1.
Antonio Herrera Toro
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Antonio Herrera Toro was a Venezuelan painter, art critic and professor. He began his studies in 1869, under the tutelage of Martín Tovar y Tovar. Five years later, he enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts in Caracas, in 1875, he received a government scholarship that allowed him to study in Paris and Rome. In 1883, he portrayed the final moments of Simón Bolívar, as it turned out, Herrera had to complete the Battle of Ayacucho after Tovars death. He later took up journalistic pursuits in addition to painting, signing his writings with the pseudonym Santoro and he was a major contributor to the cultural affairs bi-weekly, El Cojo Ilustrado, and a co-founder of El Granuja. In 1892, he was appointed Director of the government Office of Buildings and Ornamentation and, in 1908, became Director of the Art Academy, early the following year, he was faced with a strike by a large group of students who were demanding changes in the curriculum. He also tendered his resignation, which was not accepted so, despite being the target of student protests, he retained the position until his death
Antonio Herrera Toro
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Self-portrait (1880)
Antonio Herrera Toro
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Final Moments of
The Liberator
Antonio Herrera Toro
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Self-portrait (1895)
2.
Caracas
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Caracas, officially Santiago de León de Caracas, is the capital, the center of the Greater Caracas Area, and the largest city of Venezuela. Caracas is located along the Guaire River in the part of the country. Terrain suitable for building lies between 760 and 910 m above sea level, the valley is close to the Caribbean Sea, separated from the coast by a steep 2, 200-metre-high mountain range, Cerro El Ávila, to the south there are more hills and mountains. Libertador holds many of the government buildings and is the Capital District, the Distrito Capital had a population of 2,013,366 as of 2011, while the Metropolitan District of Caracas was estimated at 3,273,863 as of 2013. The Metropolitan Region of Caracas has an population of 5,243,301. Businesses that are located in the city include service companies, banks and it has a largely service-based economy, apart from some industrial activity in its metropolitan area. The Caracas Stock Exchange and Petróleos de Venezuela are headquartered in Caracas, PDVSA is the largest company in Venezuela. Caracas is also Venezuelas cultural capital, with restaurants, theaters, museums. Some of the tallest skyscrapers in Latin America are located in Caracas, in 2015, Venezuela and its capital, Caracas, had the highest per capita murder rates in the world, with 119 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants. Most murders and other violent crimes go unsolved, at the time of the founding of the city in 1567, the valley of Caracas was populated by indigenous peoples. Francisco Fajardo, the son of a Spanish captain and a Guaiqueri cacica, fajardos settlement did not last long. It was destroyed by natives of the led by Terepaima. This was the last rebellion on the part of the natives, on 25 July 1567, Captain Diego de Losada laid the foundations of the city of Santiago de León de Caracas. The foundation −1567 – I take possession of land in the name of God. In 1577 Caracas became the capital of the Spanish Empires Venezuela Province under Governor Juan de Pimentel, during the 17th century, the coast of Venezuela was frequently raided by pirates. With the coastal mountains as a barrier, Caracas was relatively immune to such attacks, encountering little resistance, the invaders sacked and set fire to the town after a failed ransom negotiation. As the cocoa cultivation and exports under the Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas grew in importance, in 1777, Caracas became the capital of the Captaincy General of Venezuela. José María España and Manuel Gual led a revolution aimed at independence
Caracas
Caracas
Caracas
Caracas
3.
Venezuelan War of Independence
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On July 5,1811, seven of the ten provinces of the Captaincy General of Venezuela declared their independence in the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence. The First Republic of Venezuela was lost in 1812 following the 1812 Caracas earthquake, only as part of Bolívars campaign to liberate New Granada in 1819-20 did Venezuela achieve a lasting independence from Spain. On 17 December 1819, the Congress of Angostura declared Gran Colombia an independent country, after two more years of war, the country achieved independence from Spain in 1821 under the leadership of its most famous son, Simón Bolívar. Venezuela, along with the countries of Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador, formed part of the Republic of Gran Colombia until 1830. The French invasion of Spain in 1808 led to the collapse of the Spanish Monarchy, most subjects of Spain did not accept the government of Joseph Bonaparte, placed on the Spanish throne by his brother, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France. At the same time, the process of creating a government in Spain. This created a vacuum in the Spanish possessions in America. On 19 April 1810 the municipal council of Caracas headed a movement to depose the Spanish Governor and Captain General. A junta was established in Caracas, and soon other Venezuelan provinces followed suit, the reverberations of this act of independence could be felt throughout Venezuela almost immediately. Across Venezuela, towns and cities decided to side with the movement based in Caracas or not. The Caracas Junta called for a congress of Venezuelan provinces to establish a government for the region, as the Congress deliberated, a faction proposing outright independence quickly won favor. The Congress declared Venezuelas independence on 5 July 1811, establishing the Republic of Venezuela, two provinces, Maracaibo Province and Guayana Province, and one district, Coro, never recognized the Caracas Junta and remained loyal to the governments in Spain. Military expeditions to bring Coro and Guayana under the control of the Republic failed, in 1811 an uprising in Valencia against the Republic was successfully suppressed. By 1812 the situation increasingly became aggravated for the young Republic and it was short of funds, Spanish Regency set up a blockade, and on 26 March 1812, a devastating earthquake hit republican areas. In these desperate moments, Miranda was given powers, nevertheless he was unable to stem the royalist advance headed by Captain Domingo de Monteverde. By midyear, after the Battle of San Mateo, the Republic collapsed, Miranda capitulated to Monteverde and signed an armistice on 25 July 1812. Bolívar and other republicans continued the resistance from parts of the Spanish South America. In 1813 Bolívar joined the army of United Provinces of New Granada, after winning a series of battles, Bolívar received the approval of the New Granadan Congress to lead a liberating force into Venezuela in what became known as the Admirable Campaign
Venezuelan War of Independence
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Detail of The Battle of Carabobo (1887) by
Martín Tovar y Tovar. Federal Capitol of Venezuela.
4.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
Puerto Rico
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A Taíno Village at the
Tibes Ceremonial Center.
Puerto Rico
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Flag
Puerto Rico
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Juan Ponce de León (
Santervás de Campos,
Valladolid, Spain), was the first governor of Puerto Rico. His grandson
Juan Ponce de León II was the first criollo governor of Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico
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The 16th century
Fort San Felipe del Morro in San Juan, Puerto Rico
5.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
Lithography
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Charles Marion Russell 's The Custer Fight (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges
Lithography
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Lithography stone and
mirror image print of a map of Munich
Lithography
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A 1902 lithograph map (original size 33×24 cm)
6.
Study (art)
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In art, a study is a drawing, sketch or painting done in preparation for a finished piece, or as visual notes. Studies are often used to understand the problems involved in rendering subjects and to plan the elements to be used in finished works, such as light, color, form, perspective and composition. Studies can have more impact than more-elaborately planned work, due to the fresh insights the artist gains while exploring the subject, the excitement of discovery can give a study vitality. Even when layers of the show changes the artist made as more was understood. Written notes alongside visual images add to the import of the piece as they allow the viewer to share the process of getting to know the subject. Studies inspired some of the first 20th century conceptual art, where the process itself becomes the subject of the piece. Since the process is what is all-important in studies and conceptual art, studies can be traced back even as long ago as the Italian Renaissance, from which art historians have maintained some of Michelangelos studies. One in particular, his study for the Libyan Sibyl on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, is based on a male model, such details help to reveal the thought processes and techniques of many artists
Study (art)
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Peter Paul Rubens - Four Studies of a Head of a Moor
Study (art)
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Leonardo da Vinci 's study of embryos, c. 1510-1513
Study (art)
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Studies by
Abraham Bloemaert, ca. 1626
Study (art)
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Head of Minerva,
Elihu Vedder, 1896. Preparatory study. Oil on canvas, 125 × 80 cm
7.
Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando
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The Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, located on the Calle de Alcalá in the heart of Madrid, currently functions as a museum and gallery. The academy was established by decree in 1744. About twenty years later, the enlightened monarch Charles III purchased a palace in Madrid as the new home. The building had been designed by José Benito de Churriguera for the Goyeneche family, the king commissioned Diego de Villanueva to convert the building for academic use, employing a neoclassical style in place of Churrigueras baroque design. The academy is also the headquarters of the Madrid Academy of Art, francisco Goya was once one of the academys directors, and its alumni include Felip Pedrell, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Antonio López García, Juan Luna, Oscar de la Renta, and Fernando Botero. Enlightenment in Spain Media related to Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando at Wikimedia Commons Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando Android and iOS Official mobile app
Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando
8.
Federico de Madrazo
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Federico de Madrazo y Kuntz was a Spanish painter. Born in Rome, he was the son of the painter José de Madrazo y Agudo, while still attending the classes at the Royal Academy of San Fernando, he painted his first picture, The Resurrection of Christ, which was purchased by Queen Christina. Not long afterwards he painted Achilles in his Tent, and subsequently presented to the Academy The Continence of Scipio, while decorating the palace of Vista Alegre he took up portraiture. In 1852 he went to Paris, where he studied under Franz Winterhalter, in 1837 he was commissioned to produce a picture for the gallery at Versailles, and painted Godfrey de Bouillon proclaimed King of Jerusalem. The artist then returned to Rome, where he worked at various subjects, sacred and he received the Legion of Honour in 1846. He was made a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts on 10 December 1853, and in 1873, on the death of Schnorr. Three years after his father left office, he also became Director of the Museo del Prado and he originated in Spain the production of art reviews and journals, such as El Artiste, El Renacimiento, and El Semanario pintoresco. His brother, Luis de Madrazo, was known as a painter. Federicos best-known pupils were his sons, Raimundo and Ricardo, media related to Federico de Madrazo y Kuntz at Wikimedia Commons
Federico de Madrazo
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Federico de Madrazo, self-portrait.
Federico de Madrazo
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Autograph
Federico de Madrazo
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Battle of Cerignola:
El Gran Capitan finds the corpse of
Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours
9.
International Exposition (1867)
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The International Exposition of 1867, was the second worlds fair to be held in Paris, from 1 April to 3 November 1867. Forty two nations were represented at the fair, following a decree of Emperor Napoleon III, the exposition was prepared as early as 1864, in the midst of the renovation of Paris, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire. In 1864, Napoleon III decreed that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867, a commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. In addition to the building, there were nearly 100 smaller buildings on the grounds. There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom 15,055 were from France and her colonies,6176 from Great Britain and Ireland,703 from the United States and a small contingent from Canada. In the gallery of Labour History Jacques Boucher de Perthes, exposes one of the first prehistoric tools whose authenticity has been recognized with the accuracy of these theories. The exhibition also included two prototypes of the acclaimed and prize-winning hydrochronometer invented in 1867 by Gian Battista Embriaco. Farcot and sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Be Belleuse, farcot exhibited several units, one of them it is currently in the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. Its base, which features the face and inner mechanical movements, is carved from solid onyx marble. Atop the base, a sculpture depicting a robed female figure holds a scepter. Rotating soundlessly from the subjects hand, the scepter provides consistent motion that adds to the clocks sense of grandeur. From its base to the top of the figure stands at nearly 10 feet tall. Carrier de Belleuse was one of the most important and renowned sculptors of the 19th century, the exposition was formally opened on 1 April and closed on 31 October 1867, and was visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibitors and employees. This exposition was the greatest up to its time of all international expositions, for the first time Japan presented art pieces to the world in a national pavilion, especially pieces from the Satsuma and Saga clans in Kyushu. The Paris street near Champs de Mars, Rue de LExposition was named in hommage to this 1867 universal exhibition. Jules Verne visited the exhibition in 1867, his take on the newly publicized discovery of electricity inspiring him heavily in his writing of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A famous revival of the ballet Le Corsaire was staged by the Ballet Master Joseph Mazilier in honor of the exhibition at the Théâtre Impérial de l´Opéra on 21 October 1867. The World Rowing Championships were held on the Seine River in July and was won by the underdog Canadian team from Saint John, rejtan This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C
International Exposition (1867)
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Main building at Champ de Mars
International Exposition (1867)
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Official bird's-eye view of Exposition Universelle of 1867.
International Exposition (1867)
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Napoleon III receives the rulers and illustrious men who visited the 'Exposition universelle of 1867".
International Exposition (1867)
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Swedish
folk costumes on display at the International Exposition in 1867.
10.
Anton Goering
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Christian Anton Goering was a German naturalist, painter and graphic artist who spent several years in Venezuela. He learned taxidermy from his father, who was a member of several ornithological societies, from 1856 to 1858, they travelled in South America and he decided to pursue his interests in natural history. He also went to London, where he took lessons from the zoological artist Joseph Wolf, while he was there, the Secretary of the Zoological Society, Philip Sclater, asked him to go to Venezuela to collect specimens for the British Museum. In 1866, he arrived in Venezuela at the port of Carúpano, during May and June 1867, he visited the town of Caripe and explored the Cueva del Guácharo, collecting specimens of the elusive oilbird. After that, he spent some time in central Venezuela, collecting zoological specimens, following extensive travels that included a visit to Curaçao, he came to a stop in Mérida in 1869, where he discovered a natural bridge over a local stream. This prompted him to create a series of watercolors depicting the landscapes and he stayed in the Andes from 1869 to 1872, then spent some time in Colonia Tovar, a German settlement near the coast, before returning to Caracas. While there, he shared notes with the English spelunker, James Mudie Spence and they also joined to create and promote an artistic salon which came to be known as the Exposición Anual de Bellas Artes Venezolanas. Goering presented over 50 drawings and watercolors at their first exhibition in 1872, later that same year, he and Spence participated in an expedition to climb the Pico Naiguatá. Goering returned to Germany in 1874 and this work was not translated into Spanish until 1962 when, on the occasion of its 150th anniversary, the University of the Andes published it under the title Venezuela, el más bello país tropical. A new translation, with the title, appeared in 1993. Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Altenburg named him a Professor and awarded him the Saxe-Ernestine House Order and he was also a corresponding member of the Zoological Society of London. In 1957, when the speleologist Eugenio de Bellard Pietri discovered new galleries in the Cueva del Guácharo, online ArtNet, More paintings by Goering
Anton Goering
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Anton Goering (1869)
Anton Goering
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Hummingbirds, from Die Gartenlaube
11.
Palacio Federal Legislativo
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The Palacio Federal Legislativo, also known as the Capitolio, is a historic building in Caracas, Venezuela which now houses the National Assembly. Located southeast of the Plaza Bolívar, it was built in 1872 by President Antonio Guzman Blanco to a design by the architect Luciano Urdaneta, the Salón Elíptico, opened in 1877, is topped by a golden dome. Adopting a radically anticlerical approach, Antonio Guzman Blanco introduced contemporary architecture to Venezuela, the Palacio Federal Legislativo, located to the west of Plaza Bolívar, is one such building. It is painted white and has a gilded oval-shaped dome crowning an elliptically shaped room. The domes ceiling has a painting by Martín Tovar y Tovar which vividly depicts the crucial Battle of Carabobo in the Venezuelan War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule, built in 1872, it replaced an earlier convent on the site. The most notable professionals of the times were commissioned to design the building, Luciano Urdaneta, the complex consists of two rectangular volumes connected by two lower sections. It encloses a courtyard with a fountain set in a small garden inside iron railings. The two Neoclassical buildings are known as the Legislative Palace and the Federal Palace, the first, completed in 1873, became the Congress in 1958 and the National Assembly in 2000. The façade of the Legislative Palace, completed in 1877, is symmetrical in design and it has a portico at the center. The triangular pediment has a bas-relief of busts of Simón Bolívar, there are three columnated portals, the one in the centre presenting two caryatids representing Justice and Freedom. The complex has been a National Historic Monument since 22 August 1997
Palacio Federal Legislativo
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Palacio Federal Legislative, Caracas
Palacio Federal Legislativo
Palacio Federal Legislativo
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A scene from the
Battle of Carabobo in the dome of Palacio Federal Legislativo
Palacio Federal Legislativo
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Museums
12.
Venezuelan Declaration of Independence
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The seven provinces were Caracas Province, Cumaná Province, Barinas Province, Margarita Province, Barcelona Province, Mérida Province and Trujillo Province. The three remaining provinces which did not take part in the Venezuelan congress opted to stay under Spanish rule, the declaration proclaimed a new nation called the American Confederacy of Venezuela and was mainly written by Cristóbal Mendoza and Juan Germán Roscio. It was ratified by Congress on July 7,1811, and recorded in the Congresss Book of Minutes on August 17,1811, the anniversary of this declaration is celebrated as Independence Day. The original Book of Minutes of the first Congress of Venezuela is in the Federal Legislative Palace in Caracas, the document is kept at the museo de la Casa de las Primeras Letras Simón Rodríguez. The signature of president Hugo Chávez was added to a copy of the document on May 31,2013, by the Maduro administration. This resulted in outrage among various sectors opposing said administration, first Republic of Venezuela Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America Argentine Declaration of Independence
Venezuelan Declaration of Independence
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1876 study by
Martín Tovar y Tovar depicting the signing of the declaration.
13.
Battle of Carabobo
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The Battle of Carabobo,24 June 1821, was fought between independence fighters, led by Venezuelan General Simón Bolívar, and the Royalist forces, led by Spanish Field Marshal Miguel de la Torre. Bolívars decisive victory at Carabobo led to the independence of Venezuela, there were several events that led to the Battle of Carabobo. Francisco Miranda, famed patriot that tried to free many Latin American countries alongside Simón Bolívar, had control of Caracas from 1810 to 1812. The Spanish took back control and Miranda was handed to the royalists because Bolívar, in one of his most questionable decisions of his life, Bolívar then fled from Venezuela, after which he organized the Admirable Campaign in 1813 and re-established the Second Republic of Venezuela. Bolívar would lose Venezuela again in 1814 and he would re-establish the Venezuelan Republic one more time before uniting with the New Granada to form the Gran Colombia union. In 1820, an armistice was made between the Spanish, under General Pablo Morillo, and the Patriots, under Bolívar, during the years after he fled from Venezuela, Bolívar spent a lot of time regrouping his forces. He stationed his men on Lake Maracaibo, an area that was occupied by the loyalists, Bolívar had numerical superiority over the loyalists but it would still be a challenge. The Royalists occupied the leading from Valencia to Puerto Cabello. As Bolívars force of 6,500 approached the Royalist position, Bolívar divided his force and sent half on a flanking maneuver through rough terrain, Bolívar led the attack through the center while Gen. José Antonio Páez went around to the right flank. But before they would do it, the 2 Spanish field guns fired on the lines, Gen. Miguel de la Torre, commander of the Spanish, also split his force and sent half to deal with this flank attack. Hitting the Patriots, led by the Apure Braves Battalion, with musket fire, the Venezuelan infantry failed and retreated, but the men of the British Legions, among them many members of the former Kings German Legion, fought hard and took the hills. They played very pivotal roles in several of the battles and were very crucial in this battle. The legion troops were led by Colonel Thomas Ilderton Ferrier and they defended strategically important hills while being greatly outnumbered and low on supplies. Col. Ferrier was among the dead, Bolívar praised the Legion troops and called them the Saviors of my Fatherland and also said that they had distinguished themselves among other armies. Páez, watching him in retreat, told him that he was a coward, to which, with his breath, Camejo responded, No. My general, I have to tell you goodbye, because now I am dead, the Spanish infantry formed squares and fought to the end under the attack of the Patriot cavalry, but one battalion retreated in the face of the enemy. The rout was so bad that only some 400 of one infantry regiment managed to reach safety at Puerto Cabello, with the main Royalist force in Venezuela crushed, independence was ensured. The victory was a hard won one for the independence forces, both Ambrosio Plaza and Manuel Cedeno, commanders of the 2nd and 3rd Divisions, were killed in the battle by the enemy
Battle of Carabobo
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Detail of La Batalla de Carabobo by
Martín Tovar y Tovar. Oil on canvas.
Battle of Carabobo
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Painting by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Battle of Carabobo
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Simon Bolivar
Battle of Carabobo
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Battle of Carabobo Day
14.
Battle of Ayacucho
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The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America, as of late 1824, Royalists still had control of most of the south of Peru as well as of Real Felipe Fort in the port of Callao. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho took place at Pampa de Ayacucho, Independentist forces were led by Simón Bolívars lieutenant Sucre. Viceroy José de la Serna was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the capitulation of the Royalist army. The modern Peruvian Army celebrates the anniversary of this battle, in 1820 Spain began what would shortly become a political disaster. An expedition of 20,000 soldiers waiting to be sent to Río de la Plata to help the royalists of America revolted under the encouragement of General Rafael Riego. In the subsequent weeks the revolt spread and King Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, the royalists in each viceroyalty, however, took different paths. In Peru Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela was discredited after a royalist expedition to Chile under Mariano Osorio was defeated and advances in Peru were made by José de San Martín. The viceroy was overthrown on 29 January 1821, in Asnapukyu, in a coup by General José de la Serna, the independentists started the new year with a promising victory. At Cerro de Pasco they defeated a Peruvian royalist army commanded by Viceroy La Serna, however, the royalists had received solid military training. Their first victory came against the independentist army commanded by Domingo Tristán, a year later, San Martin had withdrawn from the scene after the Interview of Guayaquil and royalist forces had smashed Rudecindo Alvarados Liberating Expedition in campaigns in Torata and Moquegua. After scattering Santa Cruzs isolated troops, La Serna recaptured Arequipa after beating Antonio José de Sucres Gran Colombian force on 10 October. Sucre decided to evacuate the Gran Colombian troops, setting sail on 10 October 1823, saving himself and his troops, Viceroy La Serna ended the campaign after reaching Oruro in Upper Peru. On the political front, the last remnants of optimism among patriots faded away with accusations of treason against Peruvian presidents José de la Riva Agüero, Riva Agüero deported deputies of the Peruvian Congress and organized another congress in Trujillo. After being found guilty of treason by the Peruvian Congress he was banished to Chile. This act, in turn, was considered by Simón Bolívar to be treasonous, Tagle, who had earlier ordered all armies under his command to support Bolívar against the royalist enemy, was now pursued by Bolívar, who was looking to capture and execute him. Tagle took shelter with the royalists in the fortress of Callao, nevertheless, by the end of 1823, the situation had started to become critical for those who defended the kings cause. In spite of the military triumphs, Bolívars request for reinforcements from Colombia made him a threat to the royalist army
Battle of Ayacucho
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The Battle of Ayacucho, by
Antonio Herrera Toro from studies by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Battle of Ayacucho
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Last
Viceroy of Perú,
José de la Serna e Hinojosa, Count of the Andes.
Battle of Ayacucho
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Grand Marshal of Ayacucho,
Antonio José de Sucre.
Battle of Ayacucho
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Battle of Ayacucho
15.
Gregor MacGregor
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MacGregors Poyais scheme has been called one of the most brazen confidence tricks in history. From the Clan Gregor, MacGregor was an officer in the British Army from 1803 to 1810 and his successes included a difficult month-long fighting retreat through northern Venezuela in 1816. He captured Amelia Island in 1817 under a mandate from revolutionary agents to conquer Florida from the Spanish and he then oversaw two calamitous operations in New Granada during 1819 that each ended with his abandoning British volunteer troops under his command. A French court tried MacGregor and three others for fraud in 1826 after he attempted a variation on the scheme there, acquitted, MacGregor attempted lesser Poyais schemes in London over the next decade. In 1838, he moved to Venezuela, where he was welcomed back as a hero and he died in Caracas in 1845, aged 58, and was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral. The family was Roman Catholic and part of the Clan Gregor, whose proscription by King James VI, MacGregor would assert in adulthood that a direct ancestor of his had survived the Darien scheme of 1698, the ill-fated Scottish attempt to colonise the Isthmus of Panama. Little is recorded of MacGregors childhood, after his fathers death in 1794, he and his two sisters were raised primarily by his mother with the help of various relatives. MacGregor joined the British Army at 16, the youngest age it was possible for him to do so and his family purchased him a commission as an ensign in the 57th Regiment of Foot, probably for around £450. MacGregors entrance to the military coincided with the start of the Napoleonic Wars following the breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens, southern England was fortified to defend against a possible French invasion, the 57th Foot was at Ashford, Kent. In February 1804, after less than a year in training, later that year, after MacGregor had spent some months in Guernsey with the regiments 1st Battalion, the 57th Foot was posted to Gibraltar. MacGregor was introduced to Maria Bowater, the daughter of a Royal Navy admiral, Maria commanded a substantial dowry and, apart from her by-now-deceased father, was related to two generals, a member of parliament and the botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert. Gregor and Maria married at St Margarets Church, Westminster in June 1805 and set up home in London, at the residence of the brides aunt. Two months later, having rejoined the 57th Foot in Gibraltar, MacGregor bought the rank of captain for about £900, the 57th Foot remained in Gibraltar between 1805 and 1809. MacGregors regiment disembarked at Lisbon about three months into the campaign, on 15 July, by September it was garrisoning Elvas, near the frontier with Spain. Soon thereafter MacGregor was seconded to the 8th Line Battalion of the Portuguese Army, MacGregor formally retired from the British service on 24 May 1810, receiving back the £1,350 he had paid for the ranks of ensign and captain, and returned to Britain. The 57th Foots actions at the Battle of Albuera on 16 May 1811 would earn it considerable prestige, on his return to Britain the 23-year-old MacGregor and his wife moved into a house rented by his mother in Edinburgh. There he assumed the title of Colonel, wore the badge of a Portuguese knightly order and toured the city in an extravagant, after failing to attain high social status in Edinburgh, MacGregor moved back to London in 1811 and began styling himself Sir Gregor MacGregor, Bart. Falsely claiming to have succeeded to the MacGregor clan chieftainship, he alluded to family ties with a selection of dukes, earls
Gregor MacGregor
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General Gregor MacGregor;
mezzotint by
Samuel William Reynolds, after Simon Jacques Rochard, c. 1820–35
Gregor MacGregor
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A romanticised depiction of a MacGregor clansman, by
R R McIan
Gregor MacGregor
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MacGregor in the
British Army, painted by
George Watson, 1804
Gregor MacGregor
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Josefa MacGregor, painted by
Charles Lees in 1821
16.
Francisco de Miranda
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Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza, commonly known as Francisco de Miranda, was a military leader and Venezuelan revolutionary. Miranda led a romantic and adventurous life in the political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions. He participated in three major historical and political movements of his time, the American Revolutionary War, the French Revolution and he described his experiences over this time in his journal, which reached to 63 bound volumes. An idealist, he developed a plan to liberate and unify all of Spanish America. He was handed over to his enemies and four years later, Miranda was born in Caracas, Venezuela Province, in the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada, and baptized on April 5,1750. Growing up, Miranda enjoyed a wealthy upbringing and attended the finest private schools, however, he was not necessarily a member of high society, he faced some discrimination due to his Canarian roots, and his heritage was continually put into question by the Criollo aristocracy. Miranda was first tutored by Jesuits, Jorge Lindo and Juan Santaella, on January 10,1762, Miranda began his studies at the Royal and Pontifical University of Caracas, where he studied Latin, the early grammar of Nebrija, and the Catechism of Ripalda for two years. Miranda completed this course in September 1764 and became an upperclassman. Between 1764 and 1766, Miranda continued his studies, studying the writings of Cicero and Virgil, grammar, history, religion, geography, in June 1767, Miranda received his baccalaureate degree in the Humanities. It is unknown if Miranda received the title of Doctor, as the evidence in favor of this title is his personal testimony stating he received it in 1767. Beginning in 1767, Mirandas studies were disrupted in part due to his fathers rising prominence in Caracas society. In 1764, Sebastian de Miranda was appointed the captain of the militia known as the Company of the White Canary Islanders by the governor. Sebastian de Miranda directed his regiment for five years, but his new title, in retaliation, a competing faction formed a militia of its own and two local aristocrats, Don Juan Nicolas de Ponte and Don Martin Tovar Blanco, filed a complaint against Sebastian de Miranda. In 1769, Sebastian produced a genealogy to prove that his family had no African ancestors. In 1770, Sebastian won his familys rights through a royal patent, signed by Charles III. Miranda landed at the Port of Cadiz on March 1,1771, on March 28,1771, Miranda travelled to Madrid and took an interest in the libraries, architecture, and art that he found there. In Madrid, Miranda pursued his education, especially modern languages and he also sought to expand his knowledge of mathematics, history, and political science, as he aimed to serve the Spanish Crown as a military officer. It was in Madrid that Miranda began to build his personal library, in January 1773, Mirandas father transferred 85,000 reales vellon, to help his son obtain the position of captain in the Princesss Regiment
Francisco de Miranda
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Portrait by
Martín Tovar y Tovar
Francisco de Miranda
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Statue of Francisco de Miranda in
Caracas.
Francisco de Miranda
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This article may require
copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (September 2015)
Francisco de Miranda
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Cason del Buen Retiro. Miranda looked iconic buildings and monuments
Madrid of the time.
17.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012
18.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
19.
Union List of Artist Names
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The Union List of Artist Names is an online database using a controlled vocabulary currently containing around 293,000 names and other information about artists. Names in ULAN may include names, pseudonyms, variant spellings, names in multiple languages. Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name, the focus of each ULAN record is an artist. Currently there are around 120,000 artists in the ULAN, in the database, each artist record is identified by a unique numeric ID. Linked to each artist record are names, related artists, sources for the data, the temporal coverage of the ULAN ranges from Antiquity to the present and the scope is global. The ULAN includes proper names and associated information about artists, artists may be either individuals or groups of individuals working together. Artists in the ULAN generally represent creators involved in the conception or production of visual arts, repositories and some donors are included as well. Work on the ULAN began in 1984, when the Getty decided to merge, in 1987 the Getty created a department dedicated to compiling and distributing terminology. The ULAN grows and changes via contributions from the user community, although originally intended only for use by Getty projects, the broader art information community outside the Getty expressed a need to use ULAN for cataloging and retrieval. Its scope was broadened to include corporate bodies such as firms and repositories of art. The ULAN was founded under the management of Eleanor Fink, the ULAN has been constructed over the years by numerous members of the user community and an army of dedicated editors, under the supervision of several managers. The ULAN was published in 1994 in hardcopy and machine-readable files, given the growing size and frequency of changes and additions to the ULAN, by 1997 it had become evident that hard-copy publication was impractical. It is now published in automated formats only, in both a searchable online Web interface and in data files available for licensing, final editorial control of the ULAN is maintained by the Getty Vocabulary Program, using well-established editorial rules. The current managers of the ULAN are Patricia Harpring, Managing Editor, entities in the Person facet typically have no children. Entities in the Corporate Body facet may branch into trees, there may be multiple broader contexts, making the ULAN structure polyhierarchical. In addition to the relationships, the ULAN also has equivalent. Contributors to the Getty Vocabularies and implementers of the licensed vocabulary data may consult these guidelines as well
Union List of Artist Names
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Contents
