1.
Martha Jefferson
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Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, born Martha Wayles was the only wife of her second husband, Thomas Jefferson. She was a widow at her wedding, as her first husband had died young. When her second husband, Jefferson, was Governor of Virginia and she would have been the third First Lady of the United States, but she died before her husband Thomas Jeffersons presidential term from 1801 to 1809. The Jeffersons had six children, but only two survived to adulthood, and only one past the age of 25. Weakened by childbirth, Martha Jefferson died several months after the birth of her last child, at her request, he never married again. Martha Wayles was born on October 30,1748, in Charles City County, Virginia to John Wayles and his first wife, John Wayles was an attorney, slave trader, business agent for Bristol-based merchants Farrell & Jones, and prosperous planter. He was born in Lancaster, England and had emigrated alone at the age of 19 to Virginia in 1734 and her mother, Martha Eppes, was a daughter of Francis Eppes and his wife of Bermuda Hundred. Martha Eppes Wayles died on November 5,1748, when her daughter Martha was six days old, nothing is known of Martha Eppes Wayles education or other aspects of her childhood. The scant documentation about her indicates she was a writer and had a refined appreciation for the literature of the period, such as Tristram Shandy. Eppes had been widowed when she married Wayles, as part of her dowry, Martha Eppes brought with her to the marriage her personal slaves, an African woman named Susanna and her 11-year-old mixed-race daughter Elizabeth Hemings. John and Marthas marriage contract provided that Susanna and Betty were to remain the property of Martha Eppes and her heirs forever, thus, Betty Hemings and her 10 children were eventually inherited by Marthas daughter Martha Wayles and her husband, Thomas Jefferson. John Wayles soon married again, to Mary Cocke of Malvern Hill and they had four children, Sarah, Elizabeth, Tabitha and Anne. Tabitha and Anne married the Skipwith brothers, Robert and Henry, Tabitha Skipwith died with her first childbirth. Nancy Skipwith, Aunty Skipwith to the Jefferson children and grandchildren, Elizabeth married Francis Eppes, Marthas cousin, and had a son, John Wayles Eppes. who later married his half-cousin, Mary Wayles Jefferson, who then went by Maria. After Mary Cocke died, John Wayles married Elizabeth Lomax Skelton, the third Mrs. Wayles died on 10 February 1761, just over a year into the marriage. After his third death, Wayles took the mulatto slave Betty Hemings as a concubine for the rest of his life. Born into slavery, the children of union were three-quarters European in ancestry and half-siblings to Martha. The youngest was Sally Hemings, born in July 1773, two months after her fathers death, Martha Wayles first married at age 18 to Bathurst Skelton, a Virginia attorney, on November 20,1766
2.
First Lady of the United States
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First Lady of the United States is the informal but accepted title held by the wife of the President of the United States, concurrent with the presidents term of office. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, melania Trump is the current First Lady. While the title was not in use until much later, Martha Washington, the wife of George Washington. During her lifetime she was referred to as Lady Washington. Since the 1790s the role of first lady has changed considerably and it has come to include involvement in political campaigns, management of the White House, championship of social causes, and representation of the president at official and ceremonial occasions. Additionally, over the individual first ladies have held influence in a range of sectors. Historically, should a president be unmarried, or a widower, the use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D. C. social circles. The title first gained recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as the First Lady of the Land while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B, the frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, by the 1930s, it was in wide use. Use of the later spread from the United States to other nations. The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, the position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society, the role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House and she organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Lisa Burns identifies four main themes of the first ladyship, as public woman, as political celebrity, as political activist. Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital and this socializing became known as the Republican Court and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role
3.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
4.
Abigail Adams
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Abigail Adams was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with discussions on government. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front, Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mothers side she was descended from the Quincy family, through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Smith married Elizabeth Quincy in 1742, and together they had four children and their only son, born in 1746, died of alcoholism in 1787. As with several of her ancestors, Adamss father was a liberal Congregationalist minister, Smith did not focus his preaching on predestination or original sin, instead he emphasized the importance of reason and morality. In July 1775 his wife Elizabeth, with whom he had married for 33 years. In 1784, at age 77, Smith died, Abigail did not receive formal schooling, she was frequently sick as child, which may have been a factor which prevented her from receiving an education. Later in life, Adams would also consider that she was deprived an education because females were given such an opportunity. Her grandmother, Elizabeth Quincy, also contributed to Adams education, as she grew up, Adams read with friends in an effort to further her learning. As an intellectually open-minded woman for her day, Adams ideas on womens rights and government would play a major role, albeit indirectly. She became one of the most erudite women ever to serve as First Lady, as third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. In 1762, John accompanied his friend Richard Cranch to the Smith household, Cranch was engaged to Adams older sister, Mary, and they would be the parents of federal judge William Cranch. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old brunette who was bent over some book. He was surprised to learn she knew so much poetry, philosophy. Smith, Abigails father, presided over the marriage of John Adams, after the reception, the couple mounted a single horse and rode off to their new home, the small cottage and farm John had inherited from his father in Braintree, Massachusetts. Later they moved to Boston, where his law practice expanded, the couple welcomed their first child nine months into their marriage
5.
Dolley Madison
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Dolley Payne Todd Madison was the wife of James Madison, President of the United States from 1809 to 1817. She was noted for her social graces, which boosted her husband’s popularity as President. In this way, she did much to define the role of the President’s spouse, Dolley Madison also helped to furnish the newly constructed White House. When the British set fire to it in 1814, she was credited with saving the classic portrait of George Washington, in widowhood, she often lived in poverty, partially relieved by the sale of her late husband’s papers. Mary Coles, a Quaker, had married John Payne, a non-Quaker, three years later, he applied and was admitted to the Quaker Monthly Meeting in Hanover County, Virginia, where Coles parents lived, and they reared their children in the Quaker faith. By 1769, the Paynes had returned to Virginia, and young Dolley grew up in comfort at her parents plantation in rural eastern Virginia and became deeply attached to her mothers family. Eventually she had three sisters, Lucy, Anna, and Mary, and four brothers, Walter, William Temple, Isaac, in 1783, following the American Revolutionary War, John Payne emancipated his slaves, as did numerous slaveholders in the Upper South. Some, like Payne, were Quakers, who had long encouraged manumission, others were inspired by revolutionary ideals. From 1782 to 1810, the proportion of blacks to the total black population in Virginia increased from less than one percent to 7.2 percent. Payne moved his family to Philadelphia, where he went into business as a starch merchant, in January 1790, Dolley Payne had married John Todd, a Quaker lawyer in Philadelphia. They quickly had two sons, John Payne and William Temple, after Mary Payne left Philadelphia in 1793, Dolleys sister Anna Payne moved in with them to help with the children. By mid-September 20,000 people had fled the city, at age 25 Dolley Todd was a widow with her young son Payne to support. Dolley Payne Todd and James Madison, who represented Virginia in the U. S. House of Representatives, in May 1794, Burr made the formal introduction between the young widow and Madison, who at 43 was a longstanding bachelor 17 years her senior. A brisk courtship followed, and by August, Dolley accepted his marriage proposal, as he was not a Quaker, she was expelled from the Society of Friends for marrying outside her faith. They were married on September 15,1794, and lived in Philadelphia for the three years. In 1797, after eight years in the House of Representatives, James Madison retired from politics and he returned with his family to Montpelier, the Madison family plantation in Orange County, Virginia. There they expanded the house and settled in, when Thomas Jefferson was elected as the third president of the United States in 1800, he asked Madison to serve as his Secretary of State. Madison accepted and moved Dolley, her son Payne, her sister Anna and they took a large house, as Dolley believed that entertaining would be important in the capital
6.
Monticello
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Monticello was the primary plantation of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, who began designing and building Monticello at age 26 after inheriting land from his father. The current Nickel features a depiction of Monticello on the reverse, situated on the summit of an 850-foot -high peak in the Southwest Mountains south of the Rivanna Gap, the name Monticello derives from the Italian for little mount. Cabins for field slaves were farther from the mansion, at Jeffersons direction, he was buried on the grounds, in an area now designated as the Monticello Cemetery. The cemetery is owned by the Monticello Association, a society of his descendants through Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, after Jeffersons death, his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph sold the property. In 1834 it was bought by Uriah P. Levy, a commodore in the U. S. Navy and his nephew Jefferson Monroe Levy took over the property in 1879, he also invested considerable money to restore and preserve it. In 1923, Monroe Levy sold it to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation and it has been designated a National Historic Landmark. In 1987 Monticello and the nearby University of Virginia, also designed by Jefferson, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jeffersons home was built to serve as a house, which ultimately took on the architectural form of a villa. It has many antecedents, but Jefferson went beyond them to create something very much his own. He consciously sought to create a new architecture for a new nation, work began on what historians would subsequently refer to as the first Monticello in 1768, on a plantation of 5,000 acres. Jefferson moved into the South Pavilion in 1770, where his new wife Martha Wayles Skelton joined him in 1772, Jefferson continued work on his original design, but how much was completed is of some dispute. In constructing and later reconstructing his home, Jefferson used both free workers and enslaved laborers, after his wifes death in 1782, Jefferson left Monticello in 1784 to serve as Minister of the United States to France. His decision to remodel his own home may date from this period, in 1794, following his service as the first U. S. Secretary of State, Jefferson began rebuilding his house based on the ideas he had acquired in Europe. The remodeling continued throughout most of his presidency, although generally completed by 1809, Jefferson continued work on the present structure until his death in 1826. Jefferson added a hallway and a parallel set of rooms to the structure, more than doubling its area. He removed the second full-height story from the house and replaced it with a mezzanine bedroom floor. The interior is centered on two rooms, which served as an entrance-hall-museum, where Jefferson displayed his scientific interests. The most dramatic element of the new design was an octagonal dome, the dome room has now been restored to its appearance during Jeffersons lifetime, with Mars yellow walls and a painted green floor
7.
Province of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
8.
British America
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English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
9.
Albemarle County, Virginia
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Albemarle County is a United States county located in the Piedmont region of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Its county seat is Charlottesville, which is an independent city enclave entirely surrounded by the county, Albemarle County is part of the Charlottesville Metropolitan Statistical Area. Albemarle County was created in 1744 from the portion of Goochland County. Albemarle County was named in honor of Willem Anne van Keppel, however, its most famous inhabitant was Thomas Jefferson, who built his estate home, Monticello, in the county. As of the 2010 census, the population was 98,970, the population has more than tripled since the 1960 census. At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Albemarle County were a Siouan-speaking tribe called the Saponi, in 1744, the Virginia General Assembly created Albemarle County from the western portion of Goochland County. The county was named in honor of Willem Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle, in 1777, Albemarle County was divided and Fluvanna County established, finalizing the boundaries of modern Albemarle County. Albemarle County is well known for its association with President and Founding Father Thomas Jefferson, however, his home of Monticello is located in the County. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 726 square miles. The Rivanna Rivers south fork forms in Albemarle County and was important for transportation. The south fork flows in-between Darden Towe Park and Pen Park, boat ramp access is available at Dardent Towe Park. The James River acts as a boarder between Albemarle and Buckingham Counties. Interstate 64 U. S. Route 29 U. S. Albemarle County borders 8 other counties, more than any county in Virginia. 3%, German 16. 0%, Irish 12. 7%, American 11. 4%. As of the census of 2010, there were 98,970 people,38,157 households, the population density was 137 people per square mile. There were 42,122 housing units at a density of 58 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 80. 6% White,9. 7% Black or African American,0. 3% Native American,4. 7% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,2. 3% from other races, and 2. 4% from two or more races. 5. 5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 25. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the family size was 2.96
10.
Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr.
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Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. was a planter, soldier, and politician from Virginia. He served as a member of both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, a Representative in the U. S. Congress and he married Martha Jefferson, the oldest daughter of Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States. They had eleven children who survived childhood, as an adult, Randolph developed alcoholism, and he and his wife separated for some time before his death. Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. was born on October 1,1768 at Tuckahoe Plantation in the Colony of Virginia, Thomas was the first son of Thomas Mann Randolph, Sr. and Anne Cary Randolph. His siblings included older sister, Mary Randolph, author of The Virginia House-Wife and he was the grandson of Archibald Cary and the great-grandson of Richard Randolph and William Randolph. The Randolphs were among the First Families of Virginia, Randolph was a lineal descendant of Pocahontas through Richard Randolph. Randolph received his education from his mother and private tutors. He attended the College of William and Mary, in Williamsburg, Virginia, though he did not graduate, he continued to study on his own and became a respected botanist. At the end of 1790, their widower father Thomas Randolph, Sr. at the age of 50, married Gabriella Harvie, who was seventeen and the daughter of a neighboring planter. They had two children, a daughter who died in infancy, and a son they named Thomas Mann Randolph, Randolph served in the Virginia State Senate in 1793 and 1794, and was elected as a Republican to the Eighth and Ninth US Congresses. During the War of 1812, he was a colonel of the Twentieth Infantry and he was elected a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, in 1819,1820, and 1823–1825. He was elected and served as Governor of Virginia, 1819–1822 and he was the first son-in-law of a Virginia Governor to be elected governor in his own right. Randolphs colleague in the session, William F. Gordon, received the most votes, while Charlottesville attorney Rice W. Woods finished second. Randolph and his wife became estranged toward the end of his life, after inheriting his fathers debts upon his death, Randolph had struggled to provide for his younger siblings in addition to his own growing family. The Virginian economic situation suffered several blows, and by the end of his life Randolphs lands were far less than they had been when he inherited them. ”The loss of his property was humiliating for Randolph. At times Randolph became irrational, and his angry outbursts caused all his children to distance themselves from him. He left Martha and their children at Monticello with her father, Thomas Jefferson. After Jeffersons death, Martha Randolph moved with her two youngest children to Boston to gain distance from her husband, and to time with her older daughter
11.
Thomas Jefferson Randolph
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He was notable as the oldest grandson of President Thomas Jefferson. He helped manage Monticello near the end of his grandfathers life and was executor of his estate, Randolph was likely trying to deflect attention from his grandfather, Thomas Jefferson, as he admitted there were Hemings children who strongly resembled the president. The Carr story was the basis for historians denials of Jeffersons relationship from 1868 to 1998, Thomas Jefferson Randolph was the son of Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. and Martha Jefferson Randolph, the oldest son and the second born of their eleven children who survived. His mother was the eldest daughter, and he was the eldest grandson of United States President Thomas Jefferson, part of the time, he grew up at Monticello and was close to his grandfather, who died when Randolph was 34. In 1815 Randolph married Jane Hollins Nicholas, daughter of Wilson Cary Nicholas, Jane Nicholas Randolph Wilson Cary Nicholas Randolph Meriwether Lewis Randolph Sarah Randolph A planter, Randolph was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates and served four years. He had been close to his grandfather and was appointed executor of his estate in his will of 1826, Randolph had begun to manage Monticello for his mother and grandfather for a short period during Jeffersons last years. Because the estate was encumbered by debt, Randolph ordered the sale of Monticello goods and property. His mother withheld Sally Hemings from the auction and gave her her time, Jefferson had formally freed Madison and Eston in his will, after allowing their older sister and possibly their older brother to run away in 1822. In 1829, Randolph published Memoir, Correspondence And Miscellanies, From The Papers Of Thomas Jefferson and it was the first collection of Jeffersons writings. After Nat Turners slave rebellion of 1831, Randolph introduced a post nati emancipation plan in the Virginia House of Delegates and this would have provided for gradual emancipation of children born into slavery after they served an apprenticeship and came of age. In 1850, Randolph was elected to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1850 and he was one of four delegates elected from the central Piedmont delegate district made up of his home district of Albemarle County, as well as Nelson and Amherst Counties. From 1857 to 1864, Randolph served as the rector of the University of Virginia, during the American Civil War, he held a colonel’s commission in the Confederate Army. Most planters were excused from active service, continuing to be active in politics after the war, Randolph served as the temporary chairman of the 1872 Democratic National Convention. Randall recounted that Randolph had said the following, she had children which resembled Mr. Jefferson so closely that it was plain that they had his blood in their veins. In the 1850s, Randolph told the biographer Henry Randall that Jeffersons nephew Peter Carr had been the father of Hemings children. He also said that his mother had told him that Jefferson had been absent for 15 months prior to the birth of one of Sally Hemings children, Randall passed this family history on to James Parton, and suggested his own confirmation of the material. At the request of Thomas Jefferson Randolph, Randall had avoided any discussion of Sally Hemings, in addition, Randolphs sister Ellen wrote to her husband identifying Samuel Carr, Peters brother, as the father of Hemings children. The 20th-century historian Dumas Malone used this letter to refute Jeffersons paternity, later 20th-century historians used Malones extensive documentation of Jeffersons activities to determine that Jefferson was at Monticello for the conception of some of Hemingss children
12.
George W. Randolph
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George Wythe Randolph was a lawyer, planter, and Confederate general. He was President Thomas Jeffersons youngest grandson by his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph and their youngest son, he was named in honor of George Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and law professor of his grandfather Thomas Jefferson. Randolph briefly attended preparatory schools in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Washington, DC and his father had incurred much debt. He served as a midshipman in the United States Navy from 1831 to 1839, on April 10,1852, he married the young widow Mary Elizabeth Adams Pope. After studying at the University of Virginia, Randolph read the law with a firm and was admitted to the bar in 1840. He practiced law in Charlottesville, Virginia, and he and Mary lived at his plantation of Edgehill and they moved to the capital of Richmond in 1849. He became active in the community as well as having his law practice and he founded the Richmond Mechanics Institute and was an officer in the Virginia Historical Society. As the Confederacy formed after southern states secession, the United States divided into two camps and the sections moved toward open conflict. A special delegation, composed of Randolph, William B, preston and Alexander H. H. Stuart, traveled to Washington, D. C. where they met President Abraham Lincoln on April 12,1861. Finding the President firm in his resolve to hold the Federal forts in the South, Randolph was commissioned a major in the Confederate Army, and later served as a colonel of the artillery in the Battle of Big Bethel. He was promoted to general on February 12,1862. Mary Randolph was active in the Richmond Ladies Association, which organized welfare, Randolph was appointed by Jefferson Davis as Secretary of War on March 18,1862, and he took office on March 24,1862. He helped reform the department, improving procurement and writing a law similar to one he had created for Virginia. He was most well known for his strengthening the Confederacys western and southern defenses, with weakening health due to tuberculosis, he resigned on November 17,1862. In 1864, Randolph took his family to exile in Europe, staying in England and they returned to Virginia in 1866. He died of tuberculosis in March 1867 at his Edgehill plantation and he is buried at Monticello in the Jefferson family graveyard. Randolph was portrayed on the $100 bill printed by the Confederate States of America, list of American Civil War generals Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Goldberg, David E. George Wythe Randolph, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, accessed 6 April 2011
13.
Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson
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Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, born Martha Wayles was the only wife of her second husband, Thomas Jefferson. She was a widow at her wedding, as her first husband had died young. When her second husband, Jefferson, was Governor of Virginia and she would have been the third First Lady of the United States, but she died before her husband Thomas Jeffersons presidential term from 1801 to 1809. The Jeffersons had six children, but only two survived to adulthood, and only one past the age of 25. Weakened by childbirth, Martha Jefferson died several months after the birth of her last child, at her request, he never married again. Martha Wayles was born on October 30,1748, in Charles City County, Virginia to John Wayles and his first wife, John Wayles was an attorney, slave trader, business agent for Bristol-based merchants Farrell & Jones, and prosperous planter. He was born in Lancaster, England and had emigrated alone at the age of 19 to Virginia in 1734 and her mother, Martha Eppes, was a daughter of Francis Eppes and his wife of Bermuda Hundred. Martha Eppes Wayles died on November 5,1748, when her daughter Martha was six days old, nothing is known of Martha Eppes Wayles education or other aspects of her childhood. The scant documentation about her indicates she was a writer and had a refined appreciation for the literature of the period, such as Tristram Shandy. Eppes had been widowed when she married Wayles, as part of her dowry, Martha Eppes brought with her to the marriage her personal slaves, an African woman named Susanna and her 11-year-old mixed-race daughter Elizabeth Hemings. John and Marthas marriage contract provided that Susanna and Betty were to remain the property of Martha Eppes and her heirs forever, thus, Betty Hemings and her 10 children were eventually inherited by Marthas daughter Martha Wayles and her husband, Thomas Jefferson. John Wayles soon married again, to Mary Cocke of Malvern Hill and they had four children, Sarah, Elizabeth, Tabitha and Anne. Tabitha and Anne married the Skipwith brothers, Robert and Henry, Tabitha Skipwith died with her first childbirth. Nancy Skipwith, Aunty Skipwith to the Jefferson children and grandchildren, Elizabeth married Francis Eppes, Marthas cousin, and had a son, John Wayles Eppes. who later married his half-cousin, Mary Wayles Jefferson, who then went by Maria. After Mary Cocke died, John Wayles married Elizabeth Lomax Skelton, the third Mrs. Wayles died on 10 February 1761, just over a year into the marriage. After his third death, Wayles took the mulatto slave Betty Hemings as a concubine for the rest of his life. Born into slavery, the children of union were three-quarters European in ancestry and half-siblings to Martha. The youngest was Sally Hemings, born in July 1773, two months after her fathers death, Martha Wayles first married at age 18 to Bathurst Skelton, a Virginia attorney, on November 20,1766
14.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
15.
Charlottesville, Virginia
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Charlottesville, colloquially Cville and formally the City of Charlottesville, is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 48,210 and it is the county seat of Albemarle County, which surrounds the city, though the two are separate legal entities. It is named after the British Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the City of Charlottesville with the County of Albemarle for statistical purposes, bringing its steadily growing population to approximately 150,000. Charlottesville is the heart of the Charlottesville metropolitan area, which includes Albemarle, Fluvanna, Greene, Charlottesville was the home of two Presidents, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. While both served as Governor of Virginia, they lived in Charlottesville, and traveled to and from Richmond, Orange, located 26 miles northeast of the city, was the hometown of President James Madison. The University of Virginia, founded by Thomas Jefferson and one of the original Public Ivies, straddles the citys border with Albemarle. Monticello, located 3 miles southeast of the city, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, located on a hilltop overlooking Charlottesville, Monticello attracts thousands of tourists every year. At the time of European encounter, part of the area that became Charlottesville was occupied by a Monacan village called Monasukapanough, Charlottesville was formed in 1762 by an Act of the Assembly of Albemarle County. Thomas Walker was named its first trustee and it was along a trade route called Three Notched Road which led from Richmond to the Great Valley. It was named for Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, queen consort of the United Kingdom as the wife of King George III, during the American Revolutionary War, the Convention Army was imprisoned in Charlottesville between 1779 and 1781 at the Albemarle Barracks. Unlike much of Virginia, Charlottesville was spared the brunt of the American Civil War, the only battle to take place in Charlottesville was the skirmish at Rio Hill, an encounter in which George Armstrong Custer briefly engaged local Confederate home guards before he retreated. The mayor surrendered the city to Custers men to keep the town from being burned, 1820–30, was accidentally burnt during General Sheridans 1865 raid through the Shenandoah Valley. The factory had taken over by the Confederacy and used to manufacture woollen clothing for the soldiers. It caught fire when some coals taken by Union troops to burn the railroad bridge had been dropped on the floor. The factory was rebuilt immediately and was known as the Woolen Mills until its liquidation in 1962, the first black church in Charlottesville was established in 1864. Previously, it was illegal for African-Americans to have their own churches, a current predominantly African-American church can trace its lineage to that first church. Congregation Beth Israels 1882 building is the oldest synagogue building standing in Virginia. The closures were required by a series of laws collectively known as the Stanley plan
16.
Peter Jefferson
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Peter Jefferson was the father of US President Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was born in what is now Chesterfield County, Virginia, son of the elder Thomas Jefferson and Mary Field and he did not receive any formal education while young, but according to his son Thomas Jefferson, he nevertheless read much and improved himself. In 1734, Jefferson claimed the land in present-day Albemarle County and he married Jane Randolph, daughter of Isham Randolph and granddaughter of William Randolph, in 1739. For a year or two following his marriage, his residence was in present-day Powhatan County Virginia near Fine Creek, Jefferson built a house on the Shadwell tract in 1741 or 1742, and moved there sometime before his son, Thomas, was born in 1743. His friend William Randolph, a widower, died in 1745, having appointed Jefferson as guardian to manage his Tuckahoe Plantation and that year the Jeffersons relocated to Tuckahoe, returning to Shadwell in 1752, where Jefferson died in 1757. His estate was divided between his two sons, young Thomas and Randolph, martha Jefferson Carr - married Dabney Carr, founder of the underground Committee of Correspondence in Virginia on the eve of the American Revolution Peter Field Jefferson - died as an infant. Peter Jefferson and his family moved from Shadwell to Tuckahoe Plantation in Goochland County in 1745, Jefferson was made one of the first officers of the newly created Albemarle County in 1745. Later in that year, he was made guardian over the children of William Randolph. Jefferson was a cartographer and surveyor, in the same year, with Joshua Fry, Jefferson extended the survey of the Virginia-North Carolina border, begun by William Byrd II some time earlier. The detailed Fry-Jefferson Map, cited by his son Thomas in his 1781 book Notes on the State of Virginia, was produced by him, Peter Jefferson died at his house on the Shadwell tract in Albemarle County when his son Thomas was 14 years old. Thomas Jefferys, in 1776 producer of The American Atlas, Or, Thomas Lewis, a surveyor with Jefferson of the Fairfax Line Thomas Jefferson, Peters presidential son, who wrote the Declaration of Independence
17.
Slave trader
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The history of slavery spans nearly every culture, nationality, and religion from ancient times to the present day. However the social, economic, and legal positions of slaves were vastly different in different systems of slavery in different times and places, Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations, as it is developed as a system of social stratification. Slavery was known in the very oldest civilizations such as Sumer in Mesopotamia which dates back as far as 3500 BC, the Byzantine–Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe resulted in the taking of large numbers of Christian slaves. Slavery became common within much of Europe and the British Isles during the Dark Ages, the Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese, British, Arabs and a number of West African kingdoms played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade, especially after 1600. During the 1983–2005 Second Sudanese Civil War people were taken into slavery, evidence emerged in the late 1990s of systematic slavery in cacao plantations in West Africa, see the chocolate and slavery article. Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many cultures, however, slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations. Mass slavery requires economic surpluses and a population density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution, about 11,000 years ago. Such institutions were a mixture of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, French historian Fernand Braudel noted that slavery was endemic in Africa and part of the structure of everyday life. During the 16th century, Europe began to outpace the Arab world in the export traffic, the Dutch imported slaves from Asia into their colony in South Africa. In 1807 Britain, which extensive, although mainly coastal, colonial territories on the African continent, made the international slave trade illegal. In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved, in early Islamic states of the Western Sudan, including Ghana, Mali, Segou, and Songhai, about a third of the population was enslaved. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves. The population of the Kanem was about a third slave and it was perhaps 40% in Bornu. Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in northern Nigeria and it is estimated that up to 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved, the Anti-Slavery Society estimated that there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s Ethiopia, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million
18.
Lancaster, England
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Lancaster /ˈlæŋkəstər/, or /ˈlæŋˌkæstər/ is a city and the county town of Lancashire, England. It is situated on the River Lune and has a population of 45,952, long existing as a commercial, cultural and educational centre, Lancaster is the settlement that gives Lancashire its name. Lancaster was granted city status in 1937 for its association with the crown. With its history based on its port and canal, Lancaster is an ancient settlement, dominated by Lancaster Castle, Lancaster Priory Church and it is also home to the campus-based Lancaster University and a campus of the University of Cumbria. The coin evidence also suggests that the fort was not continuously inhabited in early years. The fort was rebuilt in stone around 102 AD, the fort underwent a few more extensions, and at its largest area it was 9–10 acres. The evidence suggests that the fort remained active into the early 5th century, little is known about Lancaster between the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest in the late 11th century. Despite a lack of documentation from this period, it is likely that Lancaster was still inhabited, Lancaster was on the fringes of the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, and over time control may have changed from one to the other. Archaeological evidence suggests there was a monastery on or near the site of todays Lancaster Priory by the 700s or 800s. For example, an Anglo-Saxon runic cross found at the Priory in 1807, Lancaster was probably one of the numerous monasteries founded under Wilfrid. The founding charter of the Priory, dated 1094, is the first known document which is specific to Lancaster, by this time William had given Lancaster and its surrounding region to Roger de Poitou. This document also suggests that the monastery had been refounded as a church at some point prior to 1066. Lancaster became a borough in 1193 under King Richard I and its first charter, dated 12 June 1193, was from John, Count of Mortain, who later became King of England. Lancaster Castle, partly built in the 13th century and enlarged by Elizabeth I, Lancaster Castle is well known as the site of the Pendle witch trials in 1612. It was said that the court based in the castle sentenced more people to be hanged than any other in the country outside London, earning Lancaster the nickname, Lancaster also figured prominently in the suppression of Catholicism during the reformation with the execution of at least eleven Catholic priests. A memorial to the Lancaster Martyrs is located close to the city centre, the traditional emblem for the House of Lancaster is a red rose, the red rose of Lancaster, similar to that of the House of York, which is a white rose. These names derive from the emblems of the Royal Duchies of Lancaster and this erupted into a civil war over rival claims to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. In more recent times, the term Wars of the Roses has been applied to rivalry in sports teams representing Lancashire and Yorkshire, not just the cities of Lancaster and York
19.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
20.
United States Ambassador to France
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The United States Ambassador to France is the official representative of the President of the United States to the head of state of France. There has been a U. S. Ambassador to France since the American Revolution, the United States sent its first envoys to France in 1776, towards the end of the four-centuries-old Bourbon dynasty. The American diplomatic relationship with France has continued throughout that countrys five republican regimes, two periods of French empire, the Bourbon Restoration, and its July Monarchy. Livingston,1801 –1804 John Armstrong,1804 –1810 Joel Barlow,1811 –1812 William H. Crawford,1813 –1815 Albert Gallatin July 16,1816 – May 16,1823 James Brown,1824 –1829 William C. Mason,1853 –1859 William L. Dayton,1861 –1864 John Bigelow,1864 –1866 John Adams Dix,1866 –1869 Elihu B, Ambassador to France from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
21.
Pentemont Abbey
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Pentemont Abbey is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217, a reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie-Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783. In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite. The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest and it continues to be occupied by the Ministère de la Défense with the exception of the former chapel, which since 1844 has been a Protestant church, the Temple Penthemont. Philip of Dreux, the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais, wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order, in 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais, on which were traced out the plans for construction, as well as seven arpents of vines. Philip died before the project was completed and his successor, Bishop Milo of Nanteuil, raised the rest of the funds, and it was completed in 1218. Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey, the abbey took its name, meaning mountain slope, from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St-Symphorien. In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux and she fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the kings soldiers at her own abbey. However, they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position, in 1671, after the abbey was damaged in a flood, and for economic and geographical reasons, the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris. At the time, the convent had twelve sisters, the previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm. In Paris the abbey took up residence in a convent, recently suppressed, of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word. The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest. The abbey quickly acquired a reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58,000 livres. The final abbess, Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières, spent 45 years, the winning proposal, however, was from Pierre Contant dIvry. Thomas Jeffersons daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France and their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school, conditions were austere for the students, despite the presence of three princesses, with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation. Her time at the school led Martha, nicknamed Patsy, to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun, Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent. The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages, one such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais, the future Empress of France, during her separation from her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais
22.
Religious conversion
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Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus religious conversion would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and this might be from one to another denomination within the same religion, for example, from Baptist to Catholic Christianity or from Sunni to Shia Islam. In some cases, religious conversion marks a transformation of identity and is symbolized by special rituals. When people marry one spouse may convert to the religion of the other, forced conversion is adoption of a different religion under duress. The convert may secretly retain the previous beliefs and continue, covertly, with the practices of the original religion, over generations a family forced against their will to convert may wholeheartedly adopt the new religion. Proselytism is the act of attempting to convert by persuasion another individual from a different religion or belief system, apostate is a term used by members of a religion or denomination to refer to someone who has left that religion or denomination. Jewish law has a number of requirements of potential converts and they should desire conversion to Judaism for its own sake, and for no other motives. A male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision conducted according to Jewish law, a convert must join the Jewish community and reject any previous religious affiliation. Ritual immersion in a pool of water known as a mikvah is required. The Greek word proselyte means a convert to Judaism and it is known that some Chinese, Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as many Arabs, particularly in Yemen, were converts. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman empire and Caliph Umar ibn Khattab were issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Christianity. Some Christian sects require full conversion for new members regardless of any history in other Christian sects, the exact requirements vary between different churches and denominations. All Christian sects hold that baptism is a ritual. Jesus Christ was baptized at the beginning of his ministry, and prior to event, John the Baptist had been baptizing Jewish believers as a sign of repentance. Baptism is usually understood as an symbol of an inward change. Prior to that Awakening at Antioch, all converts to Christianity were ethnic, following the Awakening, Pagans and infidels were required to undergo Christian baptism to be ultimately accepted in the Kingdom of God. Christian Baptism has some parallels with Jewish Immersion by Mikvah, converting to Catholicism involves religious education followed by initial participation in the sacraments, which are baptism, confession, penance, and communion. Most other sects require a period of prior to acceptance
23.
Catholicism
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
24.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
25.
Andrew Jackson Donelson
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Andrew Jackson Donelson was an American diplomat and the Know Nothing nominee for Vice President of the United States in 1856 on a ticket with former President Millard Fillmore. One of the three sons of Samuel and Mary Donelson, Andrew Jackson Donelson was born in Nashville, Tennessee and his younger brother, Daniel Smith Donelson, was the Confederate brigadier general after whom Fort Donelson was named. Donelsons father died when Donelson was about five, when his mother remarried, Donelson moved to The Hermitage, the home of his aunt, Rachel Donelson Jackson, and her husband, Donelsons namesake, future President of the United States Andrew Jackson. Rachel and Andrew Jackson adopted all three Donelson sons, including Andrew, Donelson attended Cumberland College in Nashville and then joined the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, graduating second in his class in 1820. His two years as an officer in the United States Army were spent as aide-de-camp to Andrew Jackson, by then a major general, with the campaign over, Donelson resigned his commission and studied law at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky. A year later, he started practicing law in Nashville and, less than a year after that, had married his first cousin, Emily Tennessee Donelson. Donelson assisted his uncle during the 1824 and 1828 presidential campaigns and, in 1829 and his wife Emily served as White House hostess and unofficial First Lady of the United States due to Rachel Jacksons death in December,1828. Donelson remained Jacksons private secretary throughout his administration, during his stay in Washington, Donelson had his new home, Poplar Grove, constructed on the land he had inherited from his father, which was adjacent to the Hermitage. In 1836, Tulip Grove was completed, shortly afterward Emily died of tuberculosis, leaving four young children. Donelson moved back to Nashville after Jacksons retirement the following year and these services included writing newspaper editorials defending Democratic principles and helping Democratic candidates campaign for state, local, and national offices. In 1841, Donelson married another cousin, Elizabeth Randolph, with whom he would have eight more children, Elizabeth Martin Randolph was a widow of Meriwether Lewis Randolph, a son of Martha Jefferson Randolph, and a grandson of Thomas Jefferson). In 1844, Donelson was instrumental in helping James K. Polk win the Democratic presidential nomination over Martin Van Buren, Donelson was successful in this endeavor, and Texas joined the United States on December 29,1845. He was then made Minister to Prussia in 1846, a position he would hold until President Polks Democratic administration was replaced by the Whig administration of Zachary Taylor in 1849. Between September 1848 and November 1849, during the time of the Frankfurt Parliament, in 1851, Donelson became the editor of the Washington Union, a Democratic newspaper. However, as became the dominant issue of American politics, Donelson became unpopular with several factions within the Democratic party. In 1856, Donelson was nominated as the mate of former President Millard Fillmore on the American Party ticket. Fillmore and Donelson managed to garner only 8 electoral votes from Maryland, in 1858, Donelson sold Tulip Grove and moved to Memphis, Tennessee. During the Civil War, Donelson was harassed by both sides of the conflict and he also lost two of his sons in the war
26.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
27.
George Wythe Randolph
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George Wythe Randolph was a lawyer, planter, and Confederate general. He was President Thomas Jeffersons youngest grandson by his daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph and their youngest son, he was named in honor of George Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and law professor of his grandfather Thomas Jefferson. Randolph briefly attended preparatory schools in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Washington, DC and his father had incurred much debt. He served as a midshipman in the United States Navy from 1831 to 1839, on April 10,1852, he married the young widow Mary Elizabeth Adams Pope. After studying at the University of Virginia, Randolph read the law with a firm and was admitted to the bar in 1840. He practiced law in Charlottesville, Virginia, and he and Mary lived at his plantation of Edgehill and they moved to the capital of Richmond in 1849. He became active in the community as well as having his law practice and he founded the Richmond Mechanics Institute and was an officer in the Virginia Historical Society. As the Confederacy formed after southern states secession, the United States divided into two camps and the sections moved toward open conflict. A special delegation, composed of Randolph, William B, preston and Alexander H. H. Stuart, traveled to Washington, D. C. where they met President Abraham Lincoln on April 12,1861. Finding the President firm in his resolve to hold the Federal forts in the South, Randolph was commissioned a major in the Confederate Army, and later served as a colonel of the artillery in the Battle of Big Bethel. He was promoted to general on February 12,1862. Mary Randolph was active in the Richmond Ladies Association, which organized welfare, Randolph was appointed by Jefferson Davis as Secretary of War on March 18,1862, and he took office on March 24,1862. He helped reform the department, improving procurement and writing a law similar to one he had created for Virginia. He was most well known for his strengthening the Confederacys western and southern defenses, with weakening health due to tuberculosis, he resigned on November 17,1862. In 1864, Randolph took his family to exile in Europe, staying in England and they returned to Virginia in 1866. He died of tuberculosis in March 1867 at his Edgehill plantation and he is buried at Monticello in the Jefferson family graveyard. Randolph was portrayed on the $100 bill printed by the Confederate States of America, list of American Civil War generals Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Goldberg, David E. George Wythe Randolph, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, accessed 6 April 2011
28.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
29.
Sally Hemings
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Sarah Sally Hemings was an enslaved woman of mixed race owned by President Thomas Jefferson. Most historians believe she was the mother of six children fathered by him, of four survived to adulthood. It is believed by most historians that Jefferson began a relationship with Hemings in France or soon after their return to Monticello. Hemings was a slave in Jeffersons house until his death, the historical question of whether Jefferson was the father of Hemings children is known as the Jefferson–Hemings controversy. A small number of historians disagree, Hemings children lived in Jeffersons house as slaves and were trained as artisans. Jefferson freed all of Hemings surviving children, Beverly, Harriet, Madison and they were seven-eighths European in ancestry, and three of the four entered white society as adults. Descendants of those three identified as white, Hemings was given her time, lived her last nine years freely with her two younger sons in Charlottesville, Virginia, and saw a grandchild born in the house her sons owned. Sally Hemings was born about 1773 to Betty Hemings, a biracial slave and her father was their master John Wayles. Her mother Betty was the daughter of Susanna, an enslaved African, and John Hemings, Susanna and Betty Hemings were first held by Francis Eppes IV, where Susanna was referred to as Susanna Epps. John Hemings tried to buy them from Eppes, but the refused to give them up. The mother and daughter were inherited by Franciss daughter, Martha Eppes and his parents were Edward Wayles and Ellen Ashburner-Wayles, both of Lancaster, England. After Marthas death, Wayles married and was widowed twice more and they were half-siblings to his daughters by his wives, his first child, Martha Wayles, married the young planter Thomas Jefferson. The biracial children of Betty Hemings by Wayles were three-quarters European in ancestry and very fair-skinned, since 1662 in Virginia slave law, children born to enslaved mothers were considered slaves under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem. Elizabeth and her children, including Sally Hemings, and all their children, were slaves, although the fathers were the white masters. After Wayles died in 1773, his daughter Martha and Jefferson inherited the Hemings family among a total of 135 slaves from his estate, the youngest Wayles-Hemings child was Sally, an infant that year and about 25 years younger than Martha. Betty Hemings other children and their descendants, also mixed race, in 1784, the widower Thomas Jefferson was appointed the American envoy to France, he took his oldest daughter Martha with him to Paris, as well as some of his personal slaves. Among them was Sallys older brother James Hemings, who trained as a chef in French cuisine. Jefferson left his two daughters in the care of friends in the US
30.
Uriah P. Levy
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Uriah Phillips Levy was a naval officer, real estate investor, and philanthropist. He was a veteran of the War of 1812 and the first Jewish Commodore of the United States Navy and he was instrumental in helping to end the Navys practice of flogging, and during his half-century-long service prevailed against the antisemitism he faced among some of his fellow naval officers. Levy was born on April 22,1792, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Michael and Rachel Phillips Levy. Uriah Levy was close to his grandfather, Jonas Phillips, who had emigrated to the United States in 1756 from Germany. Descendants of that group sailed from London in 1733 and helped found the city of Savannah, Georgia, Levys younger brother was Jonas Phillips Levy, who became a merchant and sea captain. He was the father of five, including the Congressman Jefferson Monroe Levy. Family stories have it that Levy ran away home at the age of ten and ended up serving on various vessels as a cabin boy. In 1806, he apprenticed as a sailor and was a cabin boy, later he became a sailing master in the U. S. Navy, and fought in the Barbary Wars. At the age of 21, he volunteered for the War of 1812 and was commissioned as a master on October 21,1812. He was a sailing master on the Argus, which interdicted British ships in the English Channel. The Argus seized more than 20 vessels before being captured on August 14,1813, her captain was killed, and they were imprisoned by Great Britain for sixteen months until the end of the war. During his captivity, Levy had difficulty obtaining a subsidy and parole because his status as a supernumerary was not understood by the British Transport Board, upon return to the United States, Levy served aboard the Franklin as second master. Levy was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in 1817 and this commission was a rare feat, given that he started as a cabin boy and worked his way to being a sailing master. He became a commandant in 1837, and captain in 1844. During his service in the U. S. Navy, Levy faced considerable antisemitism and he reacted to slights and was court-martialed six times, and once demoted from the rank of Captain. Twice, he was dismissed from the Navy, but reinstated and he defended his conduct in his handling of naval affairs before a Court of Inquiry and in 1855 was restored to his former position. Later, Levy commanded the Mediterranean Squadron, as a squadron commander he was given the title of commodore, then the highest position in the U. S. Navy. Levy was instrumental in abolishing flogging in the U. S. Navy and he also helped gain the support of the U. S Congress in passing an anti-flogging bill in 1850
31.
Sephardic Jewish
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They established communities throughout Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity. Spoken by Sephardim in the Eastern Mediterranean, Haketia, an Arabic influenced Judaeo-Spanish variety also derived from Old Spanish, with numerous Hebrew and Aramaic terms. Taken with them in the 15th century after the expulsion from Spain in 1492, Early Modern Spanish and Early Modern Portuguese, including in a mixture of the two. Traditionally spoken or used liturgically by the ex-converso Western Sephardim, taken with them during their later migration out of Iberia in the 16th to 18th centuries as conversos, after which they reverted to Judaism. In most cases these varieties have incorporated loanwords from the languages of the Americas introduced following the Spanish conquest. This article deals with Sephardim within the narrower ethnic definition, the name Sephardi means Spanish or Hispanic, derived from Sepharad, a Biblical location. The location of the biblical Sepharad is disputed, but Sepharad was identified by later Jews as Hispania, that is, Sepharad still means Spain in modern Hebrew. In its most basic form, this broad definition of a Sephardi refers to any Jew, of any ethnic background. The term Sephardi in the sense, thus describes the nusach used by Sephardi Jews in their Siddur. A nusach is defined by a liturgical traditions choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers, Sephardim traditionally pray using Minhag Sefarad. Additionally, Ethiopian Jews, whose branch of practiced Judaism is known as Haymanot, have come under the umbrella of Israels already broad Sephardic Chief Rabbinate. The divisions among Sephardim and their descendants today is largely a result of the consequences of the Royal edicts of expulsion. In the case of the Alhambra Decree of 1492, the purpose was to eliminate their influence on Spains large converso population. Indeed, a number of those Jews who had not yet joined the converso community finally chose to convert. While the stipulations were similar in the Portuguese decree, King Manuel then largely prevented Portugals Jews from leaving, by blocking Portugals ports of exit. This failure to leave Portugal was then reasoned by the king to signify a default acceptance of Catholicism by the Jews, actual physical forced conversions, however, were also experienced throughout Portugal. Sephardi Jews, therefore, encompass Jews descended from those Jews who left the Iberian Peninsula as Jews by the expiration of the respective decreed deadlines. This group is divided between those who fled south to North Africa, as opposed to those who fled eastwards to the Balkans, West Asia
32.
Jefferson in Paris
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Jefferson in Paris is a 1995 Franco-American historical drama film, directed by James Ivory, and previously entitled Head and Heart. It was the first portrayal in film of Sally Hemings, set in the period 1784–1789, the film portrays Jefferson when he was US minister to France at Versailles before the French Revolution. French liberals and intellectuals hope he will lead them away from the corruption of the court of King Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, although deploring the poverty of the common people, he embraces the riches of French culture and civilization. It is his first time abroad, and he takes advantage of the opportunity to extend his knowledge of liberal arts, a lonely widower, Jefferson develops a close friendship with Maria Cosway, a beautiful Anglo-Italian painter and musician. He becomes attracted to Sally Hemings, the maid and companion of his younger daughter Polly. Three-quarters white in ancestry, she is his late wifes half-sister and their father had taken Sallys slave mother as a concubine after he was widowed for the third time, Sally is the sixth of their children. Sallys enslaved brother James Hemings is also in Paris, learning to be a French chef for Jefferson at Monticello, when George Washington offers Jefferson the post of Secretary of State, he accepts and prepares to sail home with his family. But James, having enjoyed his freedom in Paris, is unwilling to return to the United States and urges Sally to remain with him. It is only when Jefferson promises he will give James and Sally, the film was shot on location in Paris, at the Desert de Retz and the Palace of Versailles. The scenes at the Desert reenact the actual visit made by Jefferson, many of French supporting cast are members of Comédie-Française. It premiered at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival, antonio Sacchinis opera Dardanus appears in the film. Also Marc-Antoine Charpentier Leçons de ténèbres, performed by William Christie and Les Arts Florissants with Jean-Paul Fouchécourt, Sandrine Piau, Sophie Daneman, arcangelo Corellis La Folia is performed by Nolte, Scacchi, and Paltrow, however, the soundtrack CD is re-dubbed by others. Although Gwyneth Paltrow studied harpsichord for the film, her playing is dubbed by Jory Vinikour, including pieces by Jacques Duphly, scacchis performance of Maria Cosways song, Mormora, was dubbed. The film was budgeted at $14 million and it grossed $2,473,668 in the US. George Washington de Lafayette Jean-Pierre Aumont, reporter In her review in the New York Times, Janet Maslin called the film an extraordinary spectacle. The rare contemporary film thats both an entertainment and an education, despite some glaring misimpressions that are sure to spark heated debate, the biggest problem with is at the basic editing level, with such abrupt jumps between diverse scenes that the films momentum remains choppy. Overshadowed by its own ambition and not-quite-ironic pageantry, Jefferson in Paris doesnt quite come to life, casting Nick Nolte as a Founding Father may sound like this films riskiest choice, but in fact it makes solid sense. Beyond having the physical stature for the imposing, sandy-haired Jefferson, Mr. Nolte captures the mans vigor
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Gwyneth Paltrow
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Gwyneth Kate Paltrow is an American actress, singer, comedienne and food writer. She gained early notice for her work in such as the thriller Seven. Paltrow has portrayed supporting, as well as roles, in films such as The Talented Mr. Ripley, The Royal Tenenbaums, Shallow Hal. Since 2008, Paltrow has portrayed Pepper Potts, the lead of the Iron Man franchise in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, in Iron Man, Iron Man 2, The Avengers. She reprised the role several times throughout the series run. Paltrow has been the face of Estée Lauders Pleasures perfume since 2005 and she is also the face of American fashion brand Coach, owner of a lifestyle company, and author of two cookbooks. Paltrow was born in Los Angeles, the daughter of actress Blythe Danner, Paltrows father is Jewish, while her mother is from a Christian background. She was raised celebrating both Jewish and Christian holidays and her brother had a traditional Bar Mitzvah when he turned 13. Her fathers Ashkenazi Jewish family immigrated from Belarus and Poland, while her mother has Pennsylvania Dutch, Paltrows younger brother is director and screenwriter Jake Paltrow. Her half-cousin is actress Katherine Moennig and she is a second cousin of former U. S. Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords. Her uncle is opera singer and actor Harry Danner, Paltrow was raised in Santa Monica, where she attended Crossroads School before enrolling in the Spence School, a private girls school in New York City. Later, she studied anthropology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She is a daughter of Talavera de la Reina, where at 15 she spent a year as an exchange student. Her film debut followed with Shout, starring John Travolta, Paltrows next roles were in the made-for-television movies Cruel Doubt and Deadly Relations. Her first plum feature film role was in the noir drama Flesh, in 1995, she played Brad Pitts wife in the hit thriller Se7en. Her performance earned her a Satellite Award nomination, also in 1995, she appeared in Moonlight and Valentino and Jefferson in Paris. In 1996, Paltrow played the character in Emma to critical acclaim, particularly in the United Kingdom. She also appeared in two thrillers, Hush, opposite Jessica Lange, and A Perfect Murder, inspired by Alfred Hitchcocks 1954 film, Dial M for Murder
34.
George Tucker (politician)
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George Tucker was an American attorney, politician, historian, author, and educator. His literary works include the first fiction of colonial life in Virginia, Tucker also published the first comprehensive biography of Thomas Jefferson, as well as a history of the United States. Tucker was the son of the first mayor of Hamilton, Bermuda and he immigrated to Virginia at age 20, was educated at the College of William and Mary, and was admitted to the bar. His first marriage ended with the death of his childless wife Mary Farley in 1799, he remarried and had six children with wife Maria Carter and his third wife, of 30 years, was Louisa Thompson who died in 1858. Aside from his law practice, Tucker wrote distinctive monologues for various publications and his topics ranged widely from the conceptual to the technical—from slavery, suffrage, and morality to intracoastal navigation, wages, and banking. He was elected in 1816 to the Virginia House of Delegates for one term, from his youth until early middle age, Tuckers lofty social lifestyle was often profligate, and occasionally scandalous. George Tucker was born in Bermuda at St. Georges Island on August 20,1775 and he was the second son of Daniel and Elizabeth Tucker, who were distant cousins. Daniel and his brothers established a partnership with a fleet of vessels shipping goods to America, Newfoundland. Daniel was also a founder and Mayor of the port of Hamilton, Tucker was educated in Bermuda primarily by a tutor engaged from Great Britain and also by Josiah Meigs. His assigned reading included Tom Jones, The Vicar of Wakefield, at age fifteen he helped form a literary club, the Calliopean Society, Meigs later became a professor and reprised the name of the club at Yale. Tucker at age 16 began to read the law under a successful and prosperous lawyer, at Bascombs death, the firms clients urged Tucker to assume their representation, but feeling quite unqualified, he declined, deciding to begin plans for a career in the United States. Shortly after his mothers death in 1795, Tucker sailed for Philadelphia and he briefly considered London for his studies but discarded the idea, in order to optimize his chances for political advancement. He was admitted at the College of William & Mary, where he studied law under St. George, Tucker was pleased to find the academic work undemanding, and his social life entertaining, as he gained access to the finer homes through his cousin. Despite his enjoyment of this society, he returned to Williamsburg and there began a courtship with Mary Byrd Farley, who was possessed of much charm and fortune. Though he had preferred to delay the wedding until he had passed the bar, he gave in to his hearts desire, borrowed the needed funds from an uncle. To help Mary, who was ill with consumption, Tucker arranged a trip to his old home in Bermuda. The stay there provided Mary no relief from her illness and confirmed his desire to be in Virginia and they returned to Williamsburg, setting up residence, with his intention to read for the bar exam. Mary never recovered from her infirmities, and died childless in 1799, marys death complicated Tuckers facile life, as her considerable estate was fraught with legal problems
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
37.
First Ladies: Influence & Image
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First Ladies, Influence & Image is a 35-episode American television series produced by C-SPAN that originally aired from February 25,2013 to February 10,2014. Each episode originally aired live and looked at the life and times of one or more of the First Ladies of the United States, C-SPAN has archived all video from the series to its website. It was produced in cooperation with the White House Historical Association, in April 2015, PublicAffairs Books published the companion book First Ladies, Presidential Historians on the Lives of 45 Iconic American Women by Swain and C-SPAN. The network began re-airing the TV series on C-SPAN3 in April 2015, the idea for the series came from Richard Norton Smith, a presidential historian and former head of five presidential libraries. Norton Smith and historians William Seale, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn and Edith Mayo served as the academic advisors. Producer Andy Och, a video journalist, visited historic sites significant to the first ladies, farkas and Och spoke with historians, archivists and curators. The show was hosted by C-SPAN co-CEO Susan Swain, peter Slen hosted the program on Eleanor Roosevelt and co-hosted programs on Mamie Eisenhower, and Edith Wilson. With First Ladies, Influence & Image, C-SPAN featured the history of the first ladies in order during two seasons broadcast over the course of one year. Season 1, featuring Martha Washington through Ida McKinley, ran from February 25,2013 to June 10,2013, three months later, the following season ran, featuring Edith Roosevelt through Michelle Obama, from September 9,2013 to February 10,2014. C-SPAN devoted most of the 90-minute episodes to a single first lady, the Eleanor Roosevelt episode was 2 hours long. The first season relied mainly on letters and written materials to provide insight into the first ladies’ lives, as the second season moved into modern times, the broadcasts included audio and video of the women. First Ladies, Influence & Image delved into how FLOTUS role has evolved since the 18th century, PublicAffairs Books published First Ladies, Presidential Historians on the Lives of 45 Iconic American Women, written by Susan Swain and C-SPAN, on April 14,2015. The work pairs historians together to discuss the lives and legacies of the first ladies, a companion piece to the TV series, the book features historians takes on the first ladies personalities, marriages, passions and legacies. Kirkus Reviews said the 496-page book portrays where each first lady came from, C-SPAN and the White House Historical Association each launched websites to tie in with the series. The sites include essays, educational materials, videos, photographs, official White House Historical Association site
38.
List of Presidents of the United States
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The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War
39.
List of Vice Presidents of the United States
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There have been 48 Vice Presidents of the United States since the office came into existence in 1789. Originally, the Vice President was the person who received the second most votes for President of the United States in the Electoral College. However, in the election of 1800, a tie in the college between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr led to the selection of the President by the House of Representatives. To prevent such an event from happening again, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution, the United States Constitution assigns few powers or duties to the vice president. Former Vice President John Nance Garner described the presidency in 1960 as not worth a bucket of warm piss. The Vice Presidents primary function is to succeed to the if the President dies, resigns. Nine vice presidents have ascended to the presidency in this way, eight through the presidents death, in addition, the Vice President serves as the President of the Senate and may choose to cast a tie-breaking vote on decisions made by the Senate. Vice presidents have exercised this power to varying extents over the years. Prior to passage of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, a vacancy in the office of the Vice President could not be filled until the next post-election inauguration. This amendment allowed for a vacancy to be filled with appointment by the President, since the Amendments passage, two vice presidents have been appointed through this process, Gerald Ford in 1973 and Nelson Rockefeller in 1974. To date,14 vice presidents subsequently became president, all, george H. W. Bush did so once, on July 13,1985. Dick Cheney did so twice, on June 29,2002, Vice presidents have hailed from 21 states. More than half of them have come from just five states, New York, Indiana, Massachusetts, Kentucky, most vice presidents have been in their 50s or 60s and had political experience prior to assuming the office. The youngest person to become Vice President was John C, breckinridge at 36 years of age, while the oldest was Alben W. Barkley at 71 years of age. Two vice presidents—George Clinton and John C, calhoun—served under more than one president. Twenty–five vice presidents held other high U. S. state or federal government positions after leaving the vice presidency, fourteen went on to become President of the United States, and 4 served in the United States Senate. Cabinet members, ambassadors of the United States abroad, or in U. S. state government. Breckinridge, as Confederate States Secretary of War,1865. com Vice Presidents of the United States 1789–1993 Mark O. Hatfield, et al. edited by Wendy Wolff, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington,1997
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Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
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List of Secretaries of State of the United States
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This is a list of Secretaries of State of the United States. This is a list of United States Secretaries of State by time in office and this is based on the difference between dates, if counted by number of calendar days all the figures would be one greater. Cordell Hull is the person to have served as Secretary of State for more than eight years. Daniel Webster and James G. Blaine are the only Secretaries of State to have ever served non-consecutive terms, washburne served as Secretary of State for less than two weeks before becoming Ambassador to France. As of March 2017, there are eight living former Secretaries of State, the most recent Secretary of State to die was Lawrence Eagleburger, on June 4,2011. Living former Secretary of state A As United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs, D As Secretary of the Navy. E In addition to the President listed, this Secretary of State served for a period of time under that Presidents successor until a replacement could be named and confirmed. F As Chief Clerk of the State Department, G As Assistant Secretary of State. H As Second Assistant Secretary of State, I As Under Secretary of State. J As Deputy Under Secretary of State, K As Deputy Secretary of State. L As Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs, M Became President of the United States. N As Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, O As Under Secretary of State for International Security Affairs
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United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
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List of Governors of Virginia
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The following is a list of the Governors of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The governor is the head of the branch of Virginias state government. The first constitution of 1776 created the office of governor, to be elected annually by the state legislature, the governor could serve up to three years at a time, and once out of office, could not serve again for four years. The 1830 constitution changed the thrice renewable one-year term length to a non-renewable three-year term and this constitution also prevented governors from succeeding themselves, a prohibition that exists to the present day. The 1851 constitution increased terms to four years and made the office elected by the people, if the office of governor is vacant due to disqualification, death, or resignation, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1851, prior to that a Council of State existed, it chose from among its members a president who would be Lieutenant-Governor and would act as governor when there was a vacancy in that office. Officially there have been 72 governors of Virginia, the governors are not counted. The most recent governor of Virginia to die was Mills E. Godwin, the most recently serving governor of Virginia to die was John N. Dalton, on July 30,1986. Living former Governors * Denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take and this is a table of congressional, confederate and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Virginia except where noted, general Virginia State Government Website Congressional Quarterly Virginia governors. In Congressional Quarterly, American political leaders 1789–2000, retrieved January 10,2006, from CQ Electronic Library, CQ Voting and Elections Collection. The Federal and State Constitutions, Virginia-Wyoming, national Governors Associations list of Virginia Governors Constitutions Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Archived from the original on May 30,2008, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia. West Virginia Division of Culture and History, Constitution of the Commonwealth of Virginia
