1.
Marriage law
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Marriage law refers to the legal requirements that determine the validity of a marriage, and which vary considerably among countries. A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, over 2.3 million weddings take place in the U. S each year. This means they take a vow of out to be faithful, historically, many societies have given sets of rights and obligations to husbands that have been very different from the sets of rights and obligations given to wives. In particular, the control of property, inheritance rights. Giving a husband/wife responsibility for some portion of a spouses debts, giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized. Giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouses affairs when the spouse is incapacitated, establishing the second legal guardian of a parents child. Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children, establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses. This ruling was not accepted in the newly Protestant nations of Europe, nor by Protestants who lived in Roman Catholic countries or their colonies, common-law marriages were abolished in England and Wales by the Marriage Act 1753. The act required marriages to be performed by a priest of the Church of England, the law did not provide an exception. The Act did not apply to Scotland because by the Acts of Union 1707, to get around the requirements of the Marriage Act, such as minimum-age requirements, couples would go to Gretna Green in southern Scotland, to get married under Scottish law. The Marriage Act of 1753 also did not apply to Britains overseas colonies of the time, so common-law marriages continued to be recognized in the future United States and Canada. All countries in Europe have now abolished marriage by habit and repute, Australia has recognised de facto relationships since the Family Law Act of 2009. Marriage is an institution that is filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status, various restrictions are placed on marriage by communities, religious institutions, legal traditions and states. The minimum age at which a person is able to lawfully marry, in the U. S the minimum age is 18 except for Nebraska and Mississippi. In England and Wales the general age at which a person may marry is 18, if they are unable to obtain this, they can gain consent from the courts, which may be granted by the Magistrates Courts, or the County or High Court family divisions. Legal, social, and religious restrictions apply in all countries on the genders of the couple, in response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations now recognize marriages between people of the same sex. Other jurisdictions have instead civil unions or domestic partnerships, while others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages
2.
Dunmore's Proclamation
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The proclamation declared martial law and promised freedom for slaves of American revolutionaries who left their owners and joined the royal forces. It also raised a furor among Virginias slave-owning elites, to whom the possibility of a rebellion was a major fear. The proclamation ultimately failed in meeting Dunmores objectives, he was forced out of the colony in 1776, john Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, originally from Scotland, was the royal governor of the Colony of Virginia from 1771 to 1775. During his tenure, he worked proactively to extend Virginias western borders past the Appalachian Mountains and he notably defeated the Shawnee nation in Dunmores War, gaining land south of the Ohio River. As a widespread dislike for the British crown became apparent, however, Dunmore changed his attitude towards the colonists, Dunmores popularity worsened after, following orders, he attempted to prevent the election of representatives to the Second Continental Congress. On April 21,1775, he seized colonial ammunition stores, the colonists argued that the ammunition belonged to them, not to the British Crown. That night, Dunmore angrily swore, I have once fought for the Virginians and by God and this was one of the first instances that Dunmore overtly threatened to institute martial law. While he had not formally passed any rulings, news of his plan spread through the colony rapidly, a group of slaves offered their services to the royal governor not long after April 21. Though he ordered them away, the colonial slaveholders remained suspicious of his intentions, as colonial protests became violent, Dunmore fled the Governors Palace in Williamsburg and took refuge aboard the frigate HMS Fowey at Yorktown on June 8,1775. For several months, Dunmore replenished his forces and supplies by conducting raids, when Virginias House of Burgesses decided that Dunmores departure indicated his resignation, he drafted the formal proclamation, signing it on Nov 7. It was publicly proclaimed a week later, in the official document, he declared martial law and adjudged all revolutionaries as traitors to the crown. Furthermore, the document declared all indentured servants, Negroes, or others. free that are able, Dunmore expected such a revolt to have several effects. Primarily, it would bolster his own forces, which, cut off reinforcements from British-held Boston. Secondarily, he hoped such a action would create a fear of a general slave uprising amongst the colonists. The proclamation was, therefore, designed for practical rather than moral ones. William Woodford, or any other commander of our troops, and we do farther earnestly recommend it to all humane and benevolent persons in this colony to explain and make known this our offer of mercy to those unfortunate people. Newspapers such as The Virginia Gazette published the proclamation in full, the paper therefore cautioned slaves to Be not then. tempted by the proclamation to ruin your selves. As very few slaves were literate, this was more a symbolic move than anything and it was also noted that Dunmore himself was a slaveholder
3.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
4.
Military occupation
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Military occupation is effective provisional control by a certain ruling power over a territory which is not under the formal sovereignty of that entity, without the volition of the actual sovereign. Military government may be characterized as the administration or supervision of occupied territory. Military government is distinguished from law, which is the temporary rule by domestic armed forces over disturbed areas. The rules of government are delineated in various international agreements, primarily the Hague Convention of 1907. A country that establishes a government and violates internationally agreed upon norms runs the risk of censure, criticism. In the current era, the practices of government have largely become a part of customary international law. Article 42 of the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare specify that erritory is considered occupied when it is placed under the authority of the hostile army. The form of administration by which an occupying power exercises government authority over occupied territory is called military government, neither the Hague Conventions nor the Geneva Conventions specifically define or distinguish an act of invasion. The terminology of occupation is used exclusively, the clear distinction has been recognized among the principles of international law since the end of the Napoleonic wars in the 19th century. These customary laws of belligerent occupation which evolved as part of the laws of war gave some protection to the population under the occupation of a belligerent power. The first two articles of that state, Art. Territory is considered occupied when it is placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established, in 1949 these laws governing belligerent occupation of an enemy states territory were further extended by the adoption of the Fourth Geneva Convention. Much of GCIV is relevant to protected persons in occupied territories and Section III, Article 6 restricts the length of time that most of GCIV applies, The present Convention shall apply from the outset of any conflict or occupation mentioned in Article 2. In the territory of Parties to the conflict, the application of the present Convention shall cease on the close of military operations. GCIV emphasised an important change in international law, the Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies. S. are not signatory to this additional protocol. The military government of the occupying power will continue past the point in time when the peace treaty comes into force. Military government continues until legally supplanted is the rule, as stated in Military Government and Martial Law, by William E. Birkhimer, see Birkhimer, p. 25–26, No proclamation of part of the victorious commander is necessary to the lawful inauguration and enforcement of military government
5.
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
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The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in China as the June Fourth Incident, were student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period. The protests were suppressed after the government declared martial law. The number of deaths has been estimated at anywhere between the hundreds to the thousands. The reforms of the 1980s had led a nascent market economy which benefited some groups but seriously disaffected others, common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, at the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square. As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership, by May, a student-led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, Chinas paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and other party elders believed the protests to be a political threat, Party authorities declared martial law on May 20, and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. The Chinese government was condemned internationally for the use of force. Western countries imposed sanctions and arms embargoes. The Chinese government initially condemned the protests as a counter-revolutionary riot, the police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged, more broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization in the 1980s. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century. Its memory is associated with questioning the legitimacy of Communist Party rule. In the Chinese language, the incident is most commonly known as the June Fourth Incident, June Fourth refers to the day on which the Peoples Liberation Army cleared Tiananmen Square of protesters, although actual operations began on the evening of June 3. Some use the June Fourth designation solely to refer to the carried out by the Army. Names such as June Fourth Movement and 89 Democracy Movement are used to describe the event in its entirety, outside mainland China, and among circles critical of the crackdown within mainland China, it is commonly referred to in Chinese as June Fourth Massacre and June Fourth Crackdown. The government of the Peoples Republic of China have used numerous names for the event since 1989, in English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events
6.
Iranian Green Movement
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Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi are recognized as political leaders of the Green Movement. Hossein-Ali Montazeri was also mentioned as spiritual leader of the movement, the Green Movement protests were a major event in Irans modern political history and observers claimed that protests were the largest since the Iranian Revolution of 1978-1979. Ahmadinejad was winning by a landslide, though Mousavi and others believed the results were fraudulent and they suggested that the Interior Minister, Sadegh Mahsouli, an ally of Ahmadinejad, had interfered with the election and distorted the votes to keep Ahmadinejad in power. Mousavi then claimed victory, and called for his supporters to celebrate it which led to the 2009–2010 Iranian election protests, previously, he was revolutionary, because everyone inside the system was a revolutionary. Now he knows Gandhi – before he knew only Che Guevara, if we gain power through aggression we would have to keep it through aggression. That is why were having a revolution, defined by peace. Clashes broke out between police and groups protesting the results from early morning on Saturday onward. Initially, the protests were largely peaceful, however, as time passed, they became increasingly violent. In a stand-off that later took place in north Tehran between supporters of Ahmadinejad and Mousavi, a throng of people broke into shops, started fires. Civil unrest took place as riot police on motorbikes used batons to disperse Mousavi supporters who staged a sit-in near the interior ministry, up to 2,000 Mousavi supporters erected barricades of burning tyres and chanted Mousavi take back our vote. The demonstrations grew bigger and more heated than the 1999 student protests, al Jazeera English described the 13 June situation as the biggest unrest since the 1979 revolution. It also reported that protests seemed spontaneous without any formal organization, two hundred people protested outside Irans embassy in London on 13 June. Ynet has stated that tens of thousands protested on 13 June, demonstrators are chanting phrases such as Down with the dictator, Death to the dictator, and Give us our votes back. Mousavi has urged for calm and asked that his supporters refrain from acts of violence, ynet reported on 14 June that two people had died in the rioting so far. That day, protests had been organized in front of the Iranian embassies in Turkey, Dubai, Paris, Berlin, London, Rome, Sydney, Vienna and The Hague. In response to the reformist protests, tens of thousands of people rallied in Tehran on 14 June to support the victory of Ahmadinejad. On 15 June, Mousavi rallied, with anywhere from hundreds of thousands to three million, of his supporters in Tehran, despite being warned by officials that any such rally would be illegal. The demonstration, the largest in the Islamic Republic of Irans 30-year history, was Mousavis first public appearance after the election, protests focused around Azadi Tower, around which lines of people stretched for more than nine kilometers met
7.
October Crisis
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The October Crisis occurred in October 1970 in the province of Quebec in Canada, mainly in the Montreal metropolitan area. Members of the Front de libération du Québec kidnapped the provincial cabinet minister Pierre Laporte, in response, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act. The kidnappers murdered Laporte, and negotiations led to Crosss release, the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa, and the Mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau, supported Trudeaus invocation of the War Measures Act, which limited civil liberties. The police were enabled with far-reaching powers, and they arrested and detained, without bail,497 individuals, the Quebec government also requested military aid to the civil power, and Canadian Forces deployed throughout Quebec, they acted in a support role to the civil authorities of Quebec. At the time, opinion polls throughout Canada, including in Quebec, the response, however, was criticized at the time by prominent politicians such as René Lévesque and Tommy Douglas. From 1963 to 1970 the Quebec nationalist group Front de libération du Québec detonated over 95 bombs, other targets included Montreal City Hall, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, armed forces recruiting offices, railway tracks, and army installations. By 1970,23 members of the FLQ were in prison, October 5, Montreal, Quebec, Two members of the Liberation Cell of the FLQ kidnap British Trade Commissioner James Cross from his home. The kidnappers are disguised as delivery men bringing a package for his recent birthday, once the maid lets them in, they pull out a rifle and a revolver and kidnap Cross. The terms of the note are the same as those found in June for the planned kidnapping of the U. S. consul. At this time, the police do not connect the two, October 8, Broadcast of the FLQ Manifesto in all French- and English-speaking media outlets in Quebec. Members of the Chenier cell of the FLQ kidnap Laporte, October 11, The CBC broadcasts a letter from captivity from Pierre Laporte to the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa. October 12, General Gilles Turcot sends troops to patrol the Montreal region, lawyer Robert Lemieux is appointed by the FLQ to negotiate the release of James Cross and Pierre Laporte. The Quebec Government appoints Robert Demers, October 13, Prime Minister Trudeau is interviewed by the CBC with respect to the military presence. In a combative interview, Trudeau asks the reporter, Tim Ralfe, when Ralfe asks Trudeau how far he would go Trudeau replies, Just watch me. October 14, Sixteen prominent Quebec personalities, including René Lévesque and Claude Ryan, FLQs lawyer Robert Lemieux urges Université de Montréal students to boycott classes in support of FLQ. October 15, Quebec City, The negotiations between lawyers Lemieux and Demers are put to an end, the Government of Quebec formally requests the intervention of the Canadian army in aid of the civil power pursuant to the National Defence Act. All three opposition parties, including the Parti Québécois, rise in the National Assembly and agree with the decision, on the same day, separatist groups are permitted to speak at the Université de Montréal. The rally frightens many Canadians, who view it as a prelude to outright insurrection in Quebec
8.
State of emergency
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A government or division of government may declare that their area is in a state of emergency. This means that the government can suspend and/or change some functions of the executive and it alerts citizens to change their normal behavior and orders government agencies to implement emergency plans. Justitium is its equivalent in Roman law, where Senate could put forward senatus consultum ultimum and it can also be used as a rationale for suspending rights and freedoms guaranteed under a countrys constitution or basic law. The procedure for and legality of doing so varies by country, under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, for example, a government can detain persons and hold them without trial. All rights that can be derogated from are listed in the International Covenant for Civil, non-derogable rights are listed in Article 4 of the ICCPR, they include the rights to freedom from arbitrary deprivation of liberty and to freedom from torture and/or ill-treatment. Constitutions are contracts between the government and the individuals of that country. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights is an international law document signed by states, therefore, the Covenant only applies to persons acting in an official capacity, not private individuals. However, signatories to the Covenant are expected to integrate it into national legislation, although this is common protocol stipulated by the ICCPR often this is not strictly followed, enforcement is better regulated by European Convention of human rights. In some situations, martial law is declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Ms. Nicole Questiaux and Mr. Article 4 to the International Covenant on Civil, the European Convention on Human Rights and American Convention on Human Rights have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to the International Labour Conventions, some political theorists, such as Carl Schmitt, have argued that the power to decide the initiation of the state of emergency defines sovereignty itself. The state of emergency can, and often has been, abused by being invoked, an example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency and this provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition. State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia, in Victoria, the premier can declare a state of emergency if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier, under the Public Safety Preservation Act, a declared state of emergency allows the premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to them within 7 days. Also, under the Essential Services Act, the premier may operate or prohibit operation of, as desired, a State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted
9.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
10.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
11.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
12.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
13.
Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)
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The Treaty of Frankfurt was a peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on 10 May 1871, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War. Gave residents of the Alsace-Lorraine region until 1 October 1872 to decide between keeping their French nationality and emigrating, or remaining in the region and becoming German citizens, set a framework for the withdrawal of German troops from certain areas. Regulated the payment of Frances war indemnity of five billion francs, recognized the acceptance of Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor. Required military occupation in parts of France until the indemnity was paid, most importantly, the German military regarded control of the route between Thionville and Metz as the most important area of control if there were ever to be a future war with France. A shift in the frontier alleviated these issues, the new political border largely followed the linguistic border. The fact that the majority of the population in the new Imperial Territory territory spoke Germanic dialects allowed Berlin to justify the annexation on nationalistic grounds, natural resources in Alsace-Lorraine do not appear to have played a role in Germanys fight for the areas annexed. Military annexation was the stated goal along with unification of the German people. At the same time, France lost 1,447,000 hectares,1,694 villages and 1,597,000 inhabitants and it also lost 20% of its mining and steel potential. The treaty of trade of 1862 with Prussia was not renewed but France granted Germany, for trade and navigation, France would respect the clauses of the Treaty of Frankfurt in their entirety until 1914. France also had to pay a full payment of 5,000,000,000 francs in gold, with one billion in 1871 and this treaty polarized French policy towards Germany for the next 40 years. The reconquest of Alsace-Lorraine, the lost provinces, became an obsession characterized by a revanchism which would be one of the most powerful motives in Frances involvement in World War I. In 1918, U. S. President Woodrow Wilson addressed the issue as Point 8 in his Fourteen Points speech, thus Alsace-Lorraine returned to the French Republic under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Germans accepted to surrender under the term of the American proposal, the Franco-German Boundary of 1871, World Politics, pp. 209-250. The Alsace-Lorraine Question, The Scientific Monthly, Vol.6, No
14.
Franco-Prussian War
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The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France. The German forces were superior in numbers, had training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railroads. The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, the causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and this new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, in Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia, many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern princes candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems, other historians, notably French historian Pierre Milza, dispute this. According to Milza, the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity, the Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull, gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt he had just received a slap. Napoleons new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, a crowd of 15–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government, the southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers, some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made, universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, however, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented
15.
Curfew
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A curfew is an order specifying a time during which certain regulations apply. The word curfew comes from the French phrase couvre-feu, which means fire cover and it was later adopted into Middle English as curfeu, which later became the modern curfew. An order issued by the authorities or military forces requiring everyone or certain people to be indoors at certain times. It can be imposed to maintain order, or suppress targeted groups. An order by the guardians of a teenager to return home by a specific time. This may apply daily, or vary with the day of the week, a daily requirement for guests to return to their hostel before a specified time, usually in the evening or night. In baseball, a time after which a game must end, for example, in the American League the curfew rule for many years decreed that no inning could begin after 1 am local time. In aeronautics, night flying restrictions may restrict aircraft operations over a period in the nighttime. Notable examples are the London airports of Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, in a few locations in the UK patrons of licensed premises may not enter after a curfew time. In Inverclyde for example this is set at 12,00 am. On 28 January 2011, and following the collapse of the police system, however, it was ignored by demonstrators who continued their sit-in in Tahrir Square. Concerned residents formed vigilante groups to defend their communities against looters. In defiance, the locals took to the streets during the curfew, organizing football tournaments and street festivals, prohibiting police, under Icelands Child Protection Act, children aged 12 and under may not be outdoors after 20,00 unless accompanied by an adult. Children aged 13 to 16 may not be outdoors after 22,00, unless on their way home from an event organized by a school. During the period 1 May to 1 September, children may be outdoors for two hours longer, children and teenagers that break curfew are taken to the local police station and police officers inform their parents to get them. The age limits stated here shall be based upon year of birth, if a parent cannot be reached, the child or teenager is taken to a shelter. The United Kingdoms 2003 Anti-Social Behaviour Act created zones that allow police from 9 PM to 6 AM to hold and escort home unaccompanied minors under the age of 16, whether badly behaved or not. Although hailed as a success, the High Court ruled in one case that the law did not give the police a power of arrest
16.
Civil law (legal system)
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Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law to be secondary and subordinate to statutory law, when discussing civil law, one should keep in mind the conceptual difference between a statute and a codal article. The marked feature of civilian systems is that they use codes with brief text that tend to avoid factually specific scenarios, Code articles deal in generalities and thus stand at odds with statutory schemes which are often very long and very detailed. The purpose of codification is to all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them. Law codes are simply laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in much longer than other laws. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Halakha, canon law, the Scandinavian systems are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands are hybrids which mix Norman customary law, a prominent example of a civil-law code would be the Napoleonic Code, named after French emperor Napoleon. The Code comprises three components, the law of persons, property law, and commercial law, rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of caselaw, the Code sets out general principles as rules of law. Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart from any precedent value, Civil law courts generally decide cases using codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other judicial decisions. In actual practice, a degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence. A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, while civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions. However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state. Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are unofficial or commercial, Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law, and in particular Justinian law, the Justinian Codes doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system. Roman law was received differently in different countries, in some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i. e. it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars. Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century. However, subject as it was to multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the medieval period. It was first received into the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law and it became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law
17.
Civil and political rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
18.
Habeas corpus
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Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus
19.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
20.
Black War
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The Black War was the period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. The near-destruction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians, and the frequent incidence of mass killings, has sparked debate among historians over whether the Black War should be defined as an act of genocide. The Black War was prompted by the spread of British settlers. Historian Nicholas Clements has described the Aboriginal violence as a resistance movement—the use of force against an invading or occupying enemy, Clements noted, As black violence grew in intensity, so too did the frequency of revenge attacks and pre-emptive strikes by frontiersmen. Women and children were commonly casualties on both sides, from 1830 Arthur offered rewards for the capture of Aboriginal people, but bounties were also paid when Aboriginal people were killed. The terms Black War and Black Line were coined by journalist Henry Melville in 1835 and she has also called for the erection of a public memorial to the fallen from both sides of the war. Several bloody encounters with local Aboriginal clans took place over the five months, with shots fired. By 181412, 700ha of land was under cultivation, with 5000 cattle and 38,000 sheep, the Norfolk Islanders used violence to stake their claim on the land, attacking Aboriginal camps at night, slaughtering parents and abducting the orphaned children as their servants. The attacks prompted retaliatory raids on settlers cattle herds in the southeast, the number of black attacks rose sharply from the mid-1820s, but there was also a corresponding rise in violence initiated by colonists. Clements says the reasons for settler attacks on Aboriginal people were revenge, killing for sport, sexual desire for women and children. Van Diemens Land had a gender imbalance, with male colonists outnumbering females six to one in 1822. Clements has suggested the voracious appetite for women was the most important trigger for the Black War. He wrote, Sex continued to be a motivation for attacking natives until around 1828. From 1825 to 1828, the number of native attacks more than doubled each year, by 1828, says Clements, colonists had no doubt they were fighting a war—but this was not a conventional war, and the enemy could not be combated by conventional means. The blacks were not one people, but rather a number of disparate tribes and they had no home base and no recognisable command structure. But lead to a line of conduct. But between September and November 1826 six more colonists were murdered and it warned, Self-defence is the first law of nature. The government must remove the natives—if not, they will be hunted down like wild beasts, the notice declared that acts of aggression could be repelled in the same as if they had proceeded from an accredited State
21.
Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet
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Lieutenant-General Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet KCH PC was Lieutenant Governor of British Honduras, Van Diemens Land and Upper Canada. He also served as Governor of Bombay, George Arthur was born in Plymouth, England. He was the youngest son of John Arthur, from a Cornish family and he entered the army in 1804 as an Ensign and was promoted Lieutenant in June 1805. He served during the Napoleonic Wars including Sir James Craigs expedition to Italy in 1806, in 1807 he went to Egypt, and was severely wounded in the attack upon Rosetta. He recuperated and was promoted to Captain under Sir James Kempt in Sicily in 1808, major George Arthur married Eliza Orde Ussher, daughter of Lieut. -Gen. Sir John Sigismund Smith, K. C. B. in May,1814, lady Arthur lived in Toronto, Ontario 1838–41 with three of the couples sons and their five daughters. She died in London, England,14 January 1855 and their daughter Catherine married Sir Henry Bartle Frere after he had been her fathers personal secretary for two years in Bombay, and gave birth to the poet Mary Frere. Their son John married Aileen Spring Rice, the granddaughter of Lord Monteagle of Brandon, in 1814 he was appointed lieutenant governor of British Honduras, holding at the same time the rank of colonel on the staff, thus exercising the military command as well as the civil government. In 1823 he was appointed lieutenant governor of Van Diemens Land, at the time Van Diemens Land was the main British penal colony and it was separated from New South Wales in 1825. It was during Arthurs time in office that Van Diemens Land gained much of its notorious reputation as a penal colony. He selected Port Arthur as the location for a prison settlement, on a peninsula connected by a narrow, easily guarded isthmus. Arthurs predecessors had executed no one in Tasmania, he executed 260 in his term of office He is also associated with the repression and persecution of the Aboriginal population. During the 1820s, with relations between the colonists and Aborigines worsening, Arthur declared a state of law, and the conflict became known as the Black War. After Aboriginal attacks on colonist settlers, Arthur organised the Black Line fiasco, by this time he was one of the wealthiest men in the colony. He returned to England in March 1837, from the very start of his administration, he had to deal with the aftermath of the Upper Canada Rebellion and was instrumental in the execution of Peter Matthews and Samuel Lount. In the same year, Upper Canada was invaded by a band of American sympathizers and he failed to address the issues of fixing colonial administration from the influence of Family Compact, and was replaced by Lord Durham while the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada sat betimes. The two colonies were united in 1841, the Lord Sydenham, the first governor-general, asked Sir George Arthur to administer Upper Canada as deputy governor. Arthur agreed, on condition that the service was unpaid, later in 1841 he returned to England and was created a hereditary baronet in recognition of his services in Canada
22.
Brunei
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Brunei, officially the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace, is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, the country is surrounded by the state of Sarawak. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang, Brunei is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo, the remainder of the islands territory is divided between the nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Bruneis population was 408,786 in July 2012, the maritime state was visited by Spains Magellan Expedition in 1521 and fought against Spain in the 1578 Castille War. During the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline, the Sultanate ceded Sarawak to James Brooke and installed him as the White Rajah, and it ceded Sabah to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and was assigned a British resident as colonial manager in 1906, after the Japanese occupation during World War II, in 1959 a new constitution was written. In 1962, an armed rebellion against the monarchy was ended with the help of the British. Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984, Economic growth during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country. It has developed wealth from petroleum and natural gas fields. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the Southeast Asian nations, after Singapore, according to the International Monetary Fund, Brunei is ranked fifth in the world by gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. The IMF estimated in 2011 that Brunei was one of two countries with a debt at 0% of the national GDP. Forbes also ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum, according to legend, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to be Sultan Muhammad Shah. He moved from Garang, a place in the Temburong District to the Brunei River estuary, according to legend, upon landing he exclaimed, Baru nah, from which the name Brunei was derived. He was the first Muslim ruler of Brunei, before the rise of the Bruneian Empire under the Muslim Bolkiah Dynasty, Brunei is believed to have been under Buddhist rulers. It was renamed Barunai in the 14th century, possibly influenced by the Sanskrit word varuṇ, the word Borneo is of the same origin. In the countrys name, Negara Brunei Darussalam, darussalam means abode of peace. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. One of the earliest Chinese records is the 977 AD letter to Chinese emperor from the ruler of Po-ni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo
23.
Brunei revolt
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The Brunei revolt was a December 1962 insurrection in the British protectorate of Brunei by opponents of its monarchy and its proposed inclusion in the Federation of Malaysia. The insurgents were members of the TNKU, a militia supplied by Indonesia, the TKNU began co-ordinated attacks on the oil town of Seria and on police stations and government facilities around the protectorate. The revolt began to break down within hours, having failed to achieve key objectives such as the capture of Brunei town, the revolt influenced the Sultans 1963 decision not to join Malaysia. It is seen as one of the first stages of the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, the northern part of the island of Borneo was composed of three British territories, the colonies of Sarawak and North Borneo and the protectorate of the Sultanate of Brunei. Oil was discovered in 1929 near Seria and the Shell Petroleum Company concession provided the Sultanate with a huge income, the capital, called Brunei Town in those days, was on a river some 10 miles from the coast. In 1959, the Sultan, Sir Omar Ali Saifuddin III, established a legislature with half its members nominated, elections were held in September 1962 and all of the contested seats were won by the Brunei People’s Party. Between 1959 and 1962, the United Kingdom, Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo, however, the Philippines and particularly Indonesia opposed any move towards unification of North Borneo and Sarawak with the new federation. This support was given strength by evidence of widespread anti-Federation sentiment in Sarawak, in fact, political forces in Sarawak had long anticipated their own national independence as promised by the last White Rajah of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke, in 1941. The North Kalimantan proposal was seen as an alternative by local opposition against the Malaysian Federation plan. However, before the Brunei People’s Party electoral success, a wing had emerged, the North Kalimantan National Army. Its sympathies lay with Indonesia which was seen as having better ‘liberationist’ credentials than Malaya, Azahari had lived in Indonesia and was in touch with Indonesian intelligence agents. He had recruited several officers who had trained in clandestine warfare in Indonesia. By late 1962, they could muster about 4000 men, a few modern weapons, hints of brewing trouble came in early November 1962 when the Resident for the 5th Division of Sarawak, Richard Morris, who was based in Limbang received information. Special Branch police from Kuching visited Limbang but only found some illegal uniforms with TNKU badges, later in November, Morris heard that an insurrection was planned for Brunei, but not before 19 December. Claude Fenner, the Inspector General of the Malayan Police flew to Sarawak to investigate, however, the Chief of Staff in the British Far East Headquarters in Singapore did review and update the contingency plan, PALE ALE, for Brunei. On 6 December, Morris heard the rebellion would start on the 8th, on 7th, similar information reached John Fisher, the resident of the 4th Division of Sarawak, based in Miri some 20 miles west of Brunei. As a result, police were put on alert through Brunei, North Borneo and Sarawak. Contrary to popular belief, no evidence has ever been unearthed to support claims that the Indonesian President
24.
Hassanal Bolkiah
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Hassanal Bolkiah, GCB GCMG is the 29th and current Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei. He is also the first and incumbent Prime Minister of Brunei, the eldest son of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Damit, he succeeded to the throne as the Sultan of Brunei, following the abdication of his father on 4 October 1967. The Sultan has been ranked among the wealthiest individuals in the world, the Sultan was born on 15 July 1946 in Brunei Town as Pengiran Muda Hassanal Bolkiah. The Sultan received high school education at Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur, after which he attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom and he became the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam on 5 October 1967, after his father abdicated. His coronation was held on 1 August 1968, and made him the Yang di-Pertuan of Brunei, like his father, he has been knighted by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, of which Brunei was a protectorate until 1984. Under Bruneis 1959 constitution, the Sultan is the head of state with full executive authority, on 9 March 2006, the Sultan was reported to have amended Bruneis constitution to make himself infallible under Bruneian law. Bolkiah, as Prime Minister, is also the head of government, in addition, he holds the portfolios both of Minister of Defense and Minister of Finance. He appointed himself as Inspector General of Police of the Royal Brunei Police Force, Bolkiah addressed the United Nations General Assembly on Brunei Darussalams admission to the United Nations in September 1984. In 1991, he introduced a conservative ideology to Brunei called Melayu Islam Beraja and he has recently favoured Brunei government democratisation and declared himself Prime Minister and President. In 2004, the Legislative Council, which had been dissolved since 1962, was reopened and his designated successor is his eldest son, Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah. The Sultans official residence is the Istana Nurul Iman, with 1,788 rooms,257 bathrooms, parts of the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Finance are also located at the palace. The Crown Prince, who is the Senior Minister, works from offices at the Istana, hyatt Borneo Management Services and HM The Sultans flight maintain offices there. The University of Brunei Darussalam and Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University were established, Technical and vocational institutions were also built, such as the Brunei Technological University, Sultan Saiful Rijal Technical College, and vocational schools. The religious Institute Tahfiz Al-Quran Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah was established, scholarships for study in the country and abroad were provided. The Royal Brunei Armed Forces were expanded with the establishment of three branches of the Royal Brunei Land Forces, Royal Brunei Navy and Royal Brunei Air Force. Medicines and medical treatment are free of charge to children, policemen and members of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces in hospitals and government clinics, there is one doctor per 949 patients. The life expectancy of the people and the population is 74.2 years for men and 77.3 years for women. Hassanal Bolkiah established the Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Foundation, in January 2013, the Royal College of General Practitioners created the honour of ‘Companion of the College’ to mark its 60th anniversary
25.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
26.
War Measures Act
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The War Measures Act was a statute of the Parliament of Canada that provided for the declaration of war, invasion, or insurrection, and the types of emergency measures that could thereby be taken. The act was brought into force three times in Canadian history, the First World War, the Second World War, in the First World War, a state of war with Germany was declared by the United Kingdom on behalf of the entire British Empire. Canada was notified by telegraphic despatch accordingly, effective 4 August 1914, the War Measures Act,1914, was subsequently adopted on 22 August 1914 to ratify all steps taken by Canada from the declaration of war, to continue until the war was over. Thousands of these aliens were also interned in camps or deported from Canada. It was not until the shortage in Canada became dire that these interned individuals were released into the workforce again in an attempt to boost the economy. In contrast to the war, by virtue of the Statute of Westminster 1931. A state of apprehended war was declared on 25 August 1939, a state of war was declared with Germany on 10 September 1939. S.21 of the Defence of Canada Regulations allowed the Minister of Justice to detain without charge anyone who might act in any manner prejudicial to the safety or the safety of the state. The government soon interned fascists and Communists as well as opponents of conscription, the regulations were later used to intern Japanese Canadians on a large scale as well as some German and Italian Canadians who were viewed as enemy aliens. As Taschereau J noted, The Act was in force until 31 December 1945, in 1947, the Continuation of Transitional Measures Act,1947 was enacted, maintaining certain wartime orders and regulations, and stayed in place until 30 April 1951. The attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to Canada declaring war against Japan on 8 December 1941, an already established racial bias towards Japanese-Canadians was transformed into full anti-Japanese thoughts and behaviour by Canadian citizens, who saw Japanese-Canadians as spies for Japan. This fear towards Japanese-Canadians led to their rights slowly being taken away, on 17 December 1941, on 29 January 1942, a protected area was declared by Government Notice within British Columbia. On 24 February, the Defence of Canada Regulations were amended to restrict Japanese-Canadians from owning land or growing crops, on 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese-Canadians from the protected area. As a result,12,000 were interned in camps,2,000 were sent to road camps. In December 1945, three Orders in Council were issued to provide for the expulsion of Japanese nationals and other persons of Japanese origin, whether or not they were British subjects. Although the Supreme Court of Canada gave a ruling on the matter. Following various protests among politicians and academics, the orders were revoked in 1947, in 1942, its responsibilities were expanded to include the reduction of non-essential industrial activities in order to maintain minimum requirements only for civilian goods. The Act was also used to create the Wartime Labour Relations Regulations in order to control strikes and lockouts and keep wartime production going
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Government of Canada
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The Government of Canada or more formally Her Majestys Government, is the federal government of Canada, a country in North America, composed of 10 provinces, Ottawa, and 3 territories. The head of government is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, whose party the Liberal Party of Canada won the majority of seats in the Canadian Parliament in the 2015 Canadian federal election, in Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of institutions or specifically the Queen-in-Council. Further elements of governance are outlined in the rest of the Canadian constitution, which includes written statutes, court rulings, in Canadian English, the word government is used to refer both to the whole set of institutions that govern the country, and to the current political leadership. In federal department press releases, the government has sometimes referred to by the phrase Government. The same cabinet earlier directed its press department to use the phrase Canadas New Government, as per the Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political. The executive is formally called the Queen-in-Council, the legislature the Queen-in-Parliament. The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her privy council, however, the Privy Council—consisting mostly of former members of parliament, chief justices of the supreme court, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, one of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic government is always in place, which means appointing a prime minister to thereafter head the Cabinet. The monarch and governor general typically follow the advice of their ministers. The royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations, politicians can sometimes try to use to their favour the complexity of the relationship between the monarch, viceroy, ministers, and parliament, and the publics general unfamiliarity with it. Per democratic tradition, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament, the Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint. The Constitution Act,1867, outlines that the general is responsible for summoning parliament in the Queens name. After a number of sessions, each parliament comes to an end via dissolution. As a general election typically follows, the timing of a dissolution is usually politically motivated, the sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. However, she does not personally rule in cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust. Below this is the Federal Court, which cases arising under certain areas of federal law. It works in conjunction with the Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada, in some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, other examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture
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Statute
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A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy, statutes are rules made by legislative bodies, they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies. Statute law is written by a legislative body and signed into law by its executive. Before a statute becomes law in countries, it must be agreed upon by the highest executive in the government. A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes, such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through a number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law, statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century, in the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of Ley Organica, leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution, in biblical terminology, statute refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a reason, e. g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because God created the world in six days. That which upholds, supports or maintains the order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion, Constitution Legislation Legislature Organic statute Statutory law
29.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
31.
Invasion of Quebec (1775)
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The Invasion of Quebec in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to military control of the British Province of Quebec. One expedition left Fort Ticonderoga under Richard Montgomery, besieged and captured Fort St. Johns, the other expedition left Cambridge, Massachusetts under Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec City. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775, Montgomerys expedition set out from Fort Ticonderoga in late August, and began besieging Fort St. Johns, the main defensive point south of Montreal, in mid-September. There he joined Arnold, who had left Cambridge in early September on a trek through the wilderness that left his surviving troops starving and lacking in many supplies. These forces joined before Quebec City in December, where they assaulted the city in a snowstorm on the last day of the year, the battle was a disastrous defeat for the Americans, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, while the citys defenders suffered few casualties. The British sent several troops, including General John Burgoyne and Hessian allies. General Carleton then launched a counter-offensive, ultimately driving the smallpox-weakened and disorganized American forces back to Fort Ticonderoga, the Americans, under Arnolds command, were able to hinder the British advance sufficiently that an attack could not be mounted on Fort Ticonderoga in 1776. The end of the set the stage for Burgoynes campaign of 1777 to gain control of the Hudson River valley. The objective of the American military campaign, control of the British province of Quebec, was referred to as Canada in 1775. Johns, Montreal, and any parts of the Country. Even relatively modern history books covering the campaign in detail refer to it as Canada in their titles. The name Quebec is used in article, except in quotations that specifically mention Canada. In the spring of 1775, the American Revolutionary War began with the Battle of Lexington, the conflict was then at a standstill, with the British Army surrounded by colonial militia in the siege of Boston. Johns, all of which were lightly defended at the time. Ticonderoga and Crown Point were garrisoned by 1,000 Connecticut militia under the command of Benjamin Hinman in June, the Second Continental Congress sent a second such letter in May 1775, but there was no substantive response to either one. They each separately proposed expeditions against Quebec, suggesting that a force as small as 1200–1500 men would be sufficient to drive the British military from the province. Congress at first ordered the forts to be abandoned, prompting New York and Connecticut to provide troops, public outcries from across New England and New York challenged the Congress to change its position
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Lower Canada
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The Province of Lower Canada was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It covered the portion of the modern-day Province of Quebec, Canada. Other parts of New France ceded to Britain became the Colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the prefix lower in its name refers to its geographic position farther downriver from the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than its contemporary Upper Canada, present-day southern Ontario. The colony/province was abolished in 1841, when it and the adjacent Upper Canada were united into the Province of Canada, like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after the invasion by the Americans in the War of 1812, an abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted. The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841 and their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population. Traveling around Lower Canada was made mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River, on land the only main route was the Chemin du Roy or Kings Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The Kings Highway remained as a means of travel until the challenge of steamboats. A History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, Quebec City, T. Cary/R
33.
Lower Canada Rebellion
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Together with the simultaneous Upper Canada Rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada, it formed the Rebellions of 1837. The rebellion of Lower Canada continued in 1838 and in Quebec is often called Les rébellions de 1837–38, the appointed Legislative Council was dominated by a small group of businessmen known as the Château Clique, the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada. Activists in Lower Canada began to work for reform in a period of economic disfranchisement of the French-speaking majority, the rebellion protested the injustice of colonial governing as such, in which the governor and upper house of the legislature were appointed by the Crown. Many of its leaders and participants were English-speaking citizens of Lower Canada, the French speakers felt that Anglophones were disproportionately represented in the lucrative fields of banking, the timber trade, and transportation industry. The unification of the colony was favoured by the British-appointed Governor, George Ramsey, in Lower Canada, the growing sense of nationalism among English and the French-speaking citizens was organized into the Parti canadien. In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti Canadien in the Assembly and in 1815, the elected Assembly had little power, its decisions could be vetoed by the Legislative Council and Governor, all of whom were appointed by the British government. Governor Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas, Dalhousie forced an election in 1827 rather than accept Papineau as Assembly Speaker. Sympathizers to the movement in England had Dalhousie forced from his position. But the Legislative Council and the Assembly were not able to reach a compromise, after hearing about the 99 grievances submitted by Robert Gourlay, Papineau wrote the Ninety-two Resolutions while secretly coordinating with Upper Canada. After protestors were shot in Montreal in 1832, Papineau had no choice but to submit the list of resolutions to the governor himself. By 1834, the Assembly had passed the Ninety-Two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the Legislative Council, at that point, the Patriote movement was supported by an overwhelming majority of the Lower Canada population of all origins. Later in 1834, the Parti Patriote swept the election, gaining more than three-quarters of the popular vote, but, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer named John Neilson had quit the party in 1830, lartigue called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions. Papineau continued to push for reform and he petitioned the British government but in March 1837, the government of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineaus requests. Papineau organized protests and assemblies, and eventually approved formation of the paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the Assemblée des six-comtés, Papineau escaped to the United States, and other rebels organized in the countryside. Led by Wolfred Nelson, they defeated a British force at Saint-Denis on November 23,1837, the British troops soon beat back the rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14. The troops pillaged and ransacked Saint-Eustache, on December 5, the government declared martial law in Montreal. When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, in the meantime, filibusters from the United States, the Hunter Patriots, formed a small militia and attacked Windsor, Upper Canada, to support the Canadian Patriots
34.
Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford
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Born at Markethill, County Armagh, Ireland, Gosford was the son of Arthur Acheson, 1st Earl of Gosford, and his wife Millicent. Acheson sat in the Irish House of Commons for Armagh County from 1798 until the Act of Union in 1801, subsequently, he was a Member of the British House of Commons representing Armagh to 1807, when he succeeded to his fathers Irish titles as Earl of Gosford. He entered the British House of Lords in 1811 upon being elected an Irish Representative Peer, in 1831 he was appointed the first Lord Lieutenant of Armagh for life which incorporated the post of Custos Rotulorum of County Armagh. In 1835, he became Governor General of British North America and he was instructed to appease the reformists, led by Louis-Joseph Papineau, without giving them any real power. Gosford attempted to distance himself from his predecessor, Lord Aylmer, Gosford officially established the Diocese of Montreal in 1836, though it had been unofficially created a few years before. In August of that year Gosford dissolved the Legislative Assembly when they refused to pass his budget, in November, Lord Gosford learned of the planned Lower Canada Rebellion and had many of Papineaus followers arrested, although Papineau himself escaped to the United States. The next month, he issued a reward for the capture of Papineau, Lord Gosford resigned in November 1837 and returned to Britain the next year. His eventual successor, Lord Durham, implemented the Union Act in 1840 and he married Mary, the daughter and heiress of Robert Sparrow of Worlingham Hall, Suffolk, with whom he had a son and four daughters. He was created Baron Worlingham in 1835 and thus became a member of the House of Lords in his own right and he died in 1849 and was succeeded by his son Archibald Acheson, 3rd Earl of Gosford. It is believed the city of Gosford in New South Wales, Australia was named after him, list of Canadian Governors General ACHESON, ARCHIBALD, 2nd Earl of GOSFORD. Dictionary of National Biography,1901 supplement, london, Smith, Elder & Co. T. B. Acheson, Archibald, second earl of Gosford, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford
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John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton
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Field Marshal John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton GCB GCMG GCH PC was a British Army officer and Colonial Governor. He then commanded the 2nd Battalion of the 66th Regiment of Foot and, later, after that he was high commissioner of the Ionian Islands and then Commander-in-Chief, Ireland. Born in Lyndhurst in the New Forest, the son of Samuel Colborne and Cordelia Anne Colborne, Colborne was educated at Christs Hospital in London. He was commissioned as an ensign in the 20th Regiment of Foot on 10 July 1794 securing all subsequent steps in his regimental promotion without purchase. Promoted to brevet captain on 12 January 1800, he took part in Sir Ralph Abercrombys expedition to Egypt in August 1801 and was wounded again. Colborne was deployed with his regiment to Italy where he distinguished himself at the Battle of Maida in July 1806 during the War of the Third Coalition. He became military secretary to General Henry Fox in 1806 and then became secretary to Sir John Moore with the rank of major on 21 January 1808. In this capacity he accompanied Moore to Sweden in May 1808 and to Portugal in 1808 and served him at the Battle of Benavente in December 1808. It was Moores dying request that Colborne should be given a lieutenant colonelcy, after transferring to the command of the 52nd Regiment of Foot he took part in the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo in January 1812 where he was badly injured and had to be invalided back to England. He returned to the 52nd Regiment of Foot and commanded it at the Battle of Orthez in February 1814 and at the Battle of Toulouse in April 1814 and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815. At the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 during the Hundred Days, at the critical moment of the battle, when the French Imperial Guard attacked Welligtons weakened centre, Colborne made a decisive intervention. As soon as General Sir Frederick Adam saw what Colborne was doing, Colborne drove forward towards La Haye Sainte, while Wellington rode back to main line to order the general advance. He was appointed a Knight of the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa on 2 August 1815, after the War he remained with his regiment as part of the Army of Occupation. Colborne became Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey in July 1821 and was promoted to major-general on 27 May 1825, as Lieutenant Governor, Colborne increased the population of the province by 70% by initiating an organised system of immigration to bring in settlers from Britain. He also aided settlement by expanding the communication and transportation infrastructure through a campaign to build roads and he brought changes to the structure of the legislative council, increased fiscal autonomy and encouraged greater independence in the judiciary. In 1829 he founded Upper Canada College as a school based on the Elizabeth College, during Colbornes period of office as commander-in-chief, the Family Compact promoted resistance to the political principle of responsible government. At the end of its lifespan, the Compact would be condemned by Lord Durham as a petty corrupt insolent Tory clique, in January 1836 Colborne became commander-in-chief of all the armed forces in British North America. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general on 8 July 1836
36.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
37.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
38.
Egyptian revolution of 2011
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The Egyptian revolution of 2011, locally known as the January 25 Revolution, began on 25 January 2011 and took place across all of Egypt. The date was set by various groups to coincide with the annual Egyptian police day as a statement against increasing police brutality during the last few years of Mubaraks presidency. It consisted of demonstrations, marches, occupations of plazas, non-violent civil resistance, acts of civil disobedience, millions of protesters from a range of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The revolution started by calls for protests from online youth groups, initially these included liberal, anti-capitalist, nationalist, and feminist elements, but they finally included Islamist elements as well. Violent clashes between security forces and protesters resulted in at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured, protesters retaliated by burning over 90 police stations across the country. The protests took place in Cairo, Alexandria and all cities across the nation. The protesters primary demands were the end of the Mubarak regime and emergency law, freedom, justice, a responsive non-military government, strikes by labour unions added to the pressure on government officials. During the uprising, the capital Cairo was described as a war zone, protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, which was impossible to enforce by the police and military. Egypts Central Security Forces, loyal to Mubarak, were replaced by military troops. In the chaos, there was some looting by gangs which was instigated by plainclothes police officers, in response, watch groups were organized by civilians to protect neighbourhoods. International reaction has varied, with most Western nations condoning peaceful protests but concerned about the stability of Egypt, the Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions have influenced demonstrations in other Arab countries, including Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan, Syria and Libya. Mubarak dissolved his government, appointing former head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate Omar Suleiman vice-president in an attempt to quell dissent, Mubarak asked aviation minister and former chief of Egypts air force Ahmed Shafik to form a new government. Mohamed ElBaradei became an opposition figure, with all major opposition groups supporting his role as negotiator for a transitional unity government. In response to mounting pressure, Mubarak in another attempt to contain the crisis announced he did not intend to seek re-election in September. On 11 February 2011 Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak would resign as president, the previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve as a caretaker government until a new one was formed. On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters and, if convicted. On 2 June 2012 Mubarak was found guilty of complicity in the murder of protesters and sentenced to imprisonment, but the sentence was overturned on appeal. A number of protesters, upset that others tried with Mubarak were acquitted, Mubarak was eventually cleared of all charges on 29 November 2014, although Egypts prosecutor general announced he would appeal the verdict
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