1.
President of Finland
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The President of the Republic of Finland is the nations head of state. Under the Finnish constitution, executive power is vested in the president, the president is elected directly by the people of Finland for a term of six years. Since 1991, no president may be elected for more than two consecutive terms, the president must be a native-born Finnish citizen. The office was established by the Constitution Act of 1919, the current office-holder is Sauli Niinistö. Officially the head of state is known as the President of the Republic of Finland or, more often and this is in contrast to the former presidents, who retain the title President. In other contexts, the term for president is puheenjohtaja – except for appeals courts. Candidates for president can be nominated by registered parties which have received at least one seat in the parliamentary election. A candidate may also be nominated by 20,000 enfranchised citizens, between 1919 and 1988, the president was elected indirectly by an electoral college made up of electors chosen by voters in the presidential election. Since 1994, the president has been elected by a popular vote. If only one candidate is nominated, he or she becomes president without an election, otherwise, the first round of balloting takes place on the third Sunday of January in the election year. If one of the candidates receives more than half of the votes cast, if no candidate wins a majority in the first stage, the top two candidates rerun in the second stage three weeks later. The candidate who receives more votes is elected. In the event of a tie, the election is resolved by lot, the Council of State confirms the outcome of the election and, if necessary, conducts the drawing of lots. The president assumes office on the first day of the following the election. There have been several presidential elections. The first president, Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, was chosen by the Finnish parliament due to the rule of the constitution. In 1940 and 1943, the 1937 electoral college chose the president, as it was felt that an election could not be arranged due to the martial law. In 1944 special legislation directly stipulated that Marshal Mannerheim be elected president for six years after Risto Ryti had resigned mid-term, in 1946, special legislation empowered the Parliament to choose a successor for the remainder of Mannerheims term, the latter having resigned
2.
Esko Aho
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Esko Tapani Aho is a Finnish politician who was Prime Minister of Finland from 1991 to 1995. Aho was born in Veteli, Finland, prior to attending university, he began a career in politics. From 1974 to 1979, he was Chairman of the Finnish Centre Youth, in 1978, he became a Presidential elector, a position he also held in 1982 and 1998. From 1979 to 1980, Aho was Political Secretary to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, from 1980 to 1983, he was a trade promoter for the Kannus municipality. Aho studied at the Helsingin yliopisto, receiving a Master of Social Science degree in 1981, since 2010 he has been a Skolkovo Foundation Council member. Aho was first elected to the eduskunta in 1983 and he became Chairman of the Centre Party in 1990, a position that he held until 2002. The party is one of three political parties in Finland. At 36 years of age, he was the youngest Prime Minister in Finnish history, Aho was the prime minister of the centre-right coalition government from 1991 to 1995. He is best known for leading Finland into the European Union, Ahos own party, gaining most of its support from rural areas, was the most opposed to EU membership among major parties. Their greatest concern was the situation, but they were persuaded to support membership due to the prime ministers diplomacy. Finland applied for EU membership on 16 March 1992 and a referendum was held two and a years later. Ahos government faced also the economic depression of the early 1990s. Despite a steep rise in the debt, the Aho government applied a stringent cut-and-save policy that made it unpopular. This partly caused its fall in the 1995 election and Centre Partys eight-year period in opposition and he was known by the nickname Kannuksen Kennedy due to his streamlined and well coiffed habitus, a comparison with United States President John F. Kennedy. Esko Aho lost the bid for President of Finland to Tarja Halonen in 2000, after that he retired from active politics in the early initially through a sabbatical leave of one year to lecture at Harvard University. In the 2003 election he left parliament and retired from daily politics and he then served as the president of the SITRA, the Finnish National Fund for Research and Development. In 2008, Ahos name was included in a poll of possible Presidential candidate. It was announced by Nokia in August 2008 that Aho would be joining Nokia as Executive Vice President of Corporate Relations and Responsibility and he took up these positions on November 1,2008
3.
Paavo Lipponen
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Paavo Tapio Lipponen is a Finnish politician and former reporter. He was Prime Minister of Finland from 1995 to 2003, Lipponen was born in Turtola, son of Orvo Lipponen and his wife Hilkka Iisalo. Paavos maternal grandparents were Jaakko Antero Ingman/Iisalo and his wife Siiri Törnroos, paavo Lipponen spent his childhood and youth in Kuopio. Receiving his gymnasium diploma from the Lyceum of Kuopio in 1959, he studied philosophy. Soon after returning to Finland he moved to Helsinki where he attained a masters degree in international relations from the University of Helsinki in 1971. He was the editor of the student newspaper Ylioppilaslehti 1963–1965. Lipponen made various controversial statements that angered groups such as Estonian refugees, according to Alpo Rusis book Vasemmalta ohi, Lipponen began cooperation with the East German secret police Stasi in 1969. The book suggests that Lipponen is the code name Mungo XV/326/71 in the Rosenholz files, in a 2008 interview Lipponen said that he had been a target of East German manipulation. It is rumored that Lipponen is on the so-called Tiitinen list, Alpo Rusi has also suggested that Lipponen had an alias, code, and operation in the KGB. He held various posts in the Social Democratic Party organisation from 1967 to 1979, in a speech in 1978 Lipponen asserted that he had lost his belief in socialism. Lipponen first came into the limelight when he was secretary to Prime Minister Mauno Koivisto from 1979 to 1982. Frequently having to substitute for the busy Prime Minister, Lipponen was soon dubbed vara-Manu, Lipponen was a Member of the Parliament of Finland from 1983 to 1987 and also from 1991 until he retired in 2007. In 1993 SDP chairman Ulf Sundqvist was suspected and later convicted of a financial fraud. Lipponen was elected the new chairman in 1993, and he led the party to victory in the election of 1995. Lipponen formed a cabinet of five parties including both rightist and leftist parties, Lipponens economic policies were, however, dominated by the right-wing. The main task of the cabinet was to decrease the number of unemployed, tight fiscal policies allowed the participation of Finland in the European Monetary Union, which resulted in the introduction of the Euro in 1999. Foreign trade increased above the European average 1995-1999, laws for a new constitution were passed and it took effect on 1 March 2000. Lipponen headed the SDP campaign in 1999 which resulted in losses, the coalition formed in 1995 was renewed
4.
Mauno Koivisto
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Mauno Henrik Koivisto is a Finnish politician who served as the ninth President of Finland from 1982 to 1994. He also served twice as Prime Minister, from 1968 to 1970 and 1979 to 1982 and he was the first Social Democrat to be elected President of Finland. At age 93, Koivisto is currently the oldest living former Finnish president, Koivisto was born in Turku, Finland, the second son of Juho Koivisto, a carpenter at Crichton-Vulcan shipyard, and Hymni Sofia Eskola, who died when he was 10. After attending primary school, Koivisto worked a number of jobs, during the Continuation War, Koivisto served in the Infantry Detachment Törni led by the famous Lauri Törni, which was a reconnaissance detachment operating behind enemy lines. This detachment was only open to selected volunteers, during the war he received the Order of the Cross of Liberty and was promoted to the rank of corporal. While reflecting on his wartime experiences later in life, he said When you have taken part in a game in which your own life is at stake, after the war, he earned a living as a carpenter and became active in politics, joining the Social Democratic Party. In 1948 he found work at Turku harbor - in December that same year he was appointed manager of the Harbour Labour Office of Turku, Koivisto went to Hanko to take charge of the harbour-masters office and recruit workers to break the strike, the government having banned strike action. The Communist newspapers branded Koivisto as their number one due to his status as a major figure in the struggle for control of the trade unions. In addition to his engagements and ongoing career Koivisto continued with his education, passing his intermediate examination in 1947. In 1951 he became a school teacher, the following year he married Tellervo Kankaanranta. Together they had a daughter, Assi Koivisto, in 1957, Koivisto graduated from the University of Turku with a Master of Arts degree and a Licentiate in 1953, and had plans to become a sociologist. Three years later he completed his thesis, which looked at social relations in the Turku dockyards. Koivisto also served as a Vocational Counselor of the City of Turku, in 1957, he started working for the Helsinki Workers Savings Bank and served as its General Manager from 1959 to 1968. In 1968 he was appointed Chairman of the board of the Bank of Finland, the 1966 Social Democrat election victory saw the formation of a new government under Rafael Paasio, with Koivisto, the partys expert on economic policy, appointed Minister of Finance. He served as Prime Minister for two years until the Parliamentary election of 1970, which saw the parties in his coalition government suffer heavy losses. In the 1970s, President Kekkonen started to regard Koivisto as a rival and instead threw his weight behind Koivistos Social Democratic colleague. For most of the decade Koivisto concentrated mainly on his work as Chairman of the Bank of Finland until the 1979 elections saw him return as Prime Minister. By this point there was an increasing dissatisfaction with the aging President Kekkonen, whose failing health was becoming difficult to conceal, and also a perceived lack of change
5.
Tarja Halonen
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Tarja Kaarina Halonen is a Finnish politician who was the 11th President of Finland, serving from 2000 to 2012. She was the first female head of state in Finland and while she was in office, in 2003 and 2010–11, Halonen held two appointments as a minister and served as a member of the parliament from 1979 to 2000 until her election to the presidency. In addition to her career, Halonen had a long and extensive career in trade unions. Her work for advancing human rights has been notable and she was, among other things, an early proponent of gay rights, chairing the main Finnish gay rights organization Seta in 1980–1981. Halonen rose from humble beginnings, having lived through the wartime as a daughter of a mother in the Kallio working-class neighborhood in Helsinki. She graduated from the University of Helsinki, where she studied law from 1963 to 1968 and she was active in student politics and served as the Social Affairs Secretary and Organization Secretary of the National Union of Students from 1969 to 1970. In 1971 she joined the Social Democratic Party and worked as a lawyer in the Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions until she was elected to parliament in 1979, Halonen served in the parliament of Finland for six terms, from 1979 to 2000, representing the constituency of Helsinki. She also had a career in the city council of Helsinki. She started her campaign for the presidency at the beginning of 1999 after President Martti Ahtisaari announced that he would not stand for a term in the office. During her presidency, she was popular among Finns, her approval ratings rose. Ineligible to run in the 2012 presidential elections because of term limits, Halonen is widely known for her interest in human rights issues. In 1980–81 Halonen served as the chairman of Seta, the main LGBT rights organization in Finland, during her presidency, she has participated actively in discussion of womens rights and problems of globalization. In 2009, Forbes named her among the 100 Most Powerful Women in the world, Tarja Halonen was born on 24 December 1943 in the district of Kallio which is a traditional working-class area in central Helsinki. Her mother Lyyli Elina Loimola was a set-dresser and her father Vieno Olavi Halonen worked as a welder, Halonens parents married each other at the beginning of World War II and Tarja was born a few years later. Vieno Halonen was at the frontline and Lyyli Halonen was working in a factory when their daughter was born. After the war the couple decided to get a divorce, and in 1950 Lyyli Halonen married her new husband Thure Forss, both Halonens mother and her stepfather influenced her world view extensively. Halonen later said that her mother was a survivor, always an extremely active and resilient person who valued good. When she entered politics, Halonen stated that these are also the qualities and attributes she respects in people, in 1950 she began her studies in Kallio Elementary school from where she later moved to Kallio Gymnasium and finally finished her matriculation examination in 1962
6.
Vyborg
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The area where Vyborg is located used to be a trading center on the Vuoksi Rivers western branch, which has dried up. The region was inhabited by the Karelians, a Balto-Finnic tribe which came under the domination of Novgorod. Settlement in the area of Vyborg is generally regarded to date from 13th century onwards when Hanseatic traders started to travel to Novgorod, the Viborg Castle was founded during the so-called Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 by marsk Torkel Knutsson on the site of older Karelian fort which was burned. The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic, by the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323 between the Republic of Novgorod and Sweden, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden. The towns trade privileges were chartered by the Pan-Scandinavian King Eric of Pomerania in 1403 and it withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo–Swedish War of 1496–1497. Under Swedish rule, Vyborg was closely associated with the family of Bååt. The late-medieval commanders and fief holders of Vyborg were descended from or married to the Bååt family, Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture in 1710 after the Siege of Vyborg by Tsar Peter the Great in the Great Northern War. In the course of Peters second administrative reform, Vyborg became the seat of Vyborg Province of St. Petersburg Governorate, the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, which concluded the war with Sweden, finalized the transfer of the town and a part of Old Finland to Russia. In 1744, Vyborg became the seat of Vyborg Governorate, in 1783, the governorate was transformed into Vyborg Viceroyalty, then in 1801 back into Vyborg Governorate. In 1802, Vyborg Governorate was renamed Finland Governorate, One of the largest naval battles in history, the Battle of Vyborg Bay, was fought off the shore of the Vyborg Bay on July 4,1790. After the rest of Finland was ceded to Russia in 1809, Emperor Alexander I incorporated the town, in the course of the 19th century, the town developed as the center of administration and trade for the eastern part of Finland. The inauguration of the Saimaa Canal in 1856 benefited the economy as it opened the vast waterways of Eastern Finland to the sea. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the fall of the Russian Empire, during the Finnish Civil War, Vyborg was in the hands of the Finnish Red Guards until it was captured by the White Guard on the Battle of Vyborg, April 29,1918. In April–May 1918, 360–420 civilians, mainly Russian men are murdered by White Guards during the Vyborg massacre, in the inter-war decades, the town, Viipuri, was the second biggest town in Finland and the seat of Viipuri Province. In 1939, Vyborg had some 80,000 inhabitants, including sizable minorities of Swedes, Germans, Russians, Gypsies, Tatars, during this time, Alvar Aalto built the Vyborg Library—a masterpiece of modern architecture. During the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940, over seventy people were evacuated from Vyborg to western Finland. As the town was held by the Finns, the remaining Finnish population. Thus, practically the whole population of Finnish Vyborg was resettled elsewhere in Finland, the town became the administrative center of Vyborgsky District
7.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
8.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
9.
Social Democratic Party of Finland
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The Social Democratic Party of Finland is one of the four major political parties in Finland, along with the National Coalition Party, The Finns Party and the Centre Party. Antti Rinne is the current chair. The party has represented in the Finnish cabinet for long periods. The party is currently in the opposition, the partys ideology is social democracy. The SDP has a relationship with the Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions, and is a member of the Socialist International. In the early 20th century, the SDP commanded some 40% of the vote, after that, the SDP has usually commanded 20–29% of the total votes in those elections that Communists or their fronts have been allowed to contest. There was an uninterrupted 30-year period of social democratic presidents between 1982 and 2012, in the 2007 parliamentary election, SDP received 21.4 percent of the vote and lost 8 seats. In the 2008 municipal elections, the party continued its decline with the largest drop since 1960, in the latest parliamentary election, in 2011, the party received 19.1 percent of the vote and lost another three seats, giving it 42 seats. This was the partys worst result in parliamentary elections in terms of popular support, despite the fact that the word sosiaali in modern Finnish has a long a, the name of this party is officially spelt in an old-fashioned way with a short a, for historical reasons. The party calls itself a modern, centre left party with progressive ideals, the first value that the party uses to describe itself is a fair society. The party states that A society without fairness, is a society without meaning, success, opportunity and freedom must be open to all people, and society should reward hard work and fair-play – not greed, status or chance. The measure of people should be their respect for others, not their wealth and background or characteristics such as race, the second value that the party uses to describe itself is a supportive state. The party states that States should not decide how people live their lives, the state should not be an authority above citizens, but a solid base below them - on which they can build their lives with the services and security they need to pursue their dreams. The third value that the party uses to describe itself is a sustainable future, the party states that We cannot ignore the great problems of tomorrow, for the small benefits of today. Environmental damage, reckless economic activity and a weakening of social care all pose threats to the future of our country, an active state and international cooperation must be the tools with which we build a sustainable future. The party has supported bans on Sunday shopping, in the 2015 parliamentary election, 91% of SDP candidates opposed NATO membership - only the Left Alliance was more opposed to NATO membership. The SDP has long advocated policies to prevent foreigners from working in Finland, in the 2015 parliamentary election, only the Finns Party had a higher share of candidates opposed to easing of work-based immigration. The party opposed economic reforms in the 2011 parliamentary election and in the subsequent government program negotiations, the party maintains close relationship with trade union leaders
10.
Marko Ahtisaari
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Marko Ahtisaari is a Finnish technology entrepreneur and musician, and CEO and co-founder of the Sync Project. Marko Ahtisaari is the son of Martti Ahtisaari, a former UN diplomat and President of Finland, and Eeva Ahtisaari and he attended Columbia University where he studied philosophy, economics and music. Ahtisaaris business career started at a new media company Satama Interactive in 1998, in 2005 Ahtisaari left the company to join its biggest client, Nokia in 2002. He was appointed Director of Design strategy in 2005, in 2006 he left Nokia and joined his former boss, Nokia CEO Pekka Ala-Pietilä to start an advertisement-supported mobile network Blyk. In 2007 Ahtisaari became the founding investor and CEO of online business travel startup Dopplr, between February 2009 September 2013 Ahtisaari was Head of Product Design at Nokia. In January 2012 he was appointed as a member of the Nokia leadership team, Ahtisaari announced his resignation from Nokia when Microsoft acquired Nokias devices business in September 2013. In addition to his business career, Ahtisaari is an occasional musician, marko contributed the essay Intelligent Travel to the Freesouls project
11.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
12.
University of Oulu
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The University of Oulu is one of the largest universities in Finland, located in the city of Oulu. It was founded on July 8,1958, the university has around 16,000 students and 3,000 staff. 1919 Oulu College Association was founded to manage the establishment of a university in the town 1958 Oulu University Act 1959 Activities begin. Faculty of Medicine has its own area and it is fully integrated in the regional hospital 2 kilometres southeast from the city center, Kontinkangas. Clinical Research Centre, Welltech Oulu and the Medical Library are also located there, the third campus area is located in Kajaani, about 185 kilometres southeast of Oulu. It takes part in a number of exchange programmes, such as Erasmus Programme, Nordplus, FIRST, ISEP and International to International ISEP, UNC-EP. Besides, University of Oulu has about 50 bilateral agreements with universities around the world. University works in 70 research areas, former President of Finland, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Jarkko Oikarinen, D. Sc. the developer of Internet Relay Chat Leena Palotie, D. Sc. professor, geneticist Jussi Pesonen, M. Sc. CEO of UPM-Kymmene Oyj Seppo Säynäjäkangas, D. Sc. professor, inventor of portable heart rate monitor, sakari Orava, D. Sc. professor, surgeon specializing in sports related injuries. Famous for operating surgeries on many top athletes such as David Beckham, lasse Lehtinen, Ph. D. former Member of the Finnish Parliament and former Member of the European Parliament. Pekka Aikio, M. A. president of the Sami Parliament of Finland for three terms from 1996 to 2008, Finnish Minister of Culture, member of the Finnish parliament, from the Centre Party. Tuija Lehtinen, B. Sc. writer, freelance author, known for Mirkka, Laura and Janne novel series, chief scriptwriter of The Dibidogs animation series. Sami Lopakka, M. A. musician and writer, one of two guitarists for the band Sentenced, author of science fiction and fantasy. Ago Silde M. A. Estonian politician, governor of Ida-Viru County 2004-2007, jari Vilén M. A. politician and a diplomat, served in the Finnish Parliament, representing the National Coalition Party and the district of Lapland. Sauli Vuoti Ph. D. musician, chemist, and freelance writer, vocalist and guitarist of the band Kinetik Control, University of Oulu alumni body is over 40,000. Student Union of the University of Oulu provides services to and supervises the interests of all undergraduate students in the University of Oulu. All bachelors and masters students in the University of Oulu belong to the Student Union. By paying the Student Union membership fee students are entitled for a student card which allows them to get student services and this way, students get inexpensive or free medical and dental care from Finnish Student Health Services, traveling discounts in trains and buses, student meals reduction etc
13.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
14.
Finnish Army
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The Finnish Army is the land forces branch of the Finnish Defence Forces. Todays Army is divided into six branches, the infantry, field artillery, anti-aircraft artillery, engineers, signals, Finnish Army commander since 1 August 2014 is Lieutenant General Seppo Toivonen. The duties of the Finnish Army are three-fold, because Finland is not under direct military threat, the current Army is, as it has been since the end of Second World War, in peace-time training formation. This means that its brigades are not meant to be operational combat units, according to the troop production doctrine, peace-time units will train each batch of conscripts they receive for a specific war-time unit. After the end of training, the conscripts are demobilised into reserve, during regular refresher exercises and in case of a crisis, the reserve unit will be activated and deployed in the formation it trained in during conscription. Thus, the structure of the Army does not give any meaningful information about the mobilised structure or about the areas where the units would be used. Between 1809 and 1917 Finland was a part of the Russian Empire as the Grand Duchy of Finland. Between 1881 and 1901 the Grand Duchy had its own army, before that several other military units had also been formed while Finland belonged to Sweden. The Grand Duchy inherited its allotment system from the Swedish military organization, however, for several decades, Russian rulers did not require military service from Finland—operations and defence were mostly taken care by Russian troops based in the Grand Duchy. As a result, officer benefits of the allotment system became practically pensions, as payment was based on passive availability, during the Napoleonic Wars three 1200 men regiments were formed in Finland and Topographic corps in Hamina. In 1821 the Topographic corps was transformed into cadet officers school, in 1829 one of the training battalions was transformed into Young Guard Battalion, the Finnish Guard. During the Crimean War,1854, Finland set up nine sharpshooter battalions based on rote system, conscription was introduced in Finland in 1878. The Finnish army was broken up during the oppression years just after the turn of the century. As Finnish conscripts refused to serve in Russian Army, conscription ended in Finland, at the turn of the 20th century, the Russian empire was weakening, and this was reflected in a reduced capacity of the Russian troops to keep public order. Voluntary defence organizations disguised as fire brigades were formed by the Finnish people, especially during the strikes during, there were socialist Red Guards and conservative, anti-socialist Protection Guards. Also, during the First World War activists secretly travelled to Germany to receive military training, after the war in 1919, the Protection Guards became a separate organization. Therefore, strictly speaking, there is no continuity between the White Guards, which became an organization, and the Finnish army, which was a cadre army based on conscription. However, Jägers gained important positions in the army, and German tactics, the Finnish Army consisted of 9 field divisions,4 brigades and a number of small independent battalions and companies at the beginning of the Winter War in 1939
15.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
16.
Mediation
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All participants in mediation are encouraged to actively participate in the process. Mediation is a process in that it is focused primarily upon the needs, rights. The mediator uses a variety of techniques to guide the process in a constructive direction. A mediator is facilitative in that s/he manages the interaction between parties and facilitates open communication, Mediation is also evaluative in that the mediator analyzes issues and relevant norms, while refraining from providing prescriptive advice to the parties. Mediation, as used in law, is a form of dispute resolution. Typically, a party, the mediator, assists the parties to negotiate a settlement. Disputants may mediate disputes in a variety of domains, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community, the term mediation broadly refers to any instance in which a third party helps others reach agreement. More specifically, mediation has a structure, timetable and dynamics that ordinary negotiation lacks, the process is private and confidential, possibly enforced by law. The mediator acts as a third party and facilitates rather than directs the process. Mediation is becoming a peaceful and internationally accepted solution in order to end conflict. Mediation can be used to resolve disputes of any magnitude, Mediators use various techniques to open, or improve, dialogue and empathy between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement. Much depends on the skill and training. As the practice gained popularity, training programs, certifications and licensing followed, producing trained, while a case in the hands of a lawyer or a court may take months or years to resolve, mediation usually achieves a resolution in a matter of hours. Taking less time means expending less money on hourly fees and costs, confidentiality While court hearings are public, mediation remains strictly confidential. No one but the parties to the dispute and the mediator or mediators know what happened, confidentiality in mediation has such importance that in most cases the legal system cannot force a mediator to testify in court as to the content or progress of mediation. Many mediators destroy their notes taken during a mediation once that mediation has finished, the only exceptions to such strict confidentiality usually involve child abuse or actual or threatened criminal acts. Control Mediation increases the control the parties have over the resolution, in a court case, the parties obtain a resolution, but control resides with the judge or jury. Often, a judge or jury cannot legally provide solutions that emerge in mediation, thus, mediation is more likely to produce a result that is mutually agreeable for the parties
17.
Political status of Kosovo
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In 1999 the administration of the province was handed on an interim basis to the United Nations under the terms of UNSCR1244 which ended the Kosovo conflict of that year. On 17 February 2008 representatives of the people of Kosovo, acting outside the UNMIKs PISG framework issued a declaration of independence establishing the Republic of Kosovo. Some authors argue that since the 1903 Serbian constitution was still in force at the time that the country took control of Kosovo, Kosovo should constitutionally not have become part of Serbia. They state that the 1903 constitution required a Grand National Assembly be held before Serbias borders could be expanded to include Kosovo, in 1922 the historical fictive entities were abolished by a state commission and 33 new administrative oblasts ruled from the center were instituted. In 1926 the border dispute with the Albanian Republic was resolved, in 1929, the Kingdom was restructured into nine large provinces called banovinas, which was formalized by a new Constitution in 1931. Their borders were drawn so that they would not correspond either to boundaries between ethnic groups, or to pre-World War I state borders. Most of Kosovo was allocated to the Zeta Banate and smaller bits to the Moravian, the first Constitution of the Federative Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia established Kosovo-Metohia and the northern region of Vojvodina as autonomous provinces within the Peoples Republic of Serbia. It also promoted the Vardar region of southern Serbia to the status of a separate republic, the constitution, adopted on 31 January 1946, stated that The Peoples Republic of Serbia includes the autonomous province of Vojvodina and the autonomous Kosovo-Metohijan region. It did not spell out the rights and scope of the autonomous provinces, the details of the rights and scope of the provinces was, again, reserved to the republics constitutions. The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, at the time the worlds longest and it also granted equal status to the Serbian, Albanian and Turkish languages and alphabets within Kosovo. This led to central Serbia, which was not a political unit and it became a rallying cry for a new generation of Serbian politicians. During the 1980s the moderate Serbian communist politician Ivan Stambolić, who became President of Serbia, however, Stambolić was deposed by his erstwhile protégé Slobodan Milošević in 1987, who had used the issue of Kosovo to boost his political support. The much harder-line Milošević pushed for a policy towards the Kosovo Albanians. The Speaker of the Assembly nonetheless declared that the amendments had passed and this however was refuted in court by Vukasin Jokanovic who was the President of the Kosovo Assembly at the time during the trial. The 1990 constitution was strongly resisted by Kosovos Albanians, who set up a government to parallel the official Serb-dominated establishment. The Albanian-dominated Kosovo Assembly passed a resolution declaring Kosovo an independent entity within Yugoslavia. On 22 September 1991, the deposed Albanian members of the Kosovo Assembly met secretly in Pristina to declare Kosovo an independent sovereign state, Albania was the only country to recognize the independence. On 10 October 1991 the CSCE warned that member states would never, recognize any changes of borders, whether external or internal, brought about by force
18.
Kosovo
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Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe that declared independence from Serbia in February 2008 as the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo is landlocked in the central Balkan Peninsula, with its strategic position in the Balkans, it serves as an important link in the connection between central and south Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and Black Sea. Its capital and largest city is Pristina, and other urban areas include Prizren, Pejë. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the west, while Serbia recognises administration of the territory by Kosovos elected government, it still continues to claim it as its own Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later the Roman province of Dardania was located in the region, the area was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes. In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, Kosovo was the core of the medieval Serbian state and it has been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate. After being part of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, the war ended with a military intervention of NATO, which forced the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which became a UN protectorate under UNSCR1244. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence and it has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 111 UN member states, Taiwan, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Cook Islands and Niue. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo as a state, although with the Brussels Agreement of 2013 it has accepted the legitimacy of Kosovar institutions, the entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864, Albanians refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of a Roman province located in Central Balkans that was formed in 284 AD which covered the territory of modern Kosovo. The name is derived from the Albanian word dardha/dardā which means pear, the former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a Dardanian identity and the Kosovan flag and presidential seal refer to this national identity. However, the name Kosova remains more widely used among the Albanian population, the official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. This arrangement, which has dubbed the asterisk agreement, was agreed in an 11-point arrangement agreed on 24 February 2012. By the independence declaration in 2008, its long name became Republic of Kosovo. In prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, the area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the area of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found in Metohija. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries
19.
2008 Kosovo declaration of independence
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The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence was adopted on 17 February 2008 by representatives of the Kosovo people. The participants unanimously declared Kosovo to be independent from Serbia, while all 11 representatives of the Serb minority boycotted the proceedings and it was the second declaration of independence by Kosovos Albanian-majority political institutions, the first was proclaimed on 7 September 1990. The legality of the declaration has been disputed, Serbia sought international validation and support for its stance that the declaration was illegal, and in October 2008 requested an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice. The Court determined that the declaration did not violate international law, the dialogue resulted in the 2013 Brussels deal between Serbia and Kosovo which abolished all of the Republic of Serbias institutions in Kosovo. Dejan Pavićević is the representative of Serbia to Kosovo. Valdet Sadiku is the representative of Kosovo to Serbia. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija took shape in 1946 within Socialist Yugoslavia as a province within Serbias federal republic, initially a ceremonial entity, more power was devolved to Kosovan authorities with each constitution. In 1974 it became the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo which enabled the region to function at every administrative level independently of its host republic within Yugoslavia, the move attracted criticism from the leaderships of the other Yugoslav republics but no higher authority was in place to reverse the measure. In response to the action, the Kosovo Assembly voted on 2 July 1990 to declare Kosovo an independent state, a state of emergency and harsh security rules were subsequently imposed against Kosovos Albanians following mass protests. The Albanians established a state to provide education and social services while boycotting or being excluded from Yugoslav institutions. Kosovo remained largely quiet through the Yugoslav wars, the severity of the Yugoslav government in Kosovo was internationally criticised. In 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army began attacking federal security forces, the conflict escalated until Kosovo was on the verge of all-out war by the end of 1998. Subsequent peace talks failed and from 24 March to 11 June 1999, the war ended with Milošević agreeing to allow peacekeepers into Kosovo and withdrawing all security forces so as to transfer governance to the United Nations. A NATO-led Kosovo Force entered the following the Kosovo War. Before and during the handover of power, an estimated 100,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians, mostly Romani, in the case of the non-Albanians, the Romani in particular were regarded by many Albanians as having assisted federal forces during the war. Many left along with the security forces, expressing fears that they would be targeted by returning Albanian refugees. Thousands more were out by intimidation, attacks and a wave of crime after the war. Large numbers of refugees from Kosovo still live in temporary camps, some sources put the figure far lower
20.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
21.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
22.
Aceh
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Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
23.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
24.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
25.
Viipuri
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The area where Vyborg is located used to be a trading center on the Vuoksi Rivers western branch, which has dried up. The region was inhabited by the Karelians, a Balto-Finnic tribe which came under the domination of Novgorod. Settlement in the area of Vyborg is generally regarded to date from 13th century onwards when Hanseatic traders started to travel to Novgorod, the Viborg Castle was founded during the so-called Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 by marsk Torkel Knutsson on the site of older Karelian fort which was burned. The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and the Novgorod Republic, by the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323 between the Republic of Novgorod and Sweden, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part of Sweden. The towns trade privileges were chartered by the Pan-Scandinavian King Eric of Pomerania in 1403 and it withstood a prolonged siege by Daniil Shchenya during the Russo–Swedish War of 1496–1497. Under Swedish rule, Vyborg was closely associated with the family of Bååt. The late-medieval commanders and fief holders of Vyborg were descended from or married to the Bååt family, Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture in 1710 after the Siege of Vyborg by Tsar Peter the Great in the Great Northern War. In the course of Peters second administrative reform, Vyborg became the seat of Vyborg Province of St. Petersburg Governorate, the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, which concluded the war with Sweden, finalized the transfer of the town and a part of Old Finland to Russia. In 1744, Vyborg became the seat of Vyborg Governorate, in 1783, the governorate was transformed into Vyborg Viceroyalty, then in 1801 back into Vyborg Governorate. In 1802, Vyborg Governorate was renamed Finland Governorate, One of the largest naval battles in history, the Battle of Vyborg Bay, was fought off the shore of the Vyborg Bay on July 4,1790. After the rest of Finland was ceded to Russia in 1809, Emperor Alexander I incorporated the town, in the course of the 19th century, the town developed as the center of administration and trade for the eastern part of Finland. The inauguration of the Saimaa Canal in 1856 benefited the economy as it opened the vast waterways of Eastern Finland to the sea. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the fall of the Russian Empire, during the Finnish Civil War, Vyborg was in the hands of the Finnish Red Guards until it was captured by the White Guard on the Battle of Vyborg, April 29,1918. In April–May 1918, 360–420 civilians, mainly Russian men are murdered by White Guards during the Vyborg massacre, in the inter-war decades, the town, Viipuri, was the second biggest town in Finland and the seat of Viipuri Province. In 1939, Vyborg had some 80,000 inhabitants, including sizable minorities of Swedes, Germans, Russians, Gypsies, Tatars, during this time, Alvar Aalto built the Vyborg Library—a masterpiece of modern architecture. During the Winter War between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940, over seventy people were evacuated from Vyborg to western Finland. As the town was held by the Finns, the remaining Finnish population. Thus, practically the whole population of Finnish Vyborg was resettled elsewhere in Finland, the town became the administrative center of Vyborgsky District
26.
Citizenship
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Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state. A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said to be stateless. Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English – notably in international law – although the term is understood as denoting a persons membership of a nation. In some countries, e. g. the United States, each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to its citizenship. A person can be recognised or granted citizenship on a number of bases, usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic, in other cases an application may be required. If one or both of a persons parents are citizens of a state, then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. Formerly this might only have applied through the line. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of a nation state common in China, where jus sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right to citizenship by descent to a number of generations born outside the state. This form of citizenship is not common in civil law countries, Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the realm were subjects of the monarch, in many cases both jus solis and jus sanguinis hold, citizenship either by place or parentage. Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of a person to a citizen, States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legally and been granted permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specified period. Some states allow dual citizenship and do not require naturalized citizens to renounce any other citizenship. In the past there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as color, ethnicity, sex. Most of these no longer apply in most places. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before Feb 27,1983 even though their parents meet citizenship criteria. Polis meant both the assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon, there is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny
27.
Continuation War
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The Continuation War consisted of hostilities between Finland and the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1944. The Continuation War began shortly after the end of the Winter War, in the Soviet Union, the war was considered part of the Great Patriotic War. Germany regarded its operations in the region as part of its war efforts on the Eastern Front. Acts of war between the Soviet Union and Finland recommenced on 22 June 1941, the day Germany launched its invasion of the Soviet Union, open warfare began with a Soviet air offensive on 25 June. Subsequent Finnish operations undid its post-Winter War concessions to the Soviet Union on the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia, on the Karelian Isthmus, the Finns halted their offensive 30 km from Leningrad, at the pre-World War II border between the Soviet Union and Finland. Finnish forces did not participate in the siege of Leningrad directly, in 1944, Soviet air forces conducted air raids on Helsinki and other major Finnish cities. A ceasefire ended hostilities on 5 September and was followed by the Moscow Armistice on 19 September, the 1947 Paris peace treaty concluded the war formally. Finland ceded Pechengsky District to the Soviets, leased Porkkala peninsula to them, shortly afterward, Germany invaded Poland and as a result the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany. The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17 September, next, Moscow demanded that the Baltic states allow the establishment of Soviet military bases and the stationing of troops on their soil. The Baltic governments accepted these ultimatums, signing corresponding agreements in September and October 1939, the Finnish government refused, and the Red Army attacked Finland on 30 November 1939. Condemnation of the Soviets by the League of Nations and by all over the world had no effect on Soviet policy. International help for Finland was planned, but very little actual help materialized, the Moscow Peace Treaty, which was signed on 12 March 1940, ended the Winter War. By the terms of the treaty, Finland lost one eleventh of its national territory, however, Finland had avoided having the Soviet Union annex the whole country. Finlands foreign policy had been based on multilateral guarantees for support from the League of Nations, Finnish public opinion favored the reconquest of Finnish Karelia. Finlands government declared the countrys defense to be its first priority, Finland purchased and received donations of war material during and immediately after the Winter War. On Finlands southern frontier the Soviet Union had acquired a base in Hanko near the capital Helsinki. Finland also had to resettle some 420,000 evacuees from the lost territories, to ensure the supply of food, it was necessary to clear new land for the evacuees to cultivate. This was facilitated by the Rapid Settlement Act, the Finnish leadership wanted to preserve the spirit of unanimity that was commonly felt throughout the country during the Winter War
28.
Non-commissioned officer
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A non-commissioned officer or noncommissioned officer is a military officer who has not earned a commission. Such is also called sub-officer in some countries, Non-commissioned officers, in the English-speaking world, usually obtain their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. In contrast, commissioned officers hold higher ranks than NCOs, have more legal responsibilities, are paid more, commissioned officers usually earn their commissions without having risen through the enlisted ranks. Mustang is a term in the United States Armed Forces used to refer to a commissioned officer who began his or her career as an enlisted service member. The NCO corps usually includes all grades of corporal and sergeant, in some countries, the naval equivalent includes some or all grades of petty officer, although not all navies class their petty officers as NCOs. There are different classes of non-commissioned officer, including junior non-commissioned officers, the non-commissioned officer corps is often referred to as the backbone of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders responsible for executing a military organizations mission. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific, senior NCOs are considered the primary link between enlisted personnel and the commissioned officers in a military organization. Their advice and guidance is important for junior officers, who begin their careers in a position of authority. In the Australian Army, Lance corporals and corporals are classified as junior NCOs, while sergeants, in the New South Wales Police Force, NCOs perform supervisory and coordination roles. The ranks of probationary constable through to leading senior constable are referred to as constables, all NCOs within the NSW Police are given a warrant of appointment under the Commissioners hand and seal. All officers within the Australian Defence Force Cadets are non-commissioned, ADFC officers are appointed by the Director-General of their respective branch. In the Canadian Forces, the Queens Regulations and Orders formally defined a non-commissioned officer as A Canadian Forces member holding the rank of Sergeant or Corporal. In the 1990s, the term non-commissioned member was introduced to all ranks in the Canadian Forces from recruit to chief warrant officer. In the Royal Canadian Navy, however, the definition of NCO reflects the international use of the term. Junior Non-commissioned officers mess and billet with privates and seamen, their mess is usually referred to as the junior ranks mess, as a group, NCOs rank above privates and below warrant officers. The term non-commissioned members includes these ranks, in the Finnish Defence Force, NCOs includes all ranks from corporal to sergeant major. Ranks of lance corporal and leading seaman are considered not to be NCO ranks and this ruling applies to all branches of service and also to the troops of the Border Guard
29.
Kuopio
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Kuopio is a city and a municipality located in the region of Northern Savonia, Finland. A population of 112,158 makes it the ninth biggest city in the country, the city has a total area of 2,775.73 square kilometres, of which 719.85 km2 is water and half forest. The population density is only 70/km2, but the urban areas are populated very densely, nationally second only to capital Helsinki. Since 1969 Kuopio has grown extensively through municipality mergers, kuopio’s population surpassed the 100,000 mark when the town of Nilsiä joined Kuopio at the beginning of 2013. There are several explanations behind the name Kuopio, the first is that in the 16th century, a certain influential person named Kauhanen in Tavinsalmi changed his name to Skopa and the peoples pronunciation was Coopia and finally Cuopio. The second explanation is that it comes from the verb kuopia, meaning paw, a third hypothesis is that it came from a certain Karelian mans name Prokopij, from Ruokolahti in the Middle Ages. This is the most probable explanation, supported by the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland. Kuopio was founded in 1653 by Governor Peter Brahe, but the date is recognized as November 17,1775. The period of Russian rule brought notable traffic connection development within Eastern Finland, the Saimaa Canal opened up a summer route towards the Baltic Sea, and the Savo railroad improved transport in winter. The municipality of Maaninka joined the city of Kuopio in 2015, town of Nilsiä in 2013 and Karttula in 2011, like did Vehmersalmi in 2005, Riistavesi in 1973, the city is surrounded by Lake Kallavesi, and several parts of it are built on islands. Kuopios ample waterfronts and islands are also utilized in the Saaristokaupunki -project, Saaristokaupunki will accommodate a total of 14,000 inhabitants in 2015. All houses will be situated no more than 500 metres from the nearest lakeshore, Kuopio falls in the subarctic climate zone, closely bordering on continental due to its warm summers. Winters are long and cold, with average highs staying below freezing from November until March, most precipitation occurs in the late summer and early fall. The city has a unique feature in its street network. These streets provide pedestrians a calm environment aside from the street traffic. This setup dates back all the way to 1776 and the first town plan by Pehr Kjellman, originally rännikatu, gränd were created as a fire barrier to prevent a possible fire escalating in a city mostly built with wood. Kuopio is located along the Blue Highway, which is an international tourist route from Mo i Rana, Norway to Pudozh, transport connections to Kuopio include Pendolino trains and air service from Kuopio Airport with Finnair, Blue1 and Finncomm Kuopio has always been a city of education. Some of the first schools offering education in Finnish were established in Kuopio, there are about 4,200 enterprises in Kuopio, of which approximately 180 are export companies
30.
Kuopio Lyceum High School
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Kuopion Lyseon lukio is an upper secondary school for students aged 15–19. Kuopion Lyseon lukio is located in Kuopio, Finland, originally established as a boys school in 1872, Kuopion Lyseo opened its doors to both sexes in 1977. The origins of Kuopion Lyseo can be traced back to Viipurin Triviaalikoulu that was established in 1534. Kuopion Lyseon lukio is one of the most academically prestigious upper secondary schools in Finland, around 450 students are currently enrolled in the school. Kuopion Lyseon lukio has been an IB World School since 1994, the school building from 1826 is designed by Carl Ludvig Engel. Former President of Finland, Martti Ahtisaari, former Finnish prime minister Paavo Lipponen The first professional Finnish writer Juhani Aho Film director and comedian Spede Pasanen Journalist Lasse Lehtinen, Member of European Parliament. In 1788, as the relocation seemed to become permanent, the school was replaced by Kuopion triviaalikoulu, in 1843 the Finnish education system was restructured and the Kuopios trivium school became initially Kuopion Yläalkeiskoulu and a year later in 1844 it was established as Kuopion Lukio. The first principal of Kuopion Yläalkeiskoulu was Johan Vilhelm Snellman, one of the most influential 19th-century Finnish statemsmen, Kuopion Lyseo was established in 1872 by merging these two schools, Kuopion Yläalkeiskoulu and Kuopion Lukio. Finnish was established as the teaching language, in 1994 Kuopion Lyseon Lukio started also International Baccalaureate school in addition to the regular Finnish lukio senior high school. The teaching language in the IB school is English, Kuopio Johan Vilhelm Snellman Kuopion Lyseon lukio website
31.
Oulu
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Oulu is a city and municipality of 198,804 inhabitants in the region of Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the most populous city in Northern Finland and the fifth most populous city in the country, there are no larger cities that are more northerly than Oulu. It is also considered one of Europes living labs, where residents experiment with new technology at a community-wide scale, the city is named after the river Oulujoki, which originates in the lake Oulujärvi. There have been a number of theories for the origin of the name Oulu. One possible source for the name Oulu is a word in the Sami language meaning flood water, at minimum, the structure of the word requires that, if originally given by speakers of a Uralic language, the name must be a derivative. In all likelihood, it also predates Finnish settlement and is thus a loanword from one of the now-extinct Saami languages once spoken in the area. The most probable theory is that the name derives from the Finnish dialectal word oulu, meaning floodwater, two other word families have also been speculated to be related. The first is seen in the Northern Savo dialectal word uula and its Sami counterpart oalli, the second is the Uralic root reconstructed as *uwa, meaning river bed. To either of these roots, some Sami variety would have to be assumed having added further derivational suffixes, Oulu was founded on April 8,1605, by King Charles IX of Sweden, opposite the fort built on the island of Linnansaari. This took place after favourable peace settlements with Russia, which removed the threat of attack via the main east-west waterway, the surrounding areas were populated much earlier. Oulu is situated by the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of river Oulujoki, Oulu was the capital of the Province of Oulu from 1776 to 2009. In 1822, a fire destroyed much of the city. The architect Carl Ludvig Engel, chiefly known for the buildings around Helsinki Senate Square, was enlisted to provide the plan for the rebuilding of the city. With minor changes, this remains the basis for the layout of Oulus town center. The Oulu Cathedral was built in 1832 to his designs, with the spire being finished in 1844, during the Crimean War, Oulus harbour was raided by the British fleet, destroying ships and burning tar houses, leading to international criticism. Once known for wood tar and salmon, Oulu has evolved into a major centre, particularly in IT. Other prominent industries include wood refining, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, paper, the municipality of Ylikiiminki was merged with the city of Oulu on January 1,2009. Oulu and the municipalities of Haukipudas, Kiiminki, Oulunsalo, Oulu is divided into 106 city districts
32.
Lyseo Upper Secondary School
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Oulun Lyseon Lukio is a Finnish school in the city of Oulu in northern Finland. There are about 50 teachers and about 500 students in the school and 150 in the IB-study programme. Oulun Lyseon Lukio has been offering IB-study programme in English starting 1992, there are also some distance education programmes for small towns of Ylikiiminki and Tyrnävä. In the autumn of 1874, Oulun lyseo started as a private Lyceum, during the 1880s the school was admitted state aid and gradually the schools ownership was changed as state owned. In 1891 the first graduates were graduated from the state owned Oulun Lyseo, Oulun Lyseo moved to the current school building in 1890. Descendant of this old school nowadays is the University Teacher Training School, the building has been extended several times during its history
33.
YMCA
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The Young Mens Christian Association is a worldwide organisation based in Geneva, Switzerland, with more than 57 million beneficiaries from 125 national associations. It was founded on 6 June 1844 by George Williams in London and aims to put Christian principles into practice by developing a body, mind. These three angles are reflected by the different sides of the triangle—part of all YMCA logos, from its inception, it grew rapidly and ultimately became a worldwide movement founded on the principles of Muscular Christianity. YMCAs continue to be religious organisations, many national or local organisations de-emphasise this aspect, the different local YMCAs are voluntarily affiliated through their national organisations. The national organisations in turn are part of both an Area Alliance and the World Alliance of YMCAs, the World Alliances main motto is empowering young people. It was associated with industrialisation and the movement of people to cities to work. The YMCA combined preaching in the streets and the distribution of religious tracts with a social ministry, philanthropists saw them as places for wholesome recreation that would preserve youth from the temptations of alcohol, gambling, and prostitution and that would promote good citizenship. The YMCA was founded by George Williams, a London draper and he and his colleagues were concerned about the lack of healthy activities for young men in major cities, the options available were usually taverns and brothels. By 1851, there were YMCAs in the United Kingdom, Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United States. In 1855,99 YMCA delegates from Europe and North America met in Paris at the First World Conference of YMCAs and they discussed joining together in a federation to enhance cooperation amongst individual YMCA societies. This marked the beginning of the World Alliance of YMCAs, the conference adopted the Paris Basis, a common mission for all present and future national YMCAs. Its motto was taken from the Bible, That they all may be one, in 1865 The Fourth World Conference of YMCAs, held in Germany, affirmed the importance of developing the whole individual in body, mind, and spirit. The concept of work through sports, a new concept for the time, was also recognised as part of this muscular Christianity. Today the YMCA is more focused on inspiring youths and their families to exercise, in 1878, World Alliance of YMCAs offices were established in Geneva, Switzerland. Later, in 1900, North American YMCAs, in collaboration with the World Alliance, set up centres to work with emigrants in European ports, as millions of people were leaving for the USA. In 1885, Camp Baldhead, the first residential camp in the United States and North America, was established by A. Sanford and Sumner F. Dudley, both of whom worked for the YMCA. The camp, originally located near Orange Lake in New Jersey, moved to Lake Wawayanda in Sussex County the following year, by 1910, the YMCA was an early influence upon scouting, including the Boy Scouts of America and German Scouting. Edgar M. Robinson, a Chicago-area YMCA administrator, briefly left the YMCA to become the BSAs first director, the Blue Ridge Association for Christian Conferences and Training was formed in 1907, and shortly thereafter built the Blue Ridge Assembly conference centre
34.
Captain (armed forces)
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The army rank of captain is a commissioned officer rank historically corresponding to the command of a company of soldiers. The rank is used by some air forces and marine forces. Today, a captain is typically either the commander or second-in-command of a company or artillery battery, in the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, a captain may also command a company, or be the second-in-command of a battalion. In NATO countries, the rank of captain is described by the code OF-2 and is one rank above an OF-1, the rank of captain is generally considered to be the highest rank a soldier can achieve while remaining in the field. The rank of captain should not be confused with the rank of captain or with the British-influenced air force rank of group captain. The term ultimately goes back to Late Latin capitaneus meaning chief, prominent, in Middle English adopted as capitayn in the 14th century, the military rank of captain was in use from the 1560s, referring to an officer who commands a company. The naval sense, an officer who commands a man-of-war, is earlier, from the 1550s. He would in turn receive money from another nobleman to serve as his lieutenant, the funding to provide for the troops came from the monarch or his government, the captain had to be responsible for it. If he was not, or was otherwise court-martialed, he would be dismissed, otherwise, the only pension for the captain was selling the right to another nobleman when he was ready to retire. In most countries, the air force is the junior service, many, such as the United States Air Force, use a rank structure and insignia similar to those of the army. However, the United Kingdoms Royal Air Force, many other Commonwealth air forces, a group captain is OF-5 and was derived from the naval rank of captain. In the unified system of the Canadian Forces, the air force rank titles are pearl grey, a variety of images illustrative of different forces insignia for captain are shown below, Captain Captain Senior captain Staff captain
35.
Karachi
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Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been inhabited for millennia, the city was founded as a village named Kolachi that was established as a fortified settlement in 1729. By the time of the Partition of British India, the city was the largest in Sindh with a population of 400,000. Immediately following the independence of Pakistan, the population increased dramatically with the arrival of hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India. The city experienced economic growth following independence, attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan. Karachi is now Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre, the city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $113 billion as of 2014. Karachi collects over a third of Pakistans tax revenue, and generates approximately 20% of Pakistans GDP, approximately 30% of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi, while Karachis ports handle approximately 95% of Pakistans foreign trade. Approximately 90% of the corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi. Up to 70% of Karachis workforce is employed in the informal economy, Karachi is one of Pakistans most secular and socially liberal cities. It is also the most linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse city in Pakistan, Karachi is considered to be one of the worlds fastest growing cities, and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan. Karachi is also home to over 2 million Bangladeshi migrants,1 million Afghans, the citys murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75% compared to 2013, and kidnappings decreased by 90%, with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices. Karachi was reputedly founded in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi, the new settlement is said to have been named in honour of Mai Kolachi, whose son is said to have slayed a man-eating crocodile in the village after his elder brothers had already been killed by it. The citys inhabitants are referred to by the demonym Karachiite in English, the earliest inhabitants of the Karachi region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers, with ancient flint tools discovered at several sites. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the ancient Greeks. The region may be the site of Krokola, where Alexander the Great once camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia, in 711 C. E. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the Arabs as Debal. Under Mirza Ghazi Beg the Mughal administrator of Sindh, development of coastal Sindh, under his rule, fortifications in the region acted as a bulwark against Portuguese incursions into Sindh
36.
Physical education
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Physical education, also known as Phys Ed. PE, Gym or Gym class, and known in many Commonwealth countries as physical training or PT, is a course related of maintaining the human body through physical exercises. It is taken during primary and secondary education and encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to promote health, pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played, in more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the fitness of the pupils. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests, students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or as fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In Malaysia, pupils from schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, netball, basketball, pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In the Philippines, PE is mandatory for all years, unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their physical education curriculum, in Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Starting from Junior High School, several games such as basketball, volleyball, cricket, tennis, badminton, kho kho, kabaddi. Several drills and physical training are taught, in Australia, physical education was first made an important part of the curriculum in Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legislative Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, in British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes, the curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example, students must be able to describe benefits of exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active. Ontario, Canada has a procedure in place. On October 6,2005 in Ontario, Canada the Ontario Ministry of Education implemented a Daily Physical Activity policy in Elementary Schools, Grades 1-8
37.
Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
38.
AIESEC
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AIESEC is the worlds largest non-profit student-run organization. The AIESEC network includes approximately 70,000 members in 127 countries and territories and it is the largest youth-run organization in the world. AIESECs international headquarters are in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the idea behind AIESEC started in 1938, when representatives from schools across Europe exchanged information about various programs and schools that specialized in business and economics. Students were carrying out internships in other countries, mostly on their own initiative but it came to a standstill with the onslaught of World War II. In 1944, the neutral Scandinavian countries were still exchanging students, in Stockholm, Bertil Hedberg, an official at the Stockholm School of Economics, and students Jaroslav Zich, Jean Choplin and Stanislas Callens founded AIESEC. This was the predecessor of AIESEC, which was founded in 1948. At the time, the stated mission was “to expand the understanding of a nation by expanding the understanding of the individuals, changing the world one person at a time. ”At the time of AIESECs founding at the conclusion of the 1940s. Factories and enterprises were in desperate need of executives, managers and leaders, AIESEC was formed to address both of these concerns. Students from seven nations, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway, in the first year of AIESECs existence,89 students were exchanged among the member nations. The organization grew exponentially in the years, with more than 1,000 exchanges took place in 1955 alone. As the organization grew, a governing body was created and led by democratically elected Secretary General. Morris Wolff, from the United States, was chosen as the first Secretary General in 1960, and established the first permanent international office for AIESEC in Geneva, Switzerland. Over the following decade, AIESEC expanded to eastern Asia, Australia, and deeper within Europe, Africa, North America, as of 2015, AIESEC has since expanded to 127 countries and territories across the globe. AIESEC annually offers over 27,500 leadership positions and delivers over 500 leadership conferences to its membership of over 100,000 students, AIESEC is supported by over 8,000 partner organizations. AIESEC provides a platform for students in different universities and colleges and these young individuals can develop their leadership potential by working and leading international teams. Each year members have an opportunity to live and work in a foreign country, participants can choose to work in areas of management, technology, education, or development, helping to build one’s corporate skills. AIESEC hosts over 500 conferences every year that range in length, topics of interest the organization focuses on include, Leadership, Sustainable development, Entrepreneurship, Innovation, Corporate Social Responsibility, and youth impact on modern society. Global Volunteer is an AIESEC program which offers voluntary internships and they are usually short term in nature and involve working on diverse community projects and in different organizations
39.
Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Finland)
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The Ministry for Foreign Affairs is a ministry in the Finnish Government and is responsible for preparing and implementing the governments foreign policy. The ministry in 2017 has a budget of 1.079 billion euros. Upkeep of crisis management troops will cost 50 million euros and civilian personnel 15 million and it employs 1,420 people as well as 980 locally hired personnel and maintains 89 overseas offices housing foreign missions. Since 1987 the ministry has been concentrated in the Katajanokka district of Helsinki, Foreign relations of Finland Minister for Foreign Affairs ThisisFINLAND
40.
Tanzania
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Tanzania /ˌtænzəˈniːə/, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Africas highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. Tanzanias population of 51.82 million is diverse, composed of ethnic, linguistic. Dar es Salaam, the capital, retains most government offices and is the countrys largest city, principal port. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power, from its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2015, the CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly. Prehistoric population migrations include Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. These movements took place at about the time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania, European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction, following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located, three of Africas Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africas largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibars largest marine protected area, over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili, approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a language, many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English
41.
Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations
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The Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations is the deputy to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The office was created to handle many of the administrative responsibilities of the Secretary-General, help manage Secretariat operations, the post was formally established by the General Assembly at the end of 1997. Amina J. Mohammed of Nigeria was named Deputy Secretary-General by then Secretary-General-designate António Guterres, Mohammed assumed the office the same day as Guterres first term, on 1 January 2017. Canadian Louise Fréchette was the first Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations and she was appointed to the post by Secretary-General Kofi Annan and assumed her duties on March 2,1998. In 2005, partly in response to criticism by former U. S. Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker for failed management of the Iraq Oil-for-Food Programme and she remained at her post until March 31,2006. On March 3,2006 it was announced that Mark Malloch Brown from the United Kingdom would succeed Louise Fréchette as Deputy Secretary-General on April 1,2006, Brown left his post concurrent with Kofi Annans departure as Secretary-General on December 31,2006
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South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
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listen), officially Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari;[3] born 23 June 1937) is a Finnish politician, the tenth President of Finland (1994–2000), a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, and a United Nations diplomat and mediator noted for his international peace work.
Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the Cross of Liberty
Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (1994)
Norway: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (1994)
Iceland: He & his wife - Grand Crosses of the Order of the Falcon (26 September 1995)[60]
Estonia: Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana & wife: 1st Class (May 1995)[61]
Sweden: Knight with Collar (1996) of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (1994) and his knight's coat of arms[62]
Italy: Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1997)
Latvia: 1st Class of the Order of the Three Stars
Lithuania: Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (01/1996)[63]
South Africa: Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (1997)[64]
Romania: Sash of the Order of the Star of Romania
Poland: Order of the White Eagle (Poland) (1997)
Spain: Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain)
Hungary: Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary
France: Legion of Honour
Turkey: Order of State of Republic of Turkey (1999)
United Kingdom: Order of Bath
Australia: Order of Australia
Argentina: Order of May
Belgium: Order of Leopold
Brazil: Order of the Southern Cross
Chile: Order Of Merit
United Arab Emirates: Medal of Federation
Greece: Order of the Saviour
Kuwait: Mubarak al-Kabir of Kuwait
Malaysia: Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (1995)[65]
Mexico: Order of Eagle of the Aztecs
USA: Gold Medal of The American-Scandinavian Foundation (2006)[66]
Netherlands: Order of Lion of The Netherlands
Ukraine: Order of Yaroslav the Wise
Indonesia: Bintang Republik Indonesia Utama (Order of Republic of Indonesia, 3rd Class)[67]
Germany: Hessian Peace Prize[70][71]
