1.
The Rev.
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The Reverend is an honorific style most often placed before the names of Christian clergy and ministers. There are sometimes differences in the way the style is used in different countries, the Reverend is correctly called a style but is often and in some dictionaries called a title, form of address or title of respect. The style is sometimes used by leaders in non-Christian religions such as Judaism and Buddhism. The term is an anglicisation of the Latin reverendus, the originally used in Latin documents in medieval Europe. It is the gerundive or future passive participle of the verb revereri, the Reverend is therefore equivalent to The Honourable or The Venerable. In traditional and formal English usage, both British and American, it is considered incorrect to drop the definite article, the. In practice, however, the is not used in both written and spoken English. When the style is used within a sentence, the is correctly in lower-case, the usual abbreviations for Reverend are Rev. Revd and Revd. The Reverend is traditionally used as a form with first names and surname. Use of the prefix with the surname alone is considered a solecism in traditional usage, in some countries, especially Britain, Anglican clergy are acceptably addressed by the title of their office, such as Vicar, Rector, or Archdeacon. This has traditionally been considered grammatically incorrect on the basis that it is equivalent to referring to a judge as being an honourable or a man as being a mister. It is likewise incorrect to form the plural Reverends, in some churches, especially Protestant churches in the United States, ordained ministers are often addressed as Pastor. Pastor, however, is considered correct in some churches when the minister in question is the head of a church or congregation. Male Christian priests are addressed as Father or, for example. However, in correspondence, such priests are not normally referred to as Father John, Father Smith, or Father John Smith. Father as a title is used for Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Old Catholic priests. In England, however, even Roman Catholic priests were often referred to as Mr until the 20th century except when members of a religious order, Mr is still not incorrect for priests of the Church of England. Some female Anglican or Old Catholic priests use the style The Reverend Mother and are addressed as Mother, the Reverend may be modified to reflect ecclesiastical standing and rank
The Rev.
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Portrait of the Reverend Richard Brown by
John Hesselius
2.
Domenico Ghirlandaio
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Domenico Ghirlandaio was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Florence. Ghirlandaio was part of the third generation of the Florentine Renaissance, along with Verrocchio. Many apprentices passed through Ghirlandaios workshop, including the famous Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio was born Domenico di Tommaso di Currado di Doffo Bigordi. Tommaso had two children by his second wife, also named Antonia, whom he married in 1464. Domenicos half-sister Alessandra married the painter Bastiano Mainardi in 1494, both Ghirlandaios father and his uncle, Antonio, were setaiuolo a minuto. Giorgio Vasari reported that Domenico was at first apprenticed to his father, the nickname Il Ghirlandaio came to Domenico from his father, who was famed for creating the metallic garland-like headdresses worn by Florentine women. He was eventually apprenticed to Alesso Baldovinetti to study painting and mosaic, according to the art historian Günter Passavent, he was apprenticed in Florence to Andrea del Verrocchio. He maintained an association with other Florentine painters including Botticelli. Ghirlandaio excelled in the painting of frescos and it is for his fresco cycles that he is best known, an early commission came to him in the 1470s from the Commune of San Gimignano to decorate the Chapel of Santa Fina in the Collegiate Church of that city. The frescos, executed from 1477 to 1478, depict two miraculous events associated with the death of Saint Fina, in 1480, Ghirlandaio painted St. Jerome in His Study as a companion piece to Saint Augustine in His Study by Botticelli in the Church of Ognissanti, Florence. He also painted a life-sized Last Supper in its refectory, from 1481 to 1485, he was employed on frescoes at the Palazzo Vecchio, painting among other works an Apotheosis of St. Ghirlandaio painted the Vocation of the Apostles. He also painted the now lost Resurrection of Christ, the Crossing of the Red Sea has also been attributed to him, but is consistent with the style of Cosimo Roselli who was also part of the commission. Ghirlandaio is known to have created works in Rome, now lost. The first of these paintings contains portraits of Lorenzo de Medici, Sassetti and Lorenzos children with their tutor, the Resuscitation shows the painters own likeness. In 1483, there arrived in Florence a masterpiece of the Flemish painter Hugo van der Goes, now known as the Portinari Altarpiece, it was an Adoration of the Shepherds, commissioned by Tommaso Portinari, an employee of the Medici Bank. The painting was in oil paint, not the tempera employed in Florence, the aspect of the painting that had a profound effect on Ghirlandaio was the naturalism with which the shepherds were depicted. Ghirlandaio painted the altarpiece of the Sassetti chapel, an Adoration of the Shepherds and it is in this painting that he particularly shows his indebtedness to the Portinari Altarpiece. The shepherds, among whom is a portrait of the artist himself, are portrayed with a realism that was an advance in Florentine painting at that time, the altarpiece is still in position in Santa Trinita, surrounded by the frescos of which it was the centrepiece
Domenico Ghirlandaio
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Supposed
self-portrait, from
Adoration of the Magi, 1488
Domenico Ghirlandaio
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Pope Gregory announces the death of Santa Fina, in the Collegiate Church of San Gimignano (about 1477)
Domenico Ghirlandaio
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The Adoration of the Shepherds,
Sassetti Chapel, contains a portrait of Ghirlandaio as one of the Shepherds.
Domenico Ghirlandaio
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The Confirmation of the Franciscan Rule from the
Sassetti Chapel, with portraits of
Lorenzo de' Medici and his family occupying prominent positions as spectators to the event.
3.
Tornabuoni Chapel
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The Tornabuoni Chapel is the main chapel in the church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy. It is famous for the extensive and well-preserved fresco cycle on its walls, one of the most complete in the city, the main chapel of Santa Maria Novella was first frescoed in the mid-14th century by Andrea Orcagna. Remains of these paintings were found during restorations in the 1940s, some of these were detached and can be seen today in the Museum of the church. By the late 15th century, Orcagnas frescoes were in poor condition, however, the Ricci had never recovered from their bankruptcy in 1348, and so they arranged to sell their rights to the choir to the Sassetti. Francesco Sassetti wanted the new frescoes to portray stories of St. Francis of Assisi, however, Sassetti therefore moved the commission to the church of Santa Trinita, where Ghirlandaio executed one of his masterworks, the Sassetti Chapel. The rights to the chapel in Santa Maria Novella that were lost by the Sassetti were then sold by the Ricci to Giovanni Tornabuoni, John the Baptist, patron of Tornabuoni and of the city of Florence. It is possible that the new scenes followed the pattern as Orcagnas. The windows were executed according to Ghirlandaios design. The complex was completed by an altarpiece portraying the Madonna del Latte in Glory with Angel and Saints, on the recto a Resurrection of Christ was painted. This work is now divided between the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin and the Alte Pinakothek, Munich. The cycle portrays on three walls the Life of the Virgin and the Life of St John the Baptist, the saint of Florence. The left and right walls each have three rows, each divided into two rectangular scenes framed by fictive architecture, and surmounted by a large lunette beneath the vault, each side wall has a total of seven narrative scenes which are read beginning from the bottom. The chancel wall has a mullioned window of three lights with stained glass, provided in 1492 by Alessandro Agolanti after Ghirlandaios design. On the lower part of the wall is a portrait of Giovanni Tornabuoni and his wife Francesca Pitti. Above the window is another large lunette, containing the Coronation of the Virgin, in the vault are depicted the Four Evangelists. The first episode represents the expulsion of Joachim, the father of Mary, a ceremony is taking place in which several figures are carrying lambs for sacrifice. However, Joachim was banned from attending due to his alleged sterility, Ghirlandaio set the scene in a sumptuous loggia of Greek cross plan, with a sequence of arches in the background and an octagonal altar in the middle, where the sacrificial fire is lit. The characters are illuminated from above, as if by the lighting from the real chapel windows
Tornabuoni Chapel
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View of the Tornabuoni Chapel
Tornabuoni Chapel
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Giovanni Tornabuoni
Tornabuoni Chapel
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The Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple
Tornabuoni Chapel
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Nativity of Mary
4.
Santa Maria Novella
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Santa Maria Novella is a church in Florence, Italy, situated just across from the main railway station named after it. Chronologically, it is the first great basilica in Florence, and is the citys principal Dominican church, the church, the adjoining cloister, and chapter house contain a multiplicity of art treasures and funerary monuments. Especially famous are frescoes by masters of Gothic and early Renaissance and they were financed by the most important Florentine families, who ensured themselves funerary chapels on consecrated ground. This church was called Novella because it was built on the site of the 9th-century oratory of Santa Maria delle Vigne, when the site was assigned to Dominican Order in 1221, they decided to build a new church and adjoining cloister. The church was designed by two Dominican friars, Fra Sisto Fiorentino and Fra Ristoro da Campi, building began in the mid-13th century, and was finished about 1360 under the supervision of Friar Iacopo Talenti with the completion of the Romanesque-Gothic bell tower and sacristy. At that time, only the part of the Tuscan gothic façade was finished. This same design continues in the wall around the old churchyard. The church was consecrated in 1420, alberti had also designed the façade for the Rucellai Palace in Florence. The four columns with Corinthian capitals on the part of the façade were also added. The pediment and the frieze are clearly inspired by antiquity, but the S-curved scrolls in the part are new. The scrolls, found in all over Italy, all draw their origins from the design of this church. The frieze below the pediment carries the name of the patron, the vast interior is based on a basilica plan, designed as a Latin cross, and is divided into a nave, two aisles with stained-glass windows and a short transept. The large nave is 100 metres long and gives an impression of austerity, there is a trompe loeil effect by which towards the apse the nave seems longer than its actual length. The slender compound piers between the nave and the aisles are progressively closer the deeper the observer moves into the nave, the ceiling in the vault consists of pointed arches with the four diagonal buttresses in black and white. The interior also contains Corinthian columns that were inspired by Greek, the stained-glass windows date from the 14th and 15th century, such as 15th century Madonna and Child and St. John and St. Philip, both in the Filippo Strozzi Chapel. Some stained glass windows have been damaged in the course of centuries and have been replaced, the one on the façade, a depiction of the Coronation of Mary, dates from the 14th century, and is based on a design of Andrea di Bonaiuto da Firenze. The pulpit, commissioned by the Rucellai family in 1443, was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and this pulpit has a particular historical significance, since it was from this pulpit that the first verbal attack was made on Galileo Galilei, leading eventually to his indictment. The Holy Trinity, situated almost halfway along the aisle, is a pioneering early Renaissance work of Masaccio, showing his new ideas about perspective
Santa Maria Novella
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The façade of Santa Maria Novella, completed by Leon Battista Alberti in 1470.
Santa Maria Novella
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Via degli Avelli side
Santa Maria Novella
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The Holy Trinity by Masaccio.
Santa Maria Novella
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Fresco by
Andrea di Bonaiuto da Firenze in the Spanish Chapel: Allegory of the Active and Triumphant Church and of the Dominican order (c. 1365)
5.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
Florence
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A collage of Florence showing the
Galleria degli Uffizi (top left), followed by the
Palazzo Pitti, a sunset view of the city and the
Fountain of Neptune in the
Piazza della Signoria
Florence
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A wooden model of Florence as it would have probably looked during Roman times, showing the ancient amphitheatre
Florence
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The façade of the Cathedral
Florence
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Leonardo da Vinci statue outside the
Uffizi Gallery.
6.
Figline Valdarno
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Figline Valdarno was a comune in the Province of Florence in the Italian region of Tuscany, located about 25 kilometres southeast of Florence. As of 31 December 2013, it had a population of 17,136, the municipality is the birthplace of Marsilio Ficino. Since January 1st,2014 the comune has been united with Incisa in Val dArno in one new municipality called Figline e Incisa Valdarno. Figline Valdarno borders the municipalities, Castelfranco di Sopra, Cavriglia, Greve in Chianti, Incisa in Val dArno, Pian di Scò, Reggello. Near the station there is a bus terminal that connects Figline with the towns nearby, canals, Valencia, Spain Pfungstadt, Germany Official website
Figline Valdarno
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Figline Valdarno
Figline Valdarno
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Pieve of San Romolo, at Gaville.
Figline Valdarno
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Railway station.
7.
Republic of Florence
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The Republic of Florence, also known as the Florentine Republic, was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany. The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda, the Florentines formed a commune in her successors place. The republic was ruled by a council, known as the signoria, the signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere, who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members. The republic had a history of coups and counter-coups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434, upon Cosimo de Medicis counter-coup against the faction that had sent him into exile the previous year, the Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de Medici re-conquered the republic in 1512, Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531, after an 11-month siege of the city, the republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de Medici Duke of the Florentine Republic, making the republic a hereditary monarchy. The city of Florence was established in 59 B. C. by Julius Caesar, the city had been part of the Marquisate of Tuscany before the death of Margravine Matilda in 1115. The city did not submit readily to her successor, Rabodo, the first official mention of the republic was in 1138 when several cities around Tuscany formed a league against Henry X of Bavaria. The country was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Florence prospered in the 12th century, trading extensively with foreign countries and this, in turn, provided a platform for demographic growth of the city. The growth of Florences population mirrored the rate of construction, many churches and this prosperity was shattered when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa invaded the Italian peninsula in 1185. The Margraves of Tuscany re-acquired Florence and its townlands, the Florentines re-asserted their independence when Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI died in 1197. Florences population continued to grow into the 13th century, reaching 30,000 inhabitants, as has been said, the extra inhabitants supported the citys trade and vice versa. Several new bridges and churches were built, most prominently the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the buildings from the era serve as Florences best example of Gothic Architecture. Politically, Florence was barely able to maintain peace between factions, the precarious peace that existed at the beginning of the century was destroyed in 1216 when two factions known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines began to war. The Ghibellines were the rulers of Florence. The Ghibellines, who under Frederick of Antioch had ruled the city since 1244, were deposed in 1250 by the Guelphs, the Guelphs led Florence to prosper further
Republic of Florence
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Front and back of a Florentine florin
Republic of Florence
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Flag
Republic of Florence
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Cosimo de' Medici, founder of the
House of Medici
Republic of Florence
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Lorenzo de' Medici
8.
Villa Medici at Careggi
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The Villa Medici at Careggi is a patrician villa in the hills near Florence, Tuscany, central Italy. The villa was among the first of a number of Medici villas, notable as the site of the Platonic academy founded by Cosimo de Medici, like most villas of Florentine families, the villa remained a working farm that helped render the family self-sufficient. Cosimos architect there, as elsewhere, was Michelozzo, who remodelled the fortified villa which had something of the character of a castello. Its famous garden is walled about, like a garden, overlooked by the upper-storey loggias. Michelozzos Villa Medici in Fiesole has a more outward-looking, Renaissance character, the property was purchased in 1417. At the death of Giovanni di Bicci, Cosimo il Vecchio set about remodelling the beloved villa around its central courtyard. His grandson Lorenzo extended the gardens and the shaded boschi. Marsilio Ficino, who died at the villa in 1499, was a member of the academy. Today the villa belongs to the Tuscan public administration and it is currently in a process of restoration and is closed to the public until at least 2020
Villa Medici at Careggi
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Villa Medici in Careggi.
Villa Medici at Careggi
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Garden.
9.
Italian Renaissance
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The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt. The French word renaissance means Rebirth, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages. Though today perhaps best known for Italian Renaissance art and architecture, the period saw major achievements in literature, music, philosophy, Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, and to varying degrees retained this lead until about 1600. This was despite a turbulent and generally disastrous period in Italian politics, the European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centred in the city of Florence. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, the Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new allantico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch and his friend, famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci, Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Ludovico Ariosto. 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek, the same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peters Basilica in Rome, yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginning of economic regression for Italy. By the Late Middle Ages, Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France, in the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily, in contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, the main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining, thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper
Italian Renaissance
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Renaissance
Italian Renaissance
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Pandolfo Malatesta (1417–1468), lord of
Rimini, by
Piero della Francesca. Malatesta was a capable
condottiere, following the tradition of his family. He was hired by the
Venetians to fight against the
Turks (unsuccessfully) in 1465, and was patron of
Leone Battista Alberti, whose
Tempio Malatestiano at Rimini is one of the first entirely classical buildings of the Renaissance.
Italian Renaissance
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Leonardo da Vinci, Italian
Renaissance Man
Italian Renaissance
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Giulio Clovio,
Adoration of the Magi and
Solomon Adored by the
Queen of Sheba from the Farnese Hours, 1546.
10.
Neoplatonism
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Neoplatonists were heavily influenced by Plato, but also by the Platonic tradition that thrived during the six centuries which separated the first of the Neoplatonists from Plato. In defining the term Neoplatonism, it is difficult to reduce the school of thought to a set of ideas that all Neoplatonic philosophers shared in common. The work of Neoplatonic philosophy involved describing the derivation of the whole of reality from a single principle, instead, the most concise definition of Neoplatonism casts it as a historical term. Thinkers of this period include Syrianus, Olympiodorus the Younger. Neoplatonism has been influential throughout history. In the Middle Ages, Neoplatonic ideas were integrated into the philosophical and theological works of many of the most important medieval Islamic, Christian, yeats and T. S. Eliot, among many more. The term Neoplatonism has a function as a historical category. On the one hand, it differentiates the philosophical doctrines of Plotinus, on the other, the term makes an assumption about the novelty of Plotinus interpretation of Plato. The term Neoplatonism implies that Plotinus interpretation of Plato was so distinct from those of his predecessors that it should be thought to introduce a new period in the history of Platonism. Some contemporary scholars, however, have taken issue with this assumption and have doubted that Neoplatonism constitutes a useful label and they claim that merely marginal differences separate Plotinus teachings from those of his immediate predecessors. Whether Neoplatonism is a meaningful or useful historical category is itself a central question concerning the history of the interpretation of Plato, for much of the history of Platonism, it was commonly accepted that the doctrines of the Neoplatonists were essentially the same as those of Plato. The Renaissance Platonist Marsilio Ficino, for instance, thought that the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plato was an authentic, contemporary scholars often identify the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher as an early thinker who took Platos philosophy to be separate from that of his Neoplatonic interpreters. However, others have argued that the differentiation of Plato from Neoplatonism was the result of a historical development that preceded Schleiermachers scholarly work on Plato. The most important forerunners of Neoplatonism are the Middle Platonists, such as Plutarch, Neoplatonism is generally a metaphysical and epistemological philosophy. Neoplatonism is a form of idealistic monism combined with elements of polytheism, although the founder of Neoplatonism is supposed to have been Ammonius Saccas, the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary and classical document of Neoplatonism. One of the features of Plotinus system, which was also taken up by subsequent Neoplatonists, is the doctrine of the One beyond being. For Plotinus, the first principle of reality is a simple, ineffable, unknowable subsistence which is both the creative source and the teleological end of all existing things. Although, properly speaking, there is no name appropriate for the first principle, the One is so simple that it cannot even be said to exist or to be a being
Neoplatonism
11.
Plotinus
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Plotinus was a major Greek-speaking philosopher of the ancient world. In his philosophy there are three principles, the One, the Intellect, and the Soul and his teacher was Ammonius Saccas and he is of the Platonic tradition. Historians of the 19th century invented the term Neoplatonism and applied it to him, much of the biographical information about Plotinus comes from Porphyrys preface to his edition of Plotinus Enneads. His metaphysical writings have inspired centuries of Pagan, Islamic, Jewish, Christian, and Gnostic metaphysicians and mystics. Porphyry reported that Plotinus was 66 years old when he died in 270, eunapius reported that Plotinus was born in the Deltaic Lycopolis in Egypt, which has led to speculations that he may have been a native Egyptian of Roman, Greek, or Hellenized Egyptian descent. Plotinus had an inherent distrust of materiality, holding to the view that phenomena were an image or mimicry of something higher. This distrust extended to the body, including his own, it is reported by Porphyry that at one point he refused to have his portrait painted, likewise Plotinus never discussed his ancestry, childhood, or his place or date of birth. From all accounts his personal and social life exhibited the highest moral and spiritual standards, Plotinus took up the study of philosophy at the age of twenty-seven, around the year 232, and travelled to Alexandria to study. There he was dissatisfied with every teacher he encountered until an acquaintance suggested he listen to the ideas of Ammonius Saccas, upon hearing Ammonius lecture, he declared to his friend, this was the man I was looking for, and began to study intently under his new instructor. Besides Ammonius, Plotinus was also influenced by the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Numenius, after spending the next eleven years in Alexandria, he then decided, at the age of around 38, to investigate the philosophical teachings of the Persian philosophers and the Indian philosophers. In the pursuit of this endeavor he left Alexandria and joined the army of Gordian III as it marched on Persia. However, the campaign was a failure, and on Gordians eventual death Plotinus found himself abandoned in a hostile land, and only with difficulty found his way back to safety in Antioch. At the age of forty, during the reign of Philip the Arab, he came to Rome, there he attracted a number of students. He had students amongst the Roman Senate beside Castricius, such as Marcellus Orontius, Sabinillus, finally, Plotinus was a correspondent of the philosopher Cassius Longinus. While in Rome Plotinus also gained the respect of the Emperor Gallienus, an Imperial subsidy was never granted, for reasons unknown to Porphyry, who reports the incident. Porphyry subsequently went to live in Sicily, where word reached him that his teacher had died. The philosopher spent his days in seclusion on an estate in Campania which his friend Zethos had bequeathed him. According to the account of Eustochius, who attended him at the end, Plotinus final words were, Eustochius records that a snake crept under the bed where Plotinus lay, and slipped away through a hole in the wall, at the same moment the philosopher died
Plotinus
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Plotinus
12.
Theory of Forms
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Platos theory of Forms or theory of Ideas argues that non-physical forms represent the most accurate reality. When used in this sense, the form or idea is often capitalized. However, the theory is considered a classical solution to the problem of universals, the early Greek concept of form precedes attested philosophical usage and is represented by a number of words mainly having to do with vision, sight, and appearance. The words, εἶδος and ἰδέα come from the Indo-European root *weid-, eidos is already attested in texts of the Homeric era, the earliest Greek literature. This transliteration and the tradition of German and Latin lead to the expression theory of Ideas. The word is not the English idea, which is a mental concept only. The pre-Socratic philosophers, starting with Thales, noted that appearances change, the answer was substance, which stands under the changes and is the actually existing thing being seen. The status of appearances now came into question, what is the form really and how is that related to substance. Thus, the theory of matter and form was born, starting with at least Plato and possibly germinal in some of the presocratics the forms were considered as being in something else, which Plato called nature. The latter seemed as carved wood, ὕλη in Greek, corresponding to materia in Latin, from which the English word matter is derived, shaped by receiving forms. The Forms are expounded upon in Platos dialogues and general speech, in every object or quality in reality has a form, dogs, human beings, mountains, colors, courage, love. Form answers the question, What is that, Plato was going a step further and asking what Form itself is. He supposed that the object was essentially or really the Form and that the phenomena were mere shadows mimicking the Form, that is, momentary portrayals of the Form under different circumstances. For example, Parmenides states, Nor, again, if a person were to show that all is one by partaking of one, but if he were to show me that the absolute one was many, or the absolute many one, I should be truly amazed. Matter is considered particular in itself, for Plato, forms, such as beauty, are more real than any object that imitate them. Though the forms are timeless and unchanging, physical things are in a constant change of existence, where forms are unqualified perfection, physical things are qualified and conditioned. These Forms are the essences of various objects, they are that without which a thing would not be the kind of thing it is. For example, there are tables in the world but the Form of tableness is at the core
Theory of Forms
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Theory of Forms
–
In the
Allegory of the Cave, the objects that are seen are not real, according to Plato, but literally mimic the real Forms.
Theory of Forms
–
The central image from Raphael's
The School of Athens (1509-1511), depicting Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato is depicted pointing upwards, in reference to his belief in the higher Forms, while Aristotle disagrees and points downwards to the here-and-now, in reference to his belief in
empiricism.
13.
Form of the Good
–
Plato describes The Form of the Good, or more literally the idea of the good, in his dialogue the Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. Plato introduces several forms in his works, but identifies the Form of the Good as the superlative and this form is the one that allows a philosopher-in-training to advance to a philosopher-king. It cannot be seen or explained, but once it is recognized. The first references that are seen in The Republic to the Form of the Good are within the conversation between Glaucon and Socrates and this form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight, but he makes a very important distinction, “sun is not sight” but it is “the cause of sight itself. ”As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the intelligible realm. It is “what gives truth to the known and the power to know to the knower”. It is not only the “cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge”, Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates says and he then proceeds to explain “although the good is not being” it is “superior to it in rank and power”, it is what “provides for knowledge and truth”. Plato writes that the Form of the Good is the object of knowledge, although it is not knowledge itself. Humans are compelled to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do successfully without philosophical reasoning. Plato supposes these perfect types to exist from all eternity and calls them the Forms or Ideas and he maintains that degree of skepticism which denies all permanent authority to the evidence of sense. In essence, Plato suggests that justice, truth, equality, beauty, aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle argues that Plato’s Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, Plato’s Form of the Good is often criticized as too general. Plato’s Form of the Good does not define things in the world that are good. According to Socrates in The Republic, the alternative to accepting a hypothesis is to refute all the objections against it. Aristotle along with other sees the Form of the Good as synonymous with the idea of One. Plato claims that Good is the highest Form, and that all objects aspire to be good
Form of the Good
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
14.
Demiurge
–
In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the demiurge is an artisan-like figure responsible for the fashioning and maintenance of the physical universe. The term was adopted by the Gnostics, depending on the system, they may be considered to be either uncreated and eternal, or considered to be the product of some other entity. The philosophical usage and the proper noun derive from Platos Timaeus, written c.360 BC and this is accordingly the definition of the demiurge in the Platonic and Middle Platonic philosophical traditions. In the various branches of the Neoplatonic school, the demiurge is the fashioner of the real, perceptible world after the model of the Ideas, Plato, as the speaker Timaeus, refers to the Demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue Timaeus, c.360 BC. The main character refers to the Demiurge as the entity who fashioned and shaped the material world, Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent, and hence desirous of a world as good as possible. The world remains imperfect, however, because the Demiurge created the world out of a chaotic, Platos work Timaeus is a philosophical reconciliation of Hesiods cosmology in his Theogony, syncretically reconciling Hesiod to Homer. In Numeniuss Neo-Pythagorean and Middle Platonist cosmogony, the Demiurge is second God as the nous or thought of intelligibles and sensibles, Plotinus and the later Platonists worked to clarify the Demiurge. To Plotinus, the second emanation represents a second cause. In order to reconcile Aristotelian with Platonian philosophy, Plotinus metaphorically identified the demiurge within the pantheon of the Greek Gods as Zeus, the first and highest aspect of God is described by Plato as the One, the source, or the Monad. This is the God above the Demiurge, and manifests through the work of the Demiurge, the Monad emanated the demiurge or Nous from its indeterminate vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself, causing self-reflection. This self-reflection of the indeterminate vitality was referred to by Plotinus as the Demiurge or creator, the second principle is organization in its reflection of the nonsentient force or dynamis, also called the one or the Monad. Plotinus form of Platonic idealism is to treat the Demiurge, nous as the contemplative faculty within man which orders the force into conscious reality. In this he claimed to reveal Platos true meaning, a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Platos text. This tradition of creator God as nous, can be validated in the works of philosophers such as Numenius. Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus Enneads, no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Platos Timaeus. The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the Demiurge on the works of Numenius. The figure of the Demiurge emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, here, at the summit of this system, the Source and Demiurge coexist via the process of henosis. The One is further separated into spheres of intelligence, the first and superior sphere is objects of thought, then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge, identifying it with the perfect or Divine nous with the intellectual triad being promoted to a hebdomad
Demiurge
–
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in
Bernard de Montfaucon ’s L’antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.
Demiurge
–
Drawing of the leontocephaline found at the
Mithraeum of C. Valerius Heracles and sons, dedicated 190 AD at
Ostia Antica, Italy (CIMRM 312).
15.
Henosis
–
Henosis is the classical Greek word for mystical oneness, union, or unity. In Platonism, and especially Neoplatonism, the goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality, the One, the Neoplatonic concept has precedents in the Greek mystery religions as well as parallels in Eastern philosophy. It is further developed in the Corpus Hermeticum, in Christian theology, soteriology, the term is relatively common in classical texts, and has the meaning of union or unity. Henosis, orprimordial unity, is rational and deterministic, emanating from indeterminism an uncaused cause, each individual as a microcosm reflects the gradual ordering of the universe referred to as the macrocosm. In mimicking the demiurge, one unites with The One or Monad, thus the process of unification, of The Being, and The One, is called Henosis. The culmination of Henosis is deification, Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation toward no thought and no division within the individual. As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on Henology, one can reach a tabula rasa and this absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Within the Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge, the Monad or dunamis is of one singular expression all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all. All division is reconciled in the one, the stage before reaching singularity, called duality, is completely reconciled in the Monad. As the one, source or substance of all things the Monad is all encompassing, as infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus and it is the demiurge or nous that perceives and therefore causes the force to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being, being and perception manifest what is called soul, Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus works have a character in that they reject matter as an illusion. Matter was strictly treated as immanent, with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia and this approach is called philosophical Idealism. Within the works of Iamblichus of Chalcis, The One and reconciliation of division can be obtained through the process of theurgy, by mimicking the demiurge, the individual is returned to the cosmos to implement the will of the divine mind. One goes through a series of theurgy or rituals that unites the initiate to the Monad and these rituals mimic the ordering of the chaos of the Universe into the material world or cosmos. Thus one without conflict internal or external is united and is The One, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, but also in western mysticism, henosis can be acquired by theoria, hesychasm and contemplative prayer. Yet, the concept of theosis, or deification, differs from henosis, since created beings cannot become God in His transcendent essence, nondualism Absolute Apotheosis Fana Form of the Good Moksha Monolatrism The All Theosis http, //www. goddess-athena. org/Encyclopedia/Friends/Iamblichus/index. htm
Henosis
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
16.
Microcosm and macrocosm
–
Macrocosm and microcosm refers to a vision of cosmos where the part reflects the whole and vice versa. It is a present in all esoteric schools of thinking, according to scholar Pierre A. Riffard. It is closely associated with Hermeticism and underlies practices such as astrology, alchemy, §435, pg 151 Theories of Macrocosms and Microcosms in the History of Philosophy, G. P. Conger, NY,1922, which includes a survey of critical discussions up to 1922. Cosmos - an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos - from Digital Nature Agency
Microcosm and macrocosm
–
By looking down, I see up. Part of a pair of illustrations in Tycho Brahe's Astronomiæ instauratæ Mechanica depicting his understanding of the connection between macrocosm and microcosm.
17.
Nous
–
The three commonly used philosophical terms are from Greek, νοῦς or νόος, and Latin intellectus and intelligentia respectively. This activity is understood in a way, at least in some contexts. In philosophy, common English translations include understanding and mind, or sometimes thought or reason and it is also often described as something equivalent to perception except that it works within the mind. It has been suggested that the meaning is something like awareness. In colloquial British English, nous also denotes good sense, which is close to one everyday meaning it had in Ancient Greece, in Aristotles influential works, the term was carefully distinguished from sense perception, imagination, and reason, although these terms are closely inter-related. The term was already singled out by earlier philosophers such as Parmenides. In the Aristotelian scheme, nous is the understanding or awareness which allows human beings to think rationally. For Aristotle, this was distinct from the processing of sensory perception, including the use of imagination and memory, deriving from this it was also sometimes argued, especially in classical and medieval philosophy, that the individual nous must require help of a spiritual and divine type. By this type of account, it came to be argued that the human understanding somehow stems from this cosmic nous, which is not just a recipient of order. In early Greek uses, Homer used nous to signify mental activities of both mortals and immortals, for example what they really have on their mind as opposed to what they say aloud. It was one of words related to thought, thinking. In pre-Socratic philosophy, it became distinguished as a source of knowledge and reasoning and opposed to mere sense perception. For example, Heraclitus complained that much learning does not teach nous, among some Greek authors a faculty of intelligence, a higher mind, came to be considered to be a property of the cosmos as a whole. The work of Parmenides set the scene for Greek philosophy to come and he claimed that reality as the senses perceive it is not a world of truth at all, because sense perception is so unreliable, and what is perceived is so uncertain and changeable. Amongst the pre-Socratic philosophers before Anaxagoras, other philosophers had proposed a similar ordering human-like principle causing life and the rotation of the heavens. For example, Empedocles, like Hesiod much earlier, described cosmic order and living things as caused by a version of love. Anaxagoras wrote, All other things partake in a portion of everything, while nous is infinite and self-ruled, and is mixed with nothing, but is alone, itself by itself. For it is the thinnest of all things and the purest, and it has all knowledge about everything and the greatest strength, and nous has power over all things, both greater and smaller, that have soul
Nous
–
The earliest surviving text that uses the word nous is the
Iliad.
Agamemnon says to
Achilles: "Do not thus, mighty though you are, godlike Achilles, seek to deceive me with your wit (nous); for you will not get by me nor persuade me."
Nous
–
This diagram shows the medieval understanding of
spheres of the
cosmos, derived from
Aristotle, and as per the standard explanation by
Ptolemy. It came to be understood that at least the outermost sphere (marked "
Primũ Mobile ") has its own intellect, intelligence or nous - a cosmic equivalent to the human mind.
Nous
–
Anaxagoras of Clezomenae
Nous
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
18.
Logos
–
LOGOS cards is a collectible card game developed for Second Life. The game was first conceptualized by Florian Kraner in 2008, development began in earnest early 2009 with the addition of Darien Caldwell to the creative team. The full game was released on July 1,2010, LOGOS is played by two players. Both of them start with 100.000 Hit Points. They do so by battling with cards that follow a Rock-paper-scissors principle, LOGOS cards is played in Second Life using a HUD. It consists of two SL items that have to be worn and will add a display of the hand dealt to you as well as other elements to the screen. The game can be played anywhere in Second Life on the go and this allows players to play the game in a fully emersive 3D environment, where they have full control over how their avatars and surroundings are represented. The community that has formed is constantly adding and maintaining new play areas where players organize tournaments and events, cardmotives are mostly generated from Second Life sceneries and sorted into 5 categories of cards, Energy, Matter, Information, Life and Neutral. When building decks the player needs to keep combo requirements and effects for their cards in mind, LOGOS makes use of Googles App Engine, which allows the Second Life game to be enhanced by a website interface that allows players to edit card decks and more for no cost
Logos
19.
Enneads
–
The Enneads, fully The Six Enneads, is the collection of writings of Plotinus, edited and compiled by his student Porphyry. Plotinus was a student of Ammonius Saccas and they were founders of Neoplatonism, then, he proceeded to set the fifty-four treatises in groups of nine or Enneads. He also collected The Enneads into three volumes, the first volume contained the first three Enneads, the second volume has the Fourth and the Fifth Enneads, and the last volume was devoted to the remaining Enneads. After correcting and naming each treatise, Porphyry wrote a biography of his master, Life of Plotinus, since the publishing of a modern critical edition of the Greek text by P. Henry and H. -R. These numbers are divided by dots, by commas or blank spaces, for Fourth Ennead, treatise number seven, chapter two, lines one to five, we write, IV.7.2. 1-5 E. g. In addition to this, the order of the treatises is numbered between brackets or parentheses, and given below. For the previously given, IV.7.2. 1-5 since treatise IV.7 was the written by Plotinus. III,5,9,8 since III.5 was the written by Plotinus. The names of treatises may differ according to translation, the numbers in square brackets before the individual works refer to the chronological order they were written according to Porphyrys Life of Plotinus. I.1 - What is the Living Being and What is Man, I.2 - On Virtue I.3 - On Dialectic. I.4 - On True Happiness I.5 - On Whether Happiness Increases with Time, II.6 - On Quality or on Substance II.7 - On Complete Transfusion II.8 - On Sight or on how Distant Objects Appear Small. II.9 - Against Those That Affirm The Creator of the Kosmos, III.1 - On Fate III.2 - On Providence. Many passages of Enneads IV-VI, now known as Plotiniana Arabica, the writings had a significant effect on Islamic philosophy, due to Islamic interest in Aristotle. A Latin version of the so-called Theology appeared in Europe in 1519, contemporary scholars refer to the Plotinus critical editions made by HENRY, P. and SCHWYZER, H. -R. Bruxelles and Paris, Museum Lessianum, 1951-1973, useful tools for the study of the Enneads are SLEEMAN, J. -H and POLLET, G. Lexikon Plotinianum. R. and BOMBACIGNO, R. Lexicon II, Plotinus, ATKINSON, M. Plotinus Ennead V.1, On the Three Principal Hypostases Oxford, OUP,1983. The One and its Relation to Intellect, allegorical interpretations of Plato Works related to The Enneads at Wikisource The Six Enneads in PDF, HTML, Microsoft Word, Plain Text, Theological Markup Language, and Palm Doc versions. The Six Enneads – Mackenna and Page translation divided into six sections in HTML, the Enneads, Greek text page scans of Kirchhoffs edition
Enneads
20.
Liber de Causis
–
The Liber de Causis was a philosophical work once attributed to Aristotle that became popular in the Middle Ages, first in Arabic and Islamic countries and later in the Latin West. The real authorship remains a mystery, but most of the content is taken from Proclus Elements of Theology and this was first noticed by Thomas Aquinas, following William of Moerbekes translation of the works of Proclus into Latin. As such it is now attributed to a Pseudo-Aristotle, the original title in Arabic was Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ li-Arisṭūṭālis fī l-khayr al-maḥd, The book of Aristotles explanation of the pure good. The title Liber de Causis came into use following the translation into Latin by Gerard of Cremona,2005 Meiner Felix Verlag Gmbh ISBN 978-3-7873-1705-9, Latin text, German translation Adriaan Pattin, Le Liber de Causis. Edition établie a laide de 90 manuscrits avec introduction et notes, in Tijdschrift voor Filosofie 28 pp. 90–203, Latin text Dennis J. Brand, tr. 1, S. 172–243 Albertus Magnus, Liber de causis et processu universitatis a prima causa Cristina D’Ancona Costa, Tommaso dAquino, Commento al Libro delle cause. Rusconi, Milano 1986, commentary by Thomas Aquinas Sancti Thomae de Aquino super librum De Causis expositio Manuel Alonso Alonso, al-Andalus, revista de las escuelas de estudios árabes de Madrid y Granada,1945, pp. 345–382. Dragos Calma, The Exegetical Tradition of Medieval Neoplatonism, considerations on a Recently Discovered Corpus of Texts, in Dragos Calma, Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages. New Commentaries on Liber de Causis and Elementatio Theologica,2 vols, Turnhout, Brepols,2016, see Paloma Llorente Megías, Liber de Causis, Indice y Concordancia, Florence, Olschki 2004. Cristina D’Ancona Costa, Recherches sur le Liber de causis, vrin, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-7116-1225-2 Cristina D’Ancona, Richard C. University press, Freiburg 1995, ISBN 3-7278-0994-9 Richard C
Liber de Causis
21.
The Consolation of Philosophy
–
The Consolation of Philosophy is a work by the sixth-century philosopher Boethius covering a wide range of topics, lauded as a great work of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Boethius was at the heights of power in Rome and was brought down by treachery. It has been described as by far the most interesting example of literature the world has ever seen. God is however represented not only as an eternal and all-knowing being, Boethius writes the book as a conversation between himself and Lady Philosophy. She consoles Boethius by discussing the nature of fame and wealth, and the ultimate superiority of things of the mind. She contends that happiness comes from within, and that virtue is all that one truly has, Boethius engages questions such as the nature of predestination and free will, why evil men often prosper and good men fall into ruin, human nature, virtue, and justice. He speaks about the nature of free will and determinism when he asks if God knows and sees all, on human nature, Boethius says that humans are essentially good and only when they give in to “wickedness” do they “sink to the level of being an animal. In the Consolation, Boethius answered religious questions without reference to Christianity, relying solely on natural philosophy and he believed in the correspondence between faith and reason. The truths found in Christianity would be no different from the found in philosophy. In the words of Henry Chadwick, If the Consolation contains nothing distinctively Christian, is a work written by a Platonist who is also a Christian, but is not a Christian work. To acquire a taste for it is almost to become naturalised in the Middle Ages — C. S and it is through Boethius that much of the thought of the Classical period was made available to the Western Medieval world. It has often been said Boethius was the “last of the Romans, the philosophical message of the book fits well with the religious piety of the Middle Ages. Readers were encouraged not to seek worldly goods such as money and power, evil had a purpose, to provide a lesson to help change for good, while suffering from evil was seen as virtuous. Because God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God, the Middle Ages, with their vivid sense of an overruling fate, found in Boethius an interpretation of life closely akin to the spirit of Christianity. The book is influenced by Plato and his dialogues. Translations into the vernacular were done by famous notables, including King Alfred, Jean de Meun, Geoffrey Chaucer, Queen Elizabeth I, citations from it occur frequently in Dantes Divina Commedia. Of Boethius, Dante remarked “The blessed soul who exposes the deceptive world to anyone who gives ear to him. ”Boethian influence can be found everywhere in Geoffrey Chaucers poetry. The Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola used some of the text in his choral work Canti di prigionia, tom Shippey in The Road to Middle-earth says how “Boethian” much of the treatment of evil is in Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings
The Consolation of Philosophy
–
From a 1385 Italian manuscript of the Consolation: Miniatures of Boethius teaching and in prison
The Consolation of Philosophy
The Consolation of Philosophy
–
Lady Fortune with
the Wheel of Fortune in a medieval manuscript of a work by
Boccaccio; The Consolation of Philosophy was responsible for the popularity of the goddess of Fortune and the wheel of fortune in the Middle Ages
22.
De divisione naturae
–
De divisione naturae is the title given by Thomas Gale to his edition of the work originally titled by Eriugena Periphyseon. This work was the magnum opus of ninth century theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena, the work is arranged in five books. The form of exposition is that of dialogue, the method of reasoning is the syllogism, natura is the name for the universal, the totality of all things, containing in itself being and non-being. It is the unity of all special phenomena are manifestations. The first is God as the ground or origin of all things, the last is God as the end or goal of all things. Thus we distinguish in the system beginning, middle and end. We are compelled to envisage this eternal process under the form of time, the work was probably carried out beginning in the early 860s and completed around 866–67. This is based on a dedication in the book identifying as frater Wulfad, the work was not widely circulated in the authors lifetime. Eriugena was assisted by one, possibly two other persons in writing the book, based on the presence of margin notes indicating the penmanship of two separate persons. One of these is believed to have been Eriugena himself, while the other was the script indicates that the writer was a fellow Irishman. De divisione naturae was condemned by a council at Sens by Honorius III, who described it as swarming with worms of heretical perversity, and by Pope Gregory XIII in 1585. In 1681, the long-lost work was found at Oxford University, and was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books. The Division of Nature has been called the achievement of ancient philosophy. It is presented, like Alcuins book, as a dialogue between Master and Pupil, Eriugena anticipates Thomas Aquinas, who said that one cannot know and believe a thing at the same time. Eriugena explains that reason is necessary to understand and interpret revelation, authority is the source of knowledge, but the reason of mankind is the norm by which all authority is judged. Digitized Latin version on Google Books Moran, Dermot
De divisione naturae
23.
Plato
–
Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
Plato
–
Plato: copy of portrait bust by
Silanion
Plato
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Plato
–
Plato and
Socrates in a medieval depiction
Plato
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his
Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his
Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in
The Forms
24.
Origen
–
Origen, or Origen Adamantius, was a Greek scholar, ascetic, and early Christian theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a writer in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, philosophical theology, preaching. He was anathematised at the Second Council of Constantinople and he was one of the most influential figures in early Christian asceticism. Origens Greek name Ōrigénēs probably means child of Horus and his nickname or cognomen Adamantios derives from Greek adámas, which means adamant, unalterable, unbreakable, unconquerable, diamond. He acquired it because of his ascetical practices. Origen was born in Alexandria to Christian parents and he was educated by his father, Leonides of Alexandria, who gave him a standard Hellenistic education, but also had him study the Christian scriptures. The name of his mother is unknown, in 202, Origens father was martyred in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus. A story reported by Eusebius has it that Origen wished to follow him in martyrdom, the death of Leonides left the family of nine impoverished when their property was confiscated. Many modern scholars, however, doubt that Clements school had been an ecclesiastical institution as Origens was. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library for a sum which netted him a daily income of 4 obols, on which he lived by exercising the utmost frugality. Teaching throughout the day, he devoted the greater part of the night to the study of the Bible, Eusebius reported that Origen, following Matthew 19,12 literally, castrated himself. The later church historian Philostorgius of Apamea, on the other hand, Eusebius story was accepted during the Middle Ages and was cited by Peter Abelard in his letters to Heloise. Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, during the past century, scholars have often questioned this, surmising that this may have been a rumor circulated by his detractors. Henry Chadwick points out that, while the story may be true, it seems unlikely, however, many noted historians, such as Peter Brown and William Placher, continue to find no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius claims. But the school had far outgrown the strength of a man, the catechumens pressed eagerly for elementary instruction. Under these circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas and his own interests became more and more centered in exegesis, and he accordingly studied Hebrew, though there is no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that language. From about this period dates Origens acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexandria, later Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen were dedicated to Ambrose. In the following year, an uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools
Origen
–
Origen
Origen
–
Origen reportedly studied under
Clement of Alexandria and was influenced by his thought.
Origen
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
25.
Porphyry (philosopher)
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Porphyry of Tyre was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre, in the Roman Empire. He edited and published the Enneads, the collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. His commentary on Euclids Elements was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria and he also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics. His Isagoge, or Introduction, is an introduction to logic and philosophy, under Longinus he studied grammar and rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, at one point he became suicidal. On the advice of Plotinus he went to live in Sicily for five years to recover his mental health, on returning to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and completed an edition of the writings of Plotinus together with a biography of his teacher. Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient Neoplatonic writings as his pupil, the two men differed publicly on the issue of theurgy. In his later years, he married Marcella, a widow with seven children, little more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy, in medieval textbooks, the all-important Arbor porphyriana illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomy benefits from concepts in Porphyrys Tree, the Introduction was translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ from a Syriac version. With the Arabicized name Isāghūjī it long remained the standard introductory text in the Muslim world and influenced the study of theology, philosophy, grammar. Besides the adaptations and epitomes of this work, many independent works on logic by Muslim philosophers have been entitled Isāghūjī, Porphyrys discussion of accident sparked a long-running debate on the application of accident and essence. There is debate as to whether it was written in his youth or closer in time to the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian, whether or not Porphyry was the pagan philosopher opponent in Lactantius Divine Institutes, written at the time of the persecutions, has long been discussed. The fragments of the Philosophy from Oracles are only quoted by Christians, especially Eusebius, Theodoret, Augustine, the fragments contain oracles identifying proper sacrificial procedure, the nature of astrological fate, and other topics relevant for Greek and Roman religion in the third century. Whether this work contradicts his treatise defending vegetarianism, which warned the philosopher to avoid animal sacrifice, is disputed among scholars. During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote Against the Christians which consisted of fifteen books, Porphyry acknowledged Jesus Christ only as an outstanding philosopher. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, in fact, everything known about Porphyry’s arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A. D.435 and again in 448. Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day and his aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity’s teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated
Porphyry (philosopher)
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Porphire Sophiste, in a French 16th-century engraving
Porphyry (philosopher)
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Imaginary debate between
Averroes (1126–1198 AD) and Porphyry (234–c. 305 AD). Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de herbis, 14th century.
26.
Iamblichus
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Iamblichus, also known as Iamblichus Chalcidensis, or Iamblichus of Apamea, was a Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher who determined the direction taken by later Neoplatonic philosophy. Iamblichus was the representative of Syrian Neoplatonism, though his influence spread over much of the ancient world. The events of his life and his religious beliefs are not entirely known, according to the Suda, and his biographer Eunapius, he was born at Chalcis in Syria. He was the son of a rich and illustrious family, and he initially studied under Anatolius of Laodicea, and later went on to study under Porphyry, a pupil of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism. He disagreed with Porphyry over the practice of theurgy, Iamblichus responds to Porphyrys criticisms of theurgy in a book attributed to him, around 304, he returned to Syria to found his own school at Apameia, a city famous for its Neoplatonic philosophers. Here he designed a curriculum for studying Plato and Aristotle, still, for Iamblichus, Pythagoras was the supreme authority. He is known to have written the Collection of Pythagorean Doctrines, only the first four books, and fragments of the fifth, survive. Scholars noted that the Exhortation to Philosophy of Iamblichus was composed in Apamea in the early 4th c, Iamblichus was said to have been a man of great culture and learning. He was also renowned for his charity and self-denial, many students gathered around him, and he lived with them in genial friendship. According to Fabricius, he died during the reign of Constantine, only a fraction of Iamblichus books have survived. For our knowledge of his system, we are indebted partly to the fragments of writings preserved by Stobaeus and others. The notes of his successors, especially Proclus, as well as his five extant books, besides these, Proclus seems to have ascribed to him the authorship of the celebrated treatise Theurgia, or On the Egyptian Mysteries. However, the differences between this book and Iamblichus other works in style and in points of doctrine have led some to question whether Iamblichus was the actual author. As a speculative theory, Neoplatonism had received its highest development from Plotinus, unlike Plotinus who broke from Platonic tradition and asserted an undescended soul, Iamblichus re-affirmed the souls embodiment in matter believing matter to be as divine as the rest of the cosmos. It is most likely on account that lamblichus was venerated. Iamblichus was highly praised by those who followed his thought, by his contemporaries, Iamblichus was accredited with miraculous powers. During the revival of interest in his philosophy in the 15th and 16th centuries, at the head of his system, Iamblichus placed the transcendent incommunicable One, the monad, whose first principle is intellect, nous. Immediately after the absolute One, lamblichus introduced a second superexistent One to stand between it and the many as the producer of intellect, or soul, psyche and these three entities, the psyche, and the nous split into the intelligible and the intellective, form a triad
Iamblichus
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Iamblichus
27.
Julian the Apostate
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Julian, also known as Julian the Apostate, was Roman Emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. A member of the Constantinian dynasty, Julian became Caesar over the provinces by order of Constantius II in 355 and in this role campaigned successfully against the Alamanni. Most notable was his victory over the Alamanni in 357 at the Battle of Argentoratum. In 360 in Lutetia he was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, before the two could face each other in battle, however, Constantius died, after naming Julian as his rightful successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Though initially successful, Julian was mortally wounded in battle and died shortly thereafter, Julian was a man of unusually complex character, he was the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters. He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and it was his desire to bring the Empire back to its ancient Roman values in order to, as he saw it, save it from dissolution. He purged the state bureaucracy and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. His anti-Christian sentiment and promotion of Neoplatonic paganism caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate by the church and he was the last emperor of the Constantinian dynasty, the empires first Christian dynasty. Both of his parents were Christians and his paternal grandparents were Western Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora. His maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus, praetorian prefect of the East under emperor Licinius from 315 to 324, the name of Julians maternal grandmother is unknown. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education. They were likely saved by their youth and at the urging of the Empress Eusebia, if Julians later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were exiled to the estate of Macellum in Cappadocia. Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition, at the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia. He became a lector, an office in the Christian church. Julian studied Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher and he was summoned to Constantius court in Mediolanum in 354 and kept there for a year, in the summer and fall of 355, he was permitted to study in Athens. While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who became both bishops and saints, Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great
Julian the Apostate
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Portrait of Emperor Julian on a bronze coin from
Antioch minted in 360–363
Julian the Apostate
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19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed Emperor in Paris at the
Thermes de Cluny, standing on a shield in the
Frankish manner, in February 360.
Julian the Apostate
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The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried.
Julian the Apostate
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Illustration from The Fall of Princes by
John Lydgate (which is a translation of De Casibus Virorum Illustribus by
Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor
Valerian.
28.
Hypatia
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Hypatia, often called Hypatia of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher in Egypt, then a part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was the head of the Neoplatonic school at Alexandria, where she taught philosophy, the mathematician and philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria was the only daughter of the mathematician Theon of Alexandria. Around 400, she became head of the Neoplatonist School in Alexandria, where she imparted the knowledge of Plato and Aristotle to students, including pagans, Christians, however, not all Christians were as hostile towards her, some Christians even used Hypatia as symbolic of Virtue. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her dignity and virtue admired her the more. Hypatia corresponded with former pupil Synesius, who was tutored by her in the school of Platonism and later became bishop of Ptolemais in 410. Together with the references by the pagan philosopher Damascius, these are the extant records left by Hypatias pupils at the Platonist school of Alexandria. Hypatia was murdered during an episode of city-wide anger stemming from a feud between Orestes, the prefect of Alexandria, and Cyril, the Bishop of Alexandria and her death is symbolic for some historians. On the other hand, Christian Wildberg notes that Hellenistic philosophy continued to flourish in the 5th and 6th centuries, of the many accounts of Hypatias death, the most complete is the one written around 415 by Socrates Scholasticus and included in the Historia Ecclesiastica. According to this account, in 415 a feud began over Jewish dancing exhibitions in Alexandria, Orestes, the Roman governor of Alexandria, and Cyril, the Bishop of Alexandria, engaged in a bitter feud in which Hypatia eventually became a main point of contention. Orestes published an edict that outlined new regulations for such gatherings, the edict angered Christians as well as Jews. At one such gathering, Hierax, a devout Christian follower of Cyril, read the edict, many people felt that Hierax was attempting to incite the crowd into sedition. Orestes reacted swiftly and violently out of what Scholasticus suspected was jealousy the growing power of the bishops… encroached on the jurisdiction of the authorities and he ordered Hierax to be seized and tortured publicly in the theater. Hearing of Hieraxs severe and public punishment, Cyril threatened to retaliate against the Jews of Alexandria with the utmost severities if the harassment of Christians did not cease immediately. In response to Cyrils threat, the Jews of Alexandria grew even more furious, Socrates of Constantinoples account says that the Jews had plotted to flush out the Christians at night by running through the streets claiming that the Church of Alexander was on fire. The feud between Cyril and Orestes intensified because of things, and both men wrote to the emperor regarding the situation. Eventually, Cyril attempted to out to Orestes through several peace overtures
Hypatia
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"Death of the philosopher Hypatia, in Alexandria" from Vies des savants illustres, depuis l'antiquité jusqu'au dix-neuvième siècle, 1866, by
Louis Figuier.
Hypatia
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"Hypatia", at the Haymarket Theatre, January 1893
Hypatia
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Cameron 's 1867 photograph Hypatia
29.
Macrobius
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Only in later manuscripts were his names reversed as Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius, which James Willis then adopted for his edition of the Commentary. Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and he states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was born under a foreign sky, and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius. His major works have led experts to assume that he was a pagan, which foreign sky Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a prefect of Spain. The Codex Theodosianus also records a praepositus named Macrobius in 422, a number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as Theodosius and it is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena, Cameron notes. Macrobiuss most influential one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages—was a commentary in two books on the Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic. In astronomy, this work is noted for giving the diameter of the Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth. Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb, we possess an abstract by a certain Johannes. See editions by Ludwig von Jan, Franz Eyssenhardt, James Willis, the grammatical treatise will be found in Jans edition and Heinrich Keils Grammatici latini, see also Georg Friedrich Schömann, Commentatio macrobiana. Macrobiuss Saturnalia consists of an account of the held at the house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia. It contains a variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian. The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet. The latter part of the book is taken up with a dissertation upon luxury and the sumptuary laws intended to check it. The seventh book consists largely of the discussion of various physiological questions, the primary value of the work lies in the facts and opinions quoted from earlier writers. Cambridge, MA/ London, Harvard University Press,2011, percival Vaughan Davies, Macrobius, The Saturnalia. New York, Columbia University Press,1969, william Harris Stahl, Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio
Macrobius
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Macrobius presenting his work to his son Eustachius. From an 1100 copy of Macrobius'
Dream of Scipio.
Macrobius
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Early printed edition of Macrobius's Somnium Scipionis and Saturnalia.
Macrobius
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Initial E shaped in the form of a writing man, probably representing Macrobius himself.
Macrobius
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The Universe, the Earth in the centre, surrounded by the seven planets within the zodiacal signs.
30.
Augustine of Hippo
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Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage
Augustine of Hippo
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Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving
Augustine of Hippo
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The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by
Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15
Augustine of Hippo
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The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.
Augustine of Hippo
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Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).
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