully remembers Annes death in Italy from the plague. An older Louis talks with Renée about their misfortunes and regrets, at another drunken and destructive debauchery, Louis begins to see visions of Renee in the midst of his revel. The old man lies on his bed in prison, crying out for Renees forgiveness. It is revealed that the old man is the Marquis himself, deciding to look one last time, the old man closes his eyes as the scene cuts back the middle-aged Marquis arriving at La Coste
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
4.
Charenton (asylum)
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Charenton was a lunatic asylum, founded in 1645 by the Frères de la Charité or Brothers of Charity in Charenton-Saint-Maurice, now Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne, France. Charenton was first under monastic rule, then Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul took over the asylum after their founding, although the town itself was the location of the headquarters of the French Huguenots in the 1500s and 1600s, the founders of Charenton were Catholic. At the time, many hospitals and asylums were Catholic institutions after the Council of Trent, Charenton was known for its humanitarian treatment of patients, especially under its director the Abbé de Coulmier in the early 19th century. He showed an aptitude for understanding Psychoanalytic theory. He used the technique of art therapy to help patients manifest their madness through physical art forms, now permanently closed, the psychiatric hospital is known as the Esquirol Hospital, after Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol who directed the institution in the 19th century. The 1845 structures architect was Émile Gilbert, Charenton was founded as a hospital for the poor in 13 September 1641 by the Frères de la Charité after receiving a donation from Sébastien Leblanc, an advisor to Louis XIII. Initially the hospital consisted of a house containing 5 beds. Starting September 1660 the mentally ill were required to be cared for in hospitals as per a government mandate, care at Charenton shifted to reflect this change, prioritizing care for more privileged members of the population with mental symptoms. In 1804 François Simonnet de Coulmiers became the director of the asylum, Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol became the chief physician of the hospital in 1826. Later on in the 18th century, hospitals and asylums shifted away from treatments to more humane solutions. Coulmier was known for using this and other forms of psychotherapy rather than the inhumane treatments exhibited at other facilities to encourage alternative forms of expression. However, his psychodrama therapy came under fire by Esquirol and others who criticized him for employing a fruitless treatment, despite the tendency to use more humane therapies, not all patients necessarily lived pleasant lives in the asylum. Famous prisoners were held in the Charenton asylum including Latude, the Comte de Sanois and Marquis de Sade, Marquis de Sade was arrested for his works Justine and Juliette, and was later transferred to Charenton without a trial after his opponents declared him insane. The noted Belgian-born musicologist and composer Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny also died at the Charenton asylum, the caricaturist André Gill died there in 1885. Poet Paul Verlaine was interned in 1887 and again in 1890, artist Charles Méryon died at the asylum in 1868. Composer François Devienne died in the asylum in 1803, the mathematician André Bloch spent the last three decades of his life there, and mathematician Joseph-Émile Barbier also stayed there before being found and brought back into academia by Bertrand. Pierre Gaveaux was a French operatic tenor and composer who was sent to Charenton. At the time, many believed that with a degree of insanity came the ability to be creative and have access to greater truths
5.
Bourbon Restoration
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The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and they were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the gains made since 1789. King Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from 6 April 1814 until the uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the Hundred Days—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France, when Napoleon was again defeated by the Seventh Coalition they returned to power in July. During the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime. The period was characterized by a conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris, the political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided more than 80 departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, the bishop still ruled his diocese, and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other people were paid salaries by the state. All the old rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful, education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris
6.
The 120 Days of Sodom
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The 120 Days of Sodom, or the School of Libertinage is a novel by the French writer and nobleman Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade. Described as both pornographic and erotic, it was written in 1785 and it tells the story of four wealthy male libertines who resolve to experience the ultimate sexual gratification in orgies. The womens narratives form an inspiration for the abuse and torture of the victims. The work went unpublished until the twentieth century. In recent times it has been translated into many languages, including English, Japanese, Spanish, Sade wrote The 120 Days of Sodom in the space of 37 days in 1785 while he was imprisoned in the Bastille. However, the scroll of paper on which it was written was found hidden in walls of his cell. It was first published in 1904 by the Berlin psychiatrist Iwan Bloch and it was not until the latter half of the 20th century that it became more widely available in countries such as United Kingdom, the United States and France. The original is located in the Musée des Lettres et Manuscrits, Paris and it was purchased from a Swiss collector for €7 million. Sade described his work as the most impure tale that has ever been told since the world began. The first publisher of the work, Dr. Bloch, regarded its thorough categorisation of all manner of sexual fetishes as having scientific importance. to doctors, jurists and he equated it with Krafft-Ebings Psychopathia Sexualis. Feminist writer Simone de Beauvoir wrote an essay titled Must We Burn Sade, camille Paglia considers Sades work a satirical response to Jean-Jacques Rousseau in particular, and the Enlightenment concept of mans innate goodness in general. The novel takes place five months, November to March. Four wealthy libertines lock themselves in a castle, the Château de Silling, along with a number of victims and it is not a complete novel. Only the first section is written in detail, after that, the remaining three parts are written as a draft, in note form, with Sades notes to himself still present in most translations. The story does portray some black humor, and Sade seems almost light-hearted in his introduction, consequently, he glorifies as well as vilifies the four main protagonists, alternately declaring them freethinking heroes and debased villains, often in the same passage. It is no coincidence that they are authority figures in terms of their occupations, Sade despised religion and authority and in many of his works he enjoyed mocking them by portraying priests, bishops, judges and the like as sexual perverts and criminals. Blangis is described as being tall, strongly built and highly potent, although it is emphasised that he is a complete coward. He is 45, a scrawny and weak man, with a nasty mouth and he greatly enjoys sodomy, especially passive sodomy
7.
Justine (de Sade novel)
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Justine, or The Misfortunes of Virtue is a 1791 novel by Donatien Alphonse François de Sade, better known as the Marquis de Sade. Justine is set just before the French Revolution in France and tells the story of a woman who goes under the name of Thérèse. Her story is recounted to Madame de Lorsagne while defending herself for her crimes, en route to punishment and she explains the series of misfortunes that led her present situation. Justine was a work by the Marquis de Sade, written in two weeks in 1787 while imprisoned in the Bastille. It is a novella with relatively little of the obscenity that characterized his later writing, as it was written in the style, with much verbose. A much extended and more graphic version, entitled Justine ou Les Malheurs de la vertu, was the first of de Sades books published, a further extended version, La Nouvelle Justine ou Les Malheurs de la vertu, was published in the Netherlands in 1797. This final version, La Nouvelle Justine, departed from the narrative of the previous two versions, and included around 100 engravings. It was accompanied by a continuation, Juliette, about Justines sister, the two together formed 10 volumes of nearly 4000 pages in total, publication was completed in 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the author of Justine and Juliette. The books destruction was ordered by the Cour Royale de Paris on May 19,1815, there is standard edition of this text in hardcover, having passed into the public domain. The text itself is incorporated into collections of de Sades work. A censored English translation of Justine was issued in the US by the Risus Press in the early 1930s, the first unexpurgated English translation of Justine was published by the Olympia Press in 1953. Wainhouse later revised this translation for publication in the United States by Grove Press, other modern translated versions in print, notably the Wordsworth edition, are abridged and heavily censored. The plot concerns Justine, a 12-year-old maiden who sets off and it follows her until age 26, in her quest for virtue. She is presented with sexual lessons, hidden under a virtuous mask and these are described in true Sadean form. However, unlike some of his works, the novel is not just a catalogue of sadism. Justine and Juliette were the daughters of Monsieur de Bertole, Bertole was a widower banker who fell in love with another mans lover. The man, Monsieur de Noirseuil, in the interest of revenge, pretended to be his friend, Juliette and Justine lived in a nunnery, where the abbess of the nunnery corrupted Juliette
8.
Philosophy in the Bedroom
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Philosophy in the Boudoir is a 1795 book by the Marquis de Sade written in the form of a dramatic dialogue. Though initially considered a work of pornography, the book has come to be considered a socio-political drama, in the chapter titled Fifth Dialogue, there is a lengthy section where the character Chevalier reads a philosophical pamphlet titled Frenchmen, Some More Effort If You Wish To Become Republicans. Eugénie, a 15-year-old girl who at the beginning of the dialogue is a virgin, naïve of all things sexual, Madame de Saint-Ange, a 26-year-old libertine woman who is the owner of the house and bedroom in which the dialogue is set. She invites Eugénie for a course on being libertine. Le Chevalier de Mirval, Madame de Saint-Anges 20-year-old brother and he aids his sister and Dolmancé on the ordeal of educating Eugénie. Dolmancé, a 36-year-old atheist and bisexual, and friend of Le Chevaliers and he is Eugénies foremost teacher and educator. Madame de Mistival, Eugénies provincial, self-righteous mother, in the introduction, the Marquis de Sade exhorts his readers to indulge in the various activities in the play. He says that the work is dedicated to voluptuaries of all ages, of every sex and urges readers to emulate the characters. Lewd women, he writes, let the voluptuous Saint-Ange be your model, after her example, be heedless of all that contradicts pleasures divine laws, by which all her life she was enchained. He then urges young maidens to copy Eugénie, be as quick as she to destroy, finally, he urges male readers to study the cynical Dolmancé and follow his example of selfishness and consideration for nothing but his own enjoyment. Dolmancé is the most dominant of the characters in the dialogue and he explains to Eugénie that morality, compassion, religion and modesty are all absurd notions that stand in the way of the sole aim of human existence, pleasure. Like most of Sades work, Philosophy in the Boudoir features a great deal of sex as well as libertine philosophies, although there is some torture, the dialogue contains no actual murder, unlike many of Sades works. Both characters explain that she not be able to feel true pleasure without pain. Then they eagerly get down to the lessons, with Le Chevalier joining them in the fourth act. Eugénie is instructed on the pleasures of sexual practices and she proves to be a fast learner. Madame de Saint-Ange and her brother, the Chevalier, also have sex with one another. The Marquis de Sade believed this was his argument, if a crime took place during ones desire for pleasure. He was backed in this thought through his belief that Hobbes was wrong about mankind, the dialogue is split into seven parts, or dialogues, and was originally illustrated by Sade himself
9.
Juliette (novel)
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Juliette is a novel written by the Marquis de Sade and published 1797–1801, accompanying Sades Nouvelle Justine. While Justine, Juliettes sister, was a woman who consequently encountered nothing but despair and abuse, Juliette is an amoral nymphomaniac murderer who is successful. The full title of the novel in the original French is LHistoire de Juliette ou les Prospérités du vice, Juliette is raised in a convent. However, at age thirteen she is seduced by a woman who explains that morality, religion. Juliette takes this to the extreme and manages to murder her way through people, including various family members. During Juliettes life from age 13 to about 30, the wanton anti-heroine engages in virtually every form of depravity and she meets the ferocious Clairwil, whose main passion is in murdering young men and boys as revenge for the mans brutality to her sex. In her journeys she also becomes acquainted with Minski, a nomadic, ogre-like Muscovite, a long audience with Pope Pius VI is one of the most extensive scenes in Juliette. The heroine shows off her learning to the pope with a catalogue of alleged immoralities committed by his predecessors. The audience ends, like almost every scene in the narrative. Soon after this, the male character Brisatesta narrates two scandalous encounters, the first is with Princess Sophia, niece of the King of Prussia, who has just married the Stadtholder at the Hague. The second encounter is with Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, if one removes the narrative and pornographic scenes of Juliette, what would be left could perhaps be the ultimate example of de Sades lifelong philosophy. Juliette holds that nature is the mover of all human experience. Both Justine and Juliette were published anonymously, napoleon ordered the arrest of the author, and as a result de Sade was incarcerated without trial for the last thirteen years of his life. The essay Juliette or Enlightenment and Morality in Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adornos Dialectic of Enlightenment analyzes Juliette as the embodiment of the philosophy of enlightenment
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Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
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Western philosophy
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Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
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Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
13.
Sadomasochism
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Sadomasochism is the giving or receiving pleasure from acts involving the receipt or infliction of pain or humiliation. Practitioners of sadomasochism may seek sexual gratification from their acts, while the terms sadist and masochist refer respectively to one who enjoys giving or receiving pain, practitioners of sadomasochism may switch between activity and passivity. The abbreviation S&M is often used for sadomasochism, although practitioners themselves normally remove the ampersand, Sadomasochism is not considered a clinical paraphilia unless such practices lead to clinically significant distress or impairment for a diagnosis. Similarly, sexual sadism within the context of mutual consent, generally known under the heading BDSM, is distinguished from acts of sexual violence or aggression. The term sadomasochism is used in a variety of different ways and it can refer to cruel individuals or those who brought misfortunes onto themselves and psychiatrists define it as pathological. The two words incorporated into this compound, sadism and masochism, were derived from the names of two authors. The term Sadism has its origin in the name of the Marquis de Sade, who not only practiced sexual sadism, Masochism is named after Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, who wrote novels expressing his masochistic fantasies. These terms were first selected to identifying human behavioural phenomena and for the classification of psychological illnesses or deviant behaviour, the German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing introduced the terms Sadism and Masochism into medical terminology in his work Neue Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Psychopathia sexualis in 1890. In 1905, Sigmund Freud described sadism and masochism in his Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie as stemming from aberrant psychological development from early childhood and he also laid the groundwork for the widely accepted medical perspective on the subject in the following decades. This led to the first compound usage of the terminology in Sado-Masochism by the Viennese Psychoanalyst Isidor Isaak Sadger in his work Über den sado-masochistischen Komplex in 1913, however, the term BDSM also includes, B&D, D/s, and S&M. The terms bondage and discipline usually refer to the use of physical or psychological restraint or punishment. Both terms were introduced to the field by German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1886 compilation of case studies Psychopathia Sexualis. Pain and physical violence are not essential in Krafft-Ebings conception, and this observation is commonly verified in both literature and practice, many sadists and masochists define themselves as switchable—capable of taking pleasure in either role. However it has also argued that the concurrence of sadism and masochism in Freuds model should not be taken for granted. Freud introduced the terms primary and secondary masochism and this complete rejection is related to the death drive in Freuds psychoanalysis. In a secondary masochism, by contrast, the masochist experiences a less serious, more feigned rejection, secondary masochism, in other words, is the relatively casual version, more akin to a charade, and most commentators are quick to point out its contrivedness. In Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, René Girard attempts to resuscitate and reinterpret Freuds distinction of primary and secondary masochism, both Krafft-Ebing and Freud assumed that sadism in men resulted from the distortion of the aggressive component of the male sexual instinct. Masochism in men, however, was seen as a more significant aberration, Freud doubted that masochism in men was ever a primary tendency, and speculated that it may exist only as a transformation of sadism
14.
Voltaire
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Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 21,000 letters and over two books and pamphlets. He was an advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma. Some speculation surrounds Voltaires date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the son of a nobleman. Two of his older brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy and his brother, Armand. Nicknamed Zozo by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf, and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mothers cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric, later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father out, he sent Voltaire to study law. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies, Voltaires wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf, at The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year, Most of Voltaires early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government and these activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, the Comédie-Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation, both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation. He mainly argued for tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects peoples rights, the author adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille
15.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
16.
Baruch Spinoza
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Baruch Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese origin. Spinozas magnum opus, Ethics, was published posthumously in 1677, the work opposed René Descartes philosophy on mind–body dualism, and earned Spinoza recognition as one of Western philosophys most important thinkers. In the Ethics, Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, hegel said, You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all. His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him the prince of philosophers, Spinozas given name, which means Blessed, varies among different languages. In Hebrew, it is written ברוך שפינוזה, in Portuguese, hes called Benedito Bento de Espinosa and in Latin, Benedictus de Spinoza. Spinoza was raised in a Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam and he developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. Jewish religious authorities issued a herem against him, causing him to be shunned by Jewish society at age 23. His books were later put on the Catholic Churchs Index of Forbidden Books. Spinoza lived a simple life as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honours throughout his life. He died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness and he is buried in the churchyard of the Christian Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague. The Spinoza family probably had its origins in Espinosa de los Monteros, near Burgos, or in Espinosa de Cerrato, near Palencia, the family was expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to Portugal. Portugal compelled them to convert to Catholicism in 1498, attracted by the Decree of Toleration issued in 1579 by the Union of Utrecht, Portuguese conversos first sailed to Amsterdam in 1593 and promptly reconverted to Judaism. In 1598 permission was granted to build a synagogue, and in 1615 an ordinance for the admission, as a community of exiles, the Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam were highly proud of their identity. Spinozas father was born roughly a century after this conversion in the small Portuguese city of Vidigueira. When Spinozas father was still a child, Spinozas grandfather, Isaac de Spinoza and they were expelled in 1615 and moved to Rotterdam, where Isaac died in 1627. Spinozas father, Miguel, and his uncle, Manuel, then moved to Amsterdam where they resumed the practice of Judaism, Miguel was a successful merchant and became a warden of the synagogue and of the Amsterdam Jewish school. He buried three wives and three of his six children died before reaching adulthood, Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important cosmopolitan centres where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This flourishing commercial activity encouraged a relatively tolerant of the play of new ideas
17.
Ann Radcliffe
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Ann Radcliffe was an English author and pioneer of the Gothic novel. Her style is Romantic in its descriptions of landscapes and long travel scenes. It was her technique, the supernatural as the final revelation of inexplicable phenomena. Little is known of Ann Radcliffes life, christina Rossetti attempted to write a biography of her, but abandoned it for lack of information. According to Ruth Facer, Physically, she was said to be exquisitely proportioned – quite short, complexion beautiful as was her whole countenance, especially her eyes, eyebrows, Radcliffe was born Ann Ward in Holborn, London, on 9 July 1764. Her father was William Ward, a haberdasher, who moved to Bath to manage a china shop. Radcliffe occasionally lived with her Uncle, Thomas Bentley, in Chelsea, Bentley is best known for his partnership with his fellow Unitarian, Josiah Wedgewood, maker of the famous Wedgewood china. Sukey, Wedgewood’s daughter, also stayed in Chelsea and is Radcliffe’s only known childhood companion, sukey later married Dr Robert Darwin and had a son, Charles Darwin. Although mixing in some distinguished circles, Radcliffe seems to have made little impression in society and was described by Wedgewood as “Bentley’s shy niece”. In 1787, she married the Oxford graduate and journalist William Radcliffe, part-owner and he often came home late, and to occupy her time she began to write, and read her work to him when he returned. Theirs was a childless, but seemingly happy, marriage, Radcliffe called him her nearest relative and friend. The money she earned from her novels later allowed them to travel together, along with their dog, in her final years, Radcliffe retreated from public life and was rumoured to have become insane as a result of her writing. Ann died on the 7th February 1823 and was buried in a vault in the Chapel of Ease at St George’s in Hanover Square, Bayswater, London. ”There are few artefacts or manuscripts that give insight into Radcliffes personal life, but in 2014 a rare letter from Radcliffe to her mother-in-law was found in an archive at the British Library. Its tone suggests a relationship between the two, similar to the relationship of Ellena Rosalba and the Marchesa di Vivaldi in her novel The Italian. Radcliffes fiction is marked by supernatural events that are then provided with rational explanations. Throughout her work, traditional values are asserted, the rights of women are advocated. Radcliffe published six novels and a book of poetry, Radcliffe is considered one of the founders of Gothic literature. While there were others that preceded her, Radcliffe was the one that legitimised the genre, sir Walter Scott called her the founder of a class or school
18.
Denis Diderot
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Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at a Jesuit collège in Langres. His parents were Didier Diderot a cutler, maître coutelier, three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot, and finally their sister Angélique Diderot. According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, in 1732 Denis Diderot earned the Master of Arts degree in philosophy. Then he entered the Collège dHarcourt of the University of Paris and he abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived however and in 1734 Diderot decided to become a writer, because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a bohemian existence. In 1742 he befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in 1743 he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion, a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered due to Champions low social standing, poor education, fatherless status. She was about three years older than Diderot, the marriage in October 1743 produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, after both Diderots dead mother and sister, the death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderots opinion of religion. Babuti, Madeleine de Puisieux, Sophie Volland and Mme de Maux and his letters to Sophie Volland are known for their candor and are regarded to be among the literary treasures of the eighteenth century. Though his work was broad as well as rigorous, it did not bring Diderot riches, when the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Empress Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library and she then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. Between October 1773 and March 1774, the sick Diderot spent a few months at the court in Saint Petersburg. Diderot died of thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia and this idea seems to have been shelved. In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesburys Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit, in 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work, the Philosophical Thoughts. In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony, according to Diderot, without feeling there would be a detrimental effect on virtue and no possibility of creating sublime work
19.
Algernon Charles Swinburne
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Algernon Charles Swinburne was an English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic. He wrote several novels and collections of such as Poems and Ballads. A controversial figure at the time, Swinburne was a sado-masochist and alcoholic and was obsessed with the Middle Ages, Swinburne wrote about many taboo topics, such as lesbianism, cannibalism, sado-masochism, and anti-theism. His poems have many common motifs, such as the Ocean, Time, several historical people are featured in his poems, such as Sappho, Anactoria, Jesus and Catullus. Swinburne was born at 7 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, on 5 April 1837 and he was the eldest of six children born to Captain Charles Henry Swinburne and Lady Jane Henrietta, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Ashburnham, a wealthy Northumbrian family. He grew up at East Dene in Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight, as a child, Swinburne was nervous and frail, but was also fired with nervous energy and fearlessness to the point of being reckless. He attended Eton College, where he first started writing poetry, at Eton, he won first prizes in French and Italian. He returned in May 1860, though he never received a degree, Swinburne considered Northumberland to be his native county, an emotion reflected in poems like the intensely patriotic Northumberland, Grace Darling and others. He enjoyed riding his pony across the moors through honeyed leagues of the northland border, in the period 1857–60, Swinburne became one of Lady Pauline Trevelyans intellectual circle at Wallington Hall. After his grandfathers death in 1860, he stayed with William Bell Scott in Newcastle, in 1861, Swinburne visited Menton on the French Riviera to recover from excessive use of alcohol, staying at the Villa Laurenti. From Menton, Swinburne travelled to Italy, where he journeyed extensively, in December 1862, Swinburne accompanied Scott and his guests, probably including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, on a trip to Tynemouth. At Oxford, Swinburne met several Pre-Raphaelites, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Swinburne was an alcoholic and algolagniac and highly excitable. Thereafter, he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability and it was said of Watts that he saved the man and killed the poet. Swinburne died at the Pines on 10 April 1909 at the age of 72 and was buried at St. Boniface Church, Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight. Common gossip of the time reported that he had a crush on the explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton. The English language is poor in rhymes, and most English poets. Swinburnes work was quite popular among undergraduates at Oxford and Cambridge. T. S. Eliot read Swinburnes essays on the Shakespearean and Jonsonian dramatists in The Contemporaries of Shakespeare and The Age of Shakespeare and Swinburnes books on Shakespeare and Jonson
20.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
21.
Jean Genet
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Jean Genet was a French novelist, playwright, poet, essayist, and political activist. Early in his life he was a vagabond and petty criminal and his major works include the novels Querelle of Brest, The Thiefs Journal, and Our Lady of the Flowers, and the plays The Balcony, The Blacks, The Maids and The Screens. Genets mother was a governess or maid who raised him for the first seven months of his life before putting him up for adoption, thereafter Genet was raised in the provincial town of Alligny-en-Morvan, in the Nièvre department of central France. His foster family was headed by a carpenter and, according to Edmund Whites biography, was loving, while he received excellent grades in school, his childhood involved a series of attempts at running away and incidents of petty theft. After the death of his mother, Genet was placed with an elderly couple. According to the wife, he was going out nights and also seemed to be wearing makeup, on one occasion he squandered a considerable sum of money, which they had entrusted him for delivery elsewhere, on a visit to a local fair. For this and other misdemeanors, including repeated acts of vagrancy, in The Miracle of the Rose, he gives an account of this period of detention, which ended at the age of 18 when he joined the Foreign Legion. He was eventually given a discharge on grounds of indecency and spent a period as a vagabond, petty thief. After returning to Paris, France in 1937, Genet was in and out of prison through a series of arrests for theft, use of papers, vagabondage, lewd acts. In prison, Genet wrote his first poem, Le condamné à mort, which he had printed at his own cost, in Paris, Genet sought out and introduced himself to Jean Cocteau, who was impressed by his writing. Genet would never return to prison, by 1949, Genet had completed five novels, three plays, and numerous poems, many controversial for their explicit and often deliberately provocative portrayal of homosexuality and criminality. Sartre wrote an analysis of Genets existential development, entitled Saint Genet. Genet was strongly affected by Sartres analysis and did not write for the five years. During this time, Genet became emotionally attached to Abdallah Bentaga, however, following a number of accidents and his suicide in 1964, Genet entered a period of depression, and even attempted suicide himself. From the late 1960s, starting with an homage to Daniel Cohn-Bendit after the events of May 1968 and he participated in demonstrations drawing attention to the living conditions of immigrants in France. In 1970, the Black Panthers invited him to the USA, later the same year he spent six months in Palestinian refugee camps, secretly meeting Yasser Arafat near Amman. Profoundly moved by his experiences in the USA and Jordan, Genet wrote a lengthy memoir about his experiences, Prisoner of Love. Genet also supported Angela Davis and George Jackson, as well as Michel Foucault, Genet expresses his solidarity with the Red Army Faction of Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof, in the article Violence et brutalité, published in Le Monde,1977
22.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
23.
Antonin Artaud
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Antoine Artaud was born 4 September 1896 in Marseille, France, to Euphrasie Nalpas and Antoine-Roi Artaud. Both his parents were natives of Smyrna, and he was affected by his Greek ancestry. His mother gave birth to nine children, four out of the nine were stillborn and he contracted spinal meningitis at the age of 4. This disease has no cure, but after a long struggle including a comatose period, Artauds parents arranged a long series of sanatorium stays for their temperamental son, which were both prolonged and expensive. This lasted five years, with a break of two months in June and July 1916, when Artaud was conscripted into the French Army and he was allegedly discharged due to his self-induced habit of sleepwalking. During Artauds rest cures at the sanatorium, he read Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, in May 1919, the director of the sanatorium prescribed laudanum for Artaud, precipitating a lifelong addiction to that and other opiates. In March 1920, Artaud moved to Paris to pursue a career as a writer, while training and performing with directors including Charles Dullin and Georges Pitoeff, he continued to write both poetry and essays. Their compilation into a work, Correspondance avec Jacques Rivière, was Artauds first major publication. Artaud cultivated a great interest in cinema as well, writing the scenario for the first surrealist film, The Seashell and this film influenced Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel, two key Spanish surrealists, when they made Un Chien Andalou. Artauds performance as Jean-Paul Marat in Abel Gances Napoleon used exaggerated movements to convey the fire of Marats personality and he also played the monk Massieu in Carl Theodor Dreyers The Passion of Joan of Arc. In 1926-28, Artaud ran the Alfred Jarry Theatre, along with Roger Vitrac and he produced and directed original works by Vitrac, as well as pieces by Claudel and Strindberg. The theatre advertised that they would produce Artauds play Jet de sang in their 1926-1927 season, the Theatre was extremely short-lived, but was attended by an enormous range of European artists, including André Gide, Arthur Adamov, and Paul Valéry. In 1931, Artaud saw Balinese dance performed at the Paris Colonial Exposition, although he did not fully understand the intentions and ideas behind traditional Balinese performance, it influenced many of his ideas for theatre. Also during this year, Artauds First Manifesto for a Theatre of Cruelty was published in La Nouvelle Revue Française, it would appear as a chapter in The Theatre. In 1935, Artauds production of his adaptation of Shelleys The Cenci premiered, les Censi was a commercial failure, although it employed innovative sound effects-including the first theatrical use of the electronic instrument the Ondes Martenot—and had a set designed by Balthus. Artaud also studied and lived with the Tarahumaran people and experimented with peyote, recording his experiences, the content of this work closely resembles the poems of his later days, concerned primarily with the supernatural. Artaud also recorded his horrific withdrawal from heroin upon entering the land of the Tarahumaras, having deserted his last supply of the drug at a mountainside, he literally had to be hoisted onto his horse and soon resembled, in his words, a giant, inflamed gum. Artaud would return to later in life
24.
Georges Bataille
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Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools of philosophy and social theory, including poststructuralism. Georges Bataille was the son of Joseph-Aristide Bataille, a tax collector, born in Billom in the region of Auvergne, his family moved to Reims in 1898, where he was baptized. He went to school in Reims and then Épernay, although brought up without religious observance, he converted to Catholicism in 1914, and became a devout Catholic for about nine years. He considered entering the priesthood and attended a Catholic seminary briefly, however, he quit, apparently in part in order to pursue an occupation where he could eventually support his mother. He eventually renounced Christianity in the early 1920s, Bataille attended the École Nationale des Chartes in Paris, graduating in February 1922. Though he is referred to as an archivist and a librarian because of his employment at the Bibliothèque Nationale. After graduating he moved to the School of Advanced Spanish Studies in Madrid, as a young man, he befriended, and was much influenced by, the Russian existentialist, Lev Shestov. Founder of several journals and literary groups, Bataille is the author of a large and diverse body of work, readings, poems and he sometimes published under pseudonyms, and some of his publications were banned. Initially attracted to Surrealism, Bataille quickly fell out with its founder André Breton, although Bataille, Bataille was a member of the extremely influential College of Sociology which included several other renegade surrealists. Fascinated by human sacrifice, he founded a society, Acéphale. According to legend, Bataille and the members of Acéphale each agreed to be the sacrificial victim as an inauguration. An indemnity was offered for an executioner, but none was found before the dissolution of Acéphale shortly before the war, the group also published an eponymous review of Nietzsches philosophy which attempted to postulate what Derrida has called an anti-sovereignty. Collaborators in these projects included André Masson, Pierre Klossowski, Roger Caillois, Jules Monnerot, Jean Rollin, Bataille drew from diverse influences and used various modes of discourse to create his work. The imagery of the novel is built upon a series of metaphors which in turn refer to philosophical constructs developed in his work, the eye, the egg, the sun, the earth, the testicle. During World War II Bataille produced Summa Atheologica which comprises his works Inner Experience, Guilty, after the war he composed The Accursed Share, which he said represented thirty years work. The singular conception of sovereignty expounded there would become an important topic of discussion for Derrida, Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, Bataille also founded the influential journal Critique. Batailles first marriage was to actress Silvia Maklès, in 1928, they divorced in 1934, Bataille also had an affair with Colette Peignot, who died in 1938
25.
Charles Baudelaire
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Charles Pierre Baudelaire was a French poet who also produced notable work as an essayist, art critic, and pioneering translator of Edgar Allan Poe. His most famous work, Les Fleurs du mal, expresses the nature of beauty in modern. Baudelaires highly original style of prose-poetry influenced a generation of poets including Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud. He is credited with coining the term modernity to designate the fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in a metropolis. This obsessive idea is all a child of giant cities. Baudelaire is one of the innovators in French literature. He made Paris the subject of modern poetry and he would bring the citys details to life in the eyes and hearts of his readers. Baudelaire was born in Paris, France, on April 9,1821 and his father, François Baudelaire, a senior civil servant and amateur artist, was 34 years older than Baudelaires mother, Caroline. François died during Baudelaires childhood, in 1827, the following year, Caroline married Lieutenant Colonel Jacques Aupick, who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts. He stated in a letter to her that, There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you, Baudelaire regularly begged his mother for money throughout his career, often promising that a lucrative publishing contract or journalistic commission was just around the corner. Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he boarded, Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to idleness. Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, studying law and he began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period. He also began to run up debts, mostly for clothes, upon gaining his degree in 1839, he told his brother I dont feel I have a vocation for anything. His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy and his mother later recalled, Oh, what grief. If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have very different. He would not have left a name in literature, it is true and his stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India, in 1841 in the hope of ending his dissolute habits. The trip provided strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, on returning to the taverns of Paris, he began to compose some of the poems of Les Fleurs du Mal. At 21, he received an inheritance but squandered much of it within a few years
26.
Simone de Beauvoir
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Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach
27.
Angela Carter
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Angela Olive Carter-Pearce who published as Angela Carter, was an English novelist, short story writer and journalist, known for her feminist, magical realism, and picaresque works. In 2008, The Times ranked Carter tenth in their list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, in 2012, Nights at the Circus was selected as the best ever winner of the James Tait Black Memorial Prize. Born Angela Olive Stalker in Eastbourne, in 1940, to Sophia Olive, as a teenager she battled against anorexia. After attending Streatham and Clapham High School, in south London, she work as a journalist on the Croydon Advertiser. Carter attended the University of Bristol where she studied English literature and she married twice, first in 1960 to Paul Carter, divorcing in 1972. She then explored the United States, Asia and Europe, helped by her fluency in French, in 1977, Carter married Mark Pearce, with whom she had one son. In 1979, both The Bloody Chamber, and her essay, The Sadeian Woman and the Ideology of Pornography. In the essay, according to the writer Marina Warner, Carter deconstructs the arguments that underlie The Bloody Chamber and its about desire and its destruction, the self-immolation of women, how women collude and connive with their condition of enslavement. She was much more independent-minded than the traditional feminist of her time, as well as being a prolific writer of fiction, Carter contributed many articles to The Guardian, The Independent and New Statesman, collected in Shaking a Leg. She adapted a number of her stories for radio and wrote two original radio dramas on Richard Dadd and Ronald Firbank. Two of her fictions have been adapted for film, The Company of Wolves and these neglected works, as well as her controversial television documentary, The Holy Family Album, are discussed in Charlotte Crofts book, Anagrams of Desire. Her novel Nights at the Circus won the 1984 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for literature and her last novel, Wise Children, is a surreal wild ride through British theatre and music hall traditions. At the time of her death, Carter had started work on a sequel to Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre based on the life of Janes stepdaughter, Adèle Varens. Angela Carter died aged 51 in 1992 at her home in London after developing lung cancer, dimovitz, Scott A. Angela Carter, Surrealist, Psychologist, Moral Pornographer. I Was the Subject of the Sentence Written on the Mirror, Angela Carters Short Fiction, lit, Literature Interpretation Theory 21.1, 1-19. Dimovitz, Scott A. Angela Carter’s Narrative Chiasmus, The Infernal Desire Machines of Doctor Hoffman, dimovitz, Scott A. Cartesian Nuts, Rewriting the Platonic Androgyne in Angela Carter’s Japanese Surrealism. FEMSPEC, An Interdisciplinary Feminist Journal,6,2, 15–31, gordon, Edmund The Invention of Angela Carter, A Biography London, Chatto & Windus,2016. Kérchy, Anna, Body-Texts in the Novels of Angela Carter, at Home all was Blood and Feathers, The Werewolf in the Kitchen - Angela Carter and Horror
28.
Samuel Beckett
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Samuel Barclay Beckett was an Irish avant-garde novelist, playwright, theatre director, and poet, who lived in Paris for most of his adult life and wrote in both English and French. He is widely regarded as among the most influential writers of the 20th century, Becketts work offers a bleak, tragicomic outlook on human existence, often coupled with black comedy and gallows humour, and became increasingly minimalist in his later career. He is considered one of the last modernist writers, and one of the key figures in what Martin Esslin called the Theatre of the Absurd. Beckett was awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Literature for his writing, which—in new forms for the novel and he was elected Saoi of Aosdána in 1984. The Becketts were members of the Anglican Church of Ireland, the family home, Cooldrinagh in the Dublin suburb of Foxrock, was a large house and garden complete with tennis court built in 1903 by Samuels father, William. Samuel Beckett was born on Good Friday,13 April 1906, to William Frank Beckett, a quantity surveyor and descendant of the Huguenots, and Maria Jones Roe, a nurse, Beckett had one older brother, Frank Edward Beckett. At the age of five, Beckett attended a local playschool, where he started to learn music, in 1919, Beckett went to Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. A natural athlete, Beckett excelled at cricket as a left-handed batsman, later, he was to play for Dublin University and played two first-class games against Northamptonshire. As a result, he became the only Nobel literature laureate to have played first class cricket, Beckett studied French, Italian, and English at Trinity College, Dublin from 1923 to 1927. He was elected a Scholar in Modern Languages in 1926, Beckett graduated with a BA and, after teaching briefly at Campbell College in Belfast, took up the post of lecteur danglais at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris from November 1928 to 1930. While there, he was introduced to renowned Irish author James Joyce by Thomas MacGreevy and this meeting had a profound effect on the young man. Beckett assisted Joyce in various ways, one of which was research towards the book that became Finnegans Wake, in 1929, Beckett published his first work, a critical essay entitled Dante. Becketts close relationship with Joyce and his family cooled, however, Becketts first short story, Assumption, was published in Jolass periodical transition. In 1930, Beckett returned to Trinity College as a lecturer, in November 1930, he presented a paper in French to the Modern Languages Society of Trinity on the Toulouse poet Jean du Chas, founder of a movement called le Concentrisme. It was a parody, for Beckett had in fact invented the poet and his movement that claimed to be at odds with all that is clear. Beckett later insisted that he had not intended to fool his audience, when Beckett resigned from Trinity at the end of 1931, his brief academic career was at an end. He spent some time in London, where in 1931 he published Proust, two years later, following his fathers death, he began two years treatment with Tavistock Clinic psychoanalyst Dr. Wilfred Bion. Aspects of it became evident in Becketts later works, such as Watt, in 1932, he wrote his first novel, Dream of Fair to Middling Women, but after many rejections from publishers decided to abandon it
29.
Jim Morrison
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James Douglas Jim Morrison was an American singer, songwriter, and poet, best remembered as the lead singer of the Doors. Morrison co-founded the Doors in the summer of 1965 in Venice, the band spent two years in obscurity until shooting to prominence with the #1 single in the USA, Light My Fire, taken from their first album. Morrison recorded a total of six albums with the Doors, all of which sold well. Though the Doors recorded two albums after his death, the loss of Morrison was crippling to the band. In 1993, Morrison, as a member of the Doors, was inducted into the Rock, since his death, his fame has endured as one of the popular cultures most rebellious and oft-displayed icons, representing the generation gap and youth counterculture. He was also known for improvising spoken word poetry passages while the band played live. Morrison was ranked number 47 on Rolling Stones list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time, Ray Manzarek, who co-founded The Doors with him, said Morrison embodied hippie counterculture rebellion. Morrison was sometimes referred to by nicknames, such as Lizard King, Mr. Mojo Risin. Morrison developed an alcohol dependency during the 1960s, which at times affected his performances on stage and he died at the age of 27 in Paris. As no autopsy was performed, the cause of Morrisons death is not known. Morrison is interred at Père Lachaise Cemetery in eastern Paris, Morrison had a sister, Anne Robin, who was born in 1947 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and a brother, Andrew Lee Morrison, who was born in 1948 in Los Altos, California. His ancestors were Scottish, Irish, and English, in 1947, Morrison, then four years old, allegedly witnessed a car accident in the desert, in which a family of Native Americans were injured and possibly killed. Morrison believed this incident to be the most formative event of his life, and made repeated references to it in the imagery in his songs, poems and his family does not recall this incident happening in the way he told it. According to the Morrison biography No One Here Gets Out Alive, Morrisons family did drive past a car accident on an Indian reservation when he was a child, and he was very upset by it. The book The Doors, written by the members of the Doors. This book quotes his father as saying, We went by several Indians and it did make an impression on him. He always thought about that crying Indian and this is contrasted sharply with Morrisons tale of Indians scattered all over the highway, bleeding to death. In the same book, his sister is quoted as saying, He enjoyed telling that story and he said he saw a dead Indian by the side of the road, and I dont even know if thats true
30.
Lydia Lunch
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Lydia Lunch is an American singer, poet, writer, actress and self-empowerment speaker whose career was spawned by the New York no wave scene. The Boston Phoenix named Lunch one of the 10 most influential performers of the 1980s and her work typically features provocative and confrontational noise music delivery and has maintained an anti-commercial ethic operating independently of major labels and distributors. Lunchs moniker was given to her by Willy DeVille because she stole food for her friends, Lunch was born in Rochester, New York. She moved to New York City at the age of 16 and eventually moved into a household of artists. Soon Willy DeVille gave her the name Lunch because she often stole lunches for the Dead Boys, after befriending Alan Vega and Martin Rev at Maxs Kansas City, she founded the short-lived but influential no wave band Teenage Jesus and the Jerks, with James Chance. Both Teenage Jesus and the Jerks and the Contortions, Chances subsequent band, played on the no wave compilation No New York, Lunch later appeared on two songs on James White and the Blacks album, Off-White. In the mid-1980s, she formed her own recording and publishing company called Widowspeak Productions, on which she continues to release her own material, from music to spoken word. Two albums published by Lunchs label were released in 2013, Collision Course & Trust The Witch, by Big Sexy Noise, Lunch released her studio album Smoke in the Shadows in November 2004, through Atavistic Records and Breakin Beats, after a six-year break from music. Nels Cline, the lead guitarist of rock band Wilco, was featured on the album. Smoke in the Shadows was met with reviews by Allmusic, PopMatters. In 2009 Lunch formed the band Big Sexy Noise, the group features Lunch on vocals, James Johnston, Terry Edwards, and Ian White. Johnston, White and Edwards are members of the British band Gallon Drunk. A six-track eponymous EP was released on June 1,2009, through Sartorial Records, and included a cover of Lou Reeds song Kill Your Sons, as well as The Gospel Singer, a song co-written with Gordon. The debut, self-titled album, Big Sexy Noise, was released in 2010, for both albums, Lunch and her band completed tours throughout Europe. In 2010, The Jeffrey Lee Pierce Sessions Project launched We Are Only Riders, the album features interpretations of Pierces work by friends, collaborators, and admirers, including Lunch. Lunch also contributed to the album from the project, The Journey is Long. Although the Pierce Sessions Projects third and final album, The Task Has Overwhelmed Us, was due for release in late 2012, the schedule was changed after the release of the second installment. Glitterhouse Records, the producing the collection, instead released a third album titled Axles & Sockets in May 2014
31.
Yukio Mishima
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Yukio Mishima is the pen name of Kimitake Hiraoka, a Japanese author, poet, playwright, actor, and film director. Mishima is considered one of the most important Japanese authors of the 20th century and he was considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1968 but the award went to his countryman Yasunari Kawabata. His works include the novels Confessions of a Mask and The Temple of the Golden Pavilion, and his avant-garde work displayed a blending of modern and traditional aesthetics that broke cultural boundaries, with a focus on sexuality, death, and political change. Mishima was active as a nationalist and founded his own right-wing militia and he is remembered for his ritual suicide by seppuku after a failed coup détat attempt, known as the Mishima Incident. The Mishima Prize was established in 1988 to honor his life, Mishima was born in the Yotsuya district of Tokyo. His father was Azusa Hiraoka, a government official, and his mother, shizues father, Kenzō Hashi, was a scholar of Chinese classics, and the Hashi family had served the Maeda clan for generations in Kaga Domain. Mishimas paternal grandparents were Sadatarō Hiraoka and Natsuko Hiraoka and he had a younger sister, Mitsuko, who died of typhus in 1945 at the age of 17, and a younger brother, Chiyuki. Mishimas early childhood was dominated by the presence of his grandmother, Natsuko, through his grandmother, Mishima was a direct descendant of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Natsuko was prone to violence and morbid outbursts, which are occasionally alluded to in Mishimas works and it is to Natsu that some biographers have traced Mishimas fascination with death. Natsuko did not allow Mishima to venture into the sunlight, to engage in any kind of sport or to play other boys, he spent much of his time alone or with female cousins. Mishima returned to his family when he was 12. His father, a man with a taste for military discipline and he also raided Mishimas room for evidence of an effeminate interest in literature and often ripped apart the boys manuscripts. At the age of six, Mishima enrolled in the elite Gakushūin, at twelve, Mishima began to write his first stories. He voraciously read the works of numerous classic Japanese authors as well as Raymond Radiguet, Oscar Wilde, Rainer Maria Rilke and other European authors and he studied German, French, and English. After six years at school, he became the youngest member of the board of its literary society. Mishima was attracted to the works of the Japanese author Michizō Tachihara, Mishimas first published works included waka poetry, before he turned his attention to prose. Mishimas teachers were so impressed that they recommended the story to the literary magazine Bungei-Bunka. The story makes use of the metaphors and aphorisms that later became his trademarks and was published in form in 1944 in a limited edition because of the wartime shortage of paper
32.
Guillaume Apollinaire
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Guillaume Apollinaire was a French poet, playwright, short story writer, novelist, and art critic of Polish descent. Apollinaire is considered one of the foremost poets of the early 20th century, as well as one of the most impassioned defenders of Cubism and a forefather of Surrealism. He is credited with coining the term cubism in 1911 to describe the art movement. The term Orphism is also his, Apollinaire wrote one of the earliest Surrealist literary works, the play The Breasts of Tiresias, which became the basis for the 1947 opera Les mamelles de Tirésias. Two years after being wounded in World War I, Apollinaire died in the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, wilhelm Albert Włodzimierz Apolinary Kostrowicki was born in Rome, Italy, and was raised speaking French, Italian, and Polish. He emigrated to France in his teens and adopted the name Guillaume Apollinaire. His mother, born Angelika Kostrowicka, was a Polish noblewoman born near Navahrudak and his maternal grandfather was a general in the Russian Imperial Army who was killed in the Crimean War. Apollinaires father is unknown but may have been Francesco Costantino Camillo Flugi dAspermont, Francesco Flugi von Aspermont was a nephew of Conradin Flugi dAspermont, a poet who wrote in ladin putèr, and perhaps also of the Minnesänger Oswald von Wolkenstein. Apollinaire eventually moved from Rome to Paris and became one of the most popular members of the community of Paris. He became romantically involved with Marie Laurencin, who is identified as his muse. In late 1909 or early 1910, Metzinger painted a Cubist portrait of Apollinaire. In his Vie anecdotique, the poet proudly writes, I am honoured to be the first model of a Cubist painter, Jean Metzinger, in 1911 he joined the Puteaux Group, a branch of the Cubist movement soon to be known as the Section dOr. The opening address of the 1912 Salon de la Section dOr—the most important pre-World War I Cubist exhibition—was given by Apollinaire. On 7 September 1911, police arrested and jailed him on suspicion of aiding and abetting the theft of the Mona Lisa and a number of Egyptian statuettes from the Louvre, but released him a week later. The theft of the statues was committed by a secretary of Apollinaires, Honoré Joseph Géry Pieret. Apollinaire implicated his friend Pablo Picasso, who was brought in for questioning in the theft of the Mona Lisa. The theft of the Mona Lisa was perpetrated by Vincenzo Peruggia, Apollinaire was active as a journalist and art critic for Le Matin, Intransigeant, and Paris Journal. He once called for the Louvre to be burnt down, Apollinaire wrote the preface for the first Cubist exposition outside of Paris, VIII Salon des Indépendants, Brussels,1911
33.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
34.
Pier Paolo Pasolini
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Pier Paolo Pasolini was an Italian film director, poet, writer and intellectual. Pasolini also distinguished himself as an actor, journalist, philosopher, novelist, playwright, painter and his murder prompted an outcry in some circles of Italy, with its circumstances continuing to be a matter of heated debate. Pasolini was born in Bologna, traditionally one of the most leftist politically of Italian cities and he was the son of Carlo Alberto Pasolini, a lieutenant of the Italian army, and Susanna Colussi, an elementary school teacher. His parents married in 1921, Pasolini was born in 1922 and his family moved to Conegliano in 1923 and, two years later, to Belluno, where another son, Guidalberto, was born. In 1926, Pasolinis father was arrested for gambling debts and his mother moved with the children to her familys house in Casarsa della Delizia, in the Friuli region. That same year, his father Carlo Alberto, first detained, at any rate, Carlo Alberto was persuaded of the virtues of fascism. Pasolini began writing poems at the age of seven, inspired by the beauty of Casarsa. One of his influences was the work of Arthur Rimbaud. In 1931, his father was transferred to Idria in the Julian March, in 1933 they moved again to Cremona in Lombardy, and later to Scandiano and Reggio Emilia. Pasolini found it difficult to adapt to all moves, though in the meantime he enlarged his poetry and literature readings. In the Reggio Emilia high school, he met his first true friend, the two met again in Bologna, where Pasolini spent seven years while completing high school, here he cultivated new passions, including football. With other friends, including Ermes Parini, Franco Farolfi, Elio Meli, in 1939 Pasolini graduated and entered the Literature College of the University of Bologna, discovering new themes such as philology and aesthetics of figurative arts. He also frequented the cinema club. Pasolini always showed his friends a virile and strong exterior, totally hiding his interior travail and he took part in the Fascist governments culture and sports competitions. In his poems of this period, Pasolini started to include fragments in Friulan, I learnt it as a sort of mystic act of love, a kind of félibrisme, like the Provençal poets. After the summer in Casarsa, in 1941 Pasolini published at his own expense a collection of poems in Friulan, the work was noted and appreciated by intellectuals and critics such as Gianfranco Contini, Alfonso Gatto and Antonio Russi. His pictures had also been well received, Pasolini was chief editor of the Il Setaccio magazine, but was fired after conflicts with the director, who was aligned with the Fascist regime. A trip to Germany helped him also to perceive the status of Italian culture in that era
35.
Pete Doherty
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Peter Pete Doherty is an English musician, songwriter, actor, poet, writer, and artist. He is best known for being co-frontman of the Libertines, which he formed with Carl Barât in 1997 and his other musical projects are indie band Babyshambles and Peter Doherty and the Puta Madres. Doherty was born in Hexham, Northumberland, to a military family and his father, Peter John Doherty, was a Major in the Royal Signals, while his mother, Jacqueline Michels, was a lance-corporal in Queen Alexandras Royal Army Nursing Corps. His paternal grandfather was an Irish immigrant from Cheekpoint in County Waterford, his grandfather was Jewish. He grew up at a number of army garrisons across Britain and Europe, with his sisters Amy Jo, Doherty was the second of the three children. It was while living in Dorset, aged 11, that Doherty began playing guitar, originally in an attempt to impress a female classmate, Emily Baker. He achieved 11 GCSEs,7 of which were A* grades, at Nicholas Chamberlaine Comprehensive School in Bedworth, North Warwickshire, at the age of 16, he won a poetry competition and embarked on a tour of Russia organised by the British Council. In a clip later made famous by YouTube, an eighteen-year-old Doherty can be seen in an interview with MTV and he attended Queen Mary, a college of the University of London, to study English literature, but left the course after his first year. After leaving university, he moved into a London flat with friend and fellow musician Carl Barât, however, Dohertys increasing drug problems led to his estrangement from the band. In 2003, he was jailed for burgling Barâts flat, the two initially fell out over this incident, but made amends whilst Doherty was in prison. He was originally sentenced to 6 months, but his sentence was cut to 2 months. Upon his release, Doherty immediately reunited with Barât and the rest of the band to play a gig in the Tap n Tin pub in Chatham, Kent, following his rejoining of the band, Doherty sought treatment for his drug addiction. He attended the alternative detox centre Wat Tham Krabok, a temple in Thailand, famous for its program for crack. He left after three days and returned to England, as a consequence of this, The Libertines cancelled appearances that they were due to make at the Isle of Wight and Glastonbury festivals. However, while work was taking place on the second Libertines album in June 2004. The band cited Dohertys continuing drug addiction as the reason for his dismissal, although Barât had previously stated that the Libertines were merely on hiatus, pending Dohertys recovery, the group effectively disbanded with Dohertys departure at the end of 2004. The remaining members became involved in other projects, on 12 April 2007, Pete Doherty and Carl Barât played 13 songs together at the second of Dohertys An Evening with Pete Doherty gigs at the Hackney Empire, London. In 2010 The Libertines reformed for appearances at the Reading and Leeds Festivals and they performed on 27 August at Leeds Festival and on 28 August at Reading Festival
36.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
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Guy Debord
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Guy Louis Debord was a French Marxist theorist, writer, filmmaker, member of the Letterist International, founder of a Letterist faction, and founding member of the Situationist International. He was also briefly a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie, Guy Debord was born in Paris in 1931. Debords father, Martial, was a pharmacist who died due to illness when Debord was young, Debords mother, Paulette Rossi, sent Guy to live with his grandmother in her family villa in Italy. During World War II, the Rossis left the villa and began to travel from town to town, as a result, Debord attended high school in Cannes, where he began his interest in film and vandalism. As a young man, Debord actively opposed the French war in Algeria, Debord studied Law at the University of Paris, but left early and did not complete his college education. After ending his stint at the University of Paris, he began his career as a writer, Debord joined the Letterist International when he was 19. The Letterists were led dictatorially by Isidore Isou until an agreed upon schism ended Isous authority. This schism gave rise to several factions of Letterists, one of which was led by Debord upon Gil Wolmans unequivocal recommendation. In the 1960s, Debord led the Situationist International group, which influenced the Paris Uprising of 1968, some consider his book The Society of the Spectacle to be a catalyst for the uprising. In 1972, Debord disbanded the Situationist International after its members, including Asger Jorn and Raoul Vaneigem. Debord then focused on filmmaking with financial backing from the movie mogul and publisher, Gérard Lebovici, Debord was suspected of Lebovicis murder. Distraught by the accusations and his friends death, Debord took his films and he had agreed to have his films released posthumously at the request of the American researcher, Thomas Y. Debords two most recognized films are Society of the Spectacle and In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni, after dissolving the Situationist International, Debord spent his time reading, and occasionally writing, in relative isolation in a cottage at Champot with Alice Becker-Ho, his second wife. He continued to correspond on political and other issues, notably with Lebovici and he focused on reading material relating to war strategies, e. g. Clausewitz and Sun Tzu, and he designed a war game with Alice Becker-Ho. Debord married twice, first to Michèle Bernstein and then Alice Becker-Ho, Debord had affairs with other women, including Michèle Mochot, the daughter of a surrealist. Bernstein wrote a fictional but detailed account of the open relationships Mochot. Just before Debords death, he filmed a documentary, Son art et son temps and it has been suggested that his dark depiction of this period was a suicide note of sorts. Both Debords depression and alcohol consumption had become problematic, resulting in a form of polyneuritis, perhaps in order to end the suffering caused by these conditions, Debord committed suicide by shooting himself in the head on November 30,1994
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John Waters
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Waterss 1970s and early 1980s films feature his regular troupe of actors known as the Dreamlanders—among them Divine, Mink Stole, David Lochary, Mary Vivian Pearce, and Edith Massey. Starting with Desperate Living, Waters began casting real-life convicted criminals, Waters dabbled in mainstream filmmaking with Hairspray, which introduced Ricki Lake and earned a modest gross of US$8 million in the United States market. In 2002, Hairspray was adapted to a long-running Broadway musical, Waters was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Patricia Ann and John Samuel Waters, who was a manufacturer of fire-protection equipment. His family were upper-middle class Roman Catholics, Waters grew up in Lutherville, Maryland, a suburb of Baltimore. His boyhood friend and muse Glenn Milstead, later known as Divine, the film Lili inspired an interest in puppets in the seven-year-old Waters, who proceeded to stage violent versions of Punch and Judy for childrens birthday parties. Biographer Robrt L. Pela says that Waters mother believes the puppets in Lili had the greatest influence on Waters subsequent career, Waters was privately educated at the Calvert School in Baltimore. High School in Towson, Maryland, and Calvert Hall College High School in nearby Towson, in 1962, for his 16th birthday, Waters received an 8mm movie camera from his maternal grandmother, Stella Whitaker. Waters first short film was Hag in a Black Leather Jacket, according to Waters, the film was shown only once in a beatnik coffee house in Baltimore, although in later years he has included it in his traveling photography exhibit. Waters enrolled at New York University, the school, however, was not what Waters had in mind, NYU. I was there for about five minutes. I dont know what I was thinking about, I went to one class and they kept talking about Potemkin and that isnt what I wanted to talk about. I had just gone to see Olgas House of Shame and that was what I was more into. Extremely influential to his mind, Waters tells Robert K. Elder in an interview for The Film That Changed My Life, was The Wizard of Oz. I was always drawn to forbidden subject matter in the very, very beginning, the Wizard of Oz opened me up because it was one of the first movies I ever saw. It opened me up to villainy, to screenwriting, to costumes, I think the witch has great, great dialogue. Waters has further credited his influences as, among others, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Herschell Gordon Lewis, Federico Fellini, William Castle and he has stated that he takes an equal amount of joy and influence from high-brow art films and sleazy exploitation films. In January 1966, Waters and some friends were caught smoking marijuana on the grounds of NYU, Waters returned to Baltimore, where he completed his next two short films Roman Candles and Eat Your Makeup. These were followed by the feature-length films Mondo Trasho and Multiple Maniacs, Waters films would become Divines primary star vehicles. All of Waters early films were shot in the Baltimore area with his company of local actors, in addition to Divine, the group included Mink Stole, Cookie Mueller, Edith Massey, David Lochary, Mary Vivian Pearce, Susan Walsh, and others
39.
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses
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