1.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
2.
Fresco
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Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
3.
Clerkenwell
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Clerkenwell is an area of central London in the London Borough of Islington. It was an ancient parish and from 1900 to 1965 formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, the well after which it was named was rediscovered in 1924. The watchmaking and watch repairing trades were once of great importance, in the 1850s the south-western part of Clerkenwell was known as Londons Little Italy because around 2,000 Italians had settled in the area. There are officially over 200,000 Italians in London, the Italian Procession of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Sagra takes place each July in the streets surrounding the church. A small number of Italian businesses remain from the century including organ builders Chiappa Ltd. Many other Italian firms survive from the period but have relocated elsewhere, Clerkenwell took its name from the Clerks Well in Farringdon Lane. In the Middle Ages, the London Parish clerks performed annual mystery plays there, Part of the well remains visible, incorporated into a 1980s building called Well Court. It is visible through a window of that building on Farringdon Lane, access to the well is managed by Islington Local History Centre and visits can be arranged by appointment. The Monastic Order of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem had its English headquarters at the Priory of Clerkenwell, St Johns Gate survives in the rebuilt form of the Priory Gate. Its gateway, erected in 1504 in St Johns Square, served various purposes after the Dissolution of the Monasteries, for example, it was the birthplace of the Gentlemans Magazine in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnsons work in connection with that journal. In modern times the gatehouse again became associated with the order and was in the early 20th century the headquarters of the St John Ambulance Association, an Early English crypt remains beneath the chapel of the order, which was otherwise mostly rebuilt in the 1950s after wartime bombing. The notorious deception of the Cock Lane Ghost, in which Johnson took great interest, was perpetrated nearby, the Charterhouse, near the boundary with the City of London, was originally a Carthusian monastery. Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries the Charterhouse became a mansion and one owner, Thomas Sutton, subsequently left it with an endowment as a school. The almhouse remains but the relocated to Surrey and its part of the site is now a campus of Barts and The London School of Medicine. As it was a suburb beyond the confines of the London Wall, Clerkenwell was outside the jurisdiction of the somewhat puritanical City fathers, during the Elizabethan era Clerkenwell contained a notorious brothel quarter. In Shakespeares Henry IV, Part 2, Falstaff complains about Justice Shallow boasting of the wildness of his youth, the Clerkenwell Bridewell, a prison and correctional institute for prostitutes and vagrants, was known for savage punishment and endemic sexual corruption. In the 17th century South Clerkenwell became a place of residence. Oliver Cromwell owned a house on Clerkenwell Close, just off the Green, several aristocrats had houses there, most notably the Duke of Northumberland, as did people such as Erasmus Smith
4.
William Morris
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William Morris was an English textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist. Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, he was a contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain. Born in Walthamstow, Essex, to a wealthy family, Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University. Webb and Morris designed a home, Red House, then in Kent. In 1861, Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Webb, and others, in 1875, Morris assumed total control of the company, which was renamed Morris & Co. Although retaining a main home in London, from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor, greatly influenced by visits to Iceland, with Eiríkr Magnússon he produced a series of English-language translations of Icelandic Sagas. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration, in 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited-edition, illuminated-style print books, a cause to which he devoted his final years. Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain, though best known in his lifetime as a poet, founded in 1955, the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy, while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication. Many of the associated with his life are open to visitors, much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums. Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy family, he was named after his father. His mother was Emma Morris, who came from Woodford Hall in Woodford, Essex and he also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough, Wiltshire and he despised his time there, being bullied, bored, and homesick. He did use the opportunity to many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire, such as Avebury and Silbury Hill. At Christmas 1851, Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House, guy, Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School. In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford Universitys Exeter College, although since the college was full and he disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics
5.
Vladimir Lenin
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Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism, born to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brothers execution in 1887. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empires Tsarist regime and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, after his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications. In 1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split, Lenins government was led by the Bolsheviks—now renamed the Communist Party—with some powers initially also held by elected soviets. It redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry, opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services, tens of thousands were killed and others interned in concentration camps. Anti-Bolshevik armies, established by both right and left-wing groups, were defeated in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin promoted economic growth through a mixed economic system. Seeking to promote world revolution, Lenins government created the Communist International, waged the Polish–Soviet War, in increasingly poor health, Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion. He became a figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement. Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was from a family of serfs, his origins remain unclear, with suggestions being made that he was Russian, Chuvash, Mordvin. Despite this lower-class background he had risen to middle-class status, studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility, Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in mid-1863. Well educated and from a prosperous background, she was the daughter of a German–Swedish woman. Soon after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod, five years after that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the governments plans for modernisation. His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir, the couple had two children, Anna and Alexander, before Lenin—who would gain the childhood nickname of Volodya—was born in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870, and baptised several days later. They were followed by three children, Olga, Dmitry, and Maria. Two later siblings died in infancy, Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity, a view that influenced her children. Every summer they holidayed at a manor in Kokushkino
6.
John Betjeman
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Sir John Betjeman, CBE was an English poet, writer, and broadcaster who described himself in Whos Who as a poet and hack. He was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1972 until his death and he was a founding member of the Victorian Society and a passionate defender of Victorian architecture. He began his career as a journalist and ended it as one of the most popular British Poets Laureate and his parents, Mabel and Ernest Betjemann, had a family firm at 34–42 Pentonville Road which manufactured the kind of ornamental household furniture and gadgets distinctive to Victorians. The family name was changed to the less German-looking Betjeman during the First World War, Betjeman was baptised at St Annes Church, Highgate Rise, a 19th-century church at the foot of Highgate West Hill. The family lived at Parliament Hill Mansions in the Lissenden Gardens private estate in Highgate in north London, in 1909, the Betjemanns moved half a mile north to more opulent Highgate. Betjemans early schooling was at the local Byron House and Highgate School, after this, he boarded at the Dragon School preparatory school in North Oxford and Marlborough College, a public school in Wiltshire. In his penultimate year, he joined the secret Society of Amici in which he was a contemporary of both Louis MacNeice and Graham Shepard and he founded The Heretick, a satirical magazine that lampooned Marlboroughs obsession with sport. While at school, his exposure to the works of Arthur Machen won him over to High Church Anglicanism, Betjeman entered the University of Oxford with difficulty, having failed the mathematics portion of the universitys matriculation exam, Responsions. He was, however, admitted as a commoner at Magdalen College and entered the newly created School of English Language, at Oxford, Betjeman made little use of the academic opportunities. His tutor, a young C. S. Lewis, regarded him as an idle prig and Betjeman in turn considered Lewis unfriendly, demanding, at Oxford he was a friend of Maurice Bowra, later to be Warden of Wadham. Betjeman had a poem published in Isis, the university magazine and his first book of poems was privately printed with the help of fellow student Edward James. Much of this period of his life is recorded in his verse autobiography Summoned by Bells published in 1960. In Hilary term 1928, Betjeman failed Divinity for the second time and he had to leave the university for the Trinity term to prepare for a retake of the exam, he was then allowed to return in October. Betjeman then wrote to the Secretary of the Tutorial Board at Magdalen, lee, asking to be entered for the Pass School, a set of examinations taken on rare occasions by undergraduates who are deemed unlikely to achieve an honours degree. Permission to sit the Pass School was granted, Betjeman famously decided to offer a paper in Welsh. Osbert Lancaster tells the story that a tutor came by train twice a week from Aberystwyth to teach Betjeman, however, Jesus College had a number of Welsh tutors who more probably would have taught him. Betjeman finally had to leave at the end of the Michaelmas term,1928, Betjeman did pass his Divinity examination on his third try but was sent down after failing the Pass School. He had achieved a result in only one of the three required papers
7.
Tom Driberg
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Thomas Edward Neil Driberg, Baron Bradwell was a British journalist, politician and High Anglican churchman who served as a Member of Parliament from 1942 to 1955 and from 1959 to 1974. A member of the British Communist Party for more than 20 years, he was first elected to parliament as an Independent, and joined the Labour Party in 1945. He never held any office, but rose to senior positions within the Labour Party and was a popular. The son of a colonial officer, Driberg was educated at Lancing and Christ Church. After leaving the university without a degree, he attempted to establish himself as a poet before joining the Daily Express as a reporter, later becoming a columnist, in 1933 he began the William Hickey society column, which he continued to write until 1943. He was later a regular columnist for the Co-operative Group newspaper Reynolds News and he wrote several books, including biographies of the press baron Lord Beaverbrook and the Soviet spy Guy Burgess. He retired from the House of Commons in 1974, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Bradwell. He combined this lifestyle with a devotion to Anglo-Catholicism. After his death, allegations were published about his role over many years as an MI5 informant, the extent and nature of Dribergs involvement with these agencies remain uncertain. Driberg was born on 22 May 1905 in Crowborough, a dormitory town about 40 miles south of London. He was the third and youngest of three born to John James Street Driberg, a former officer in the Indian Civil Service. The Driberg family had immigrated from Holland about 200 years previously, John Driberg had retired in 1896 after 35 years in Assam, latterly as head of the states police, and was 65 years old when his youngest son was born. At the age of eight Driberg began as a day-boy at the Grange school in Crowborough and these experiences formed what he called two conflicting compulsions, soon to be joined by a third—left-wing politics—to shape the ruling passions of his life. Under Waughs sponsorship Driberg joined a society, the Dilettanti. He began to write poetry, his education was further assisted by the charismatic J. F. Roxburgh. Lancings Gothic chapel gave Driberg the religious atmosphere he sought, though he found the services disappointingly moderate, by 1920 he was inclining to the political left and was in rebellion against his conservative upbringing. Finding the Labour Party too dull and respectable for his radical tastes, after Driberg had risen to responsible positions within the school, his Lancing career ended suddenly in the autumn of 1923, when two boys complained about his sexual overtures. At the end of the term he was required to leave, back in Crowborough, after several months hard application under the guidance of his tutor, the future Lord Justice Pearson, Driberg won a classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford
8.
Unite the Union
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Unite the Union, commonly known as Unite, is a British and Irish trade union, formed on 1 May 2007, by the merger of Amicus and the Transport and General Workers Union. It is the largest trade union in the UK and Ireland, the General Secretary of Unite is Len McCluskey. Unite retains its identity in the United Kingdom. As part of the process, a Joint Executive Council took office on the vesting day. The rule book was accepted by a majority of members and will not be subject to amendment until a Rules Conference is held. The Unite special Rules Conference in 2010 agreed a rule change including a formula for how seats will be allocated on the UNITE Executive Council which takes office in 2011, there are a number of factions within Unite. Unite Now, A growing active movement established in 2011 which is moderate left It presents itself as an independent movement for lay members, activists, supported Len McCluskey in his first election but they opposed the calling of an early General secretary election in 2013. Unitenow campaigns for greater transparency in the union and are critical of the unions centralised hierarchical decision making structures and they campaign for greater financial transparency, a move away from the current centralised executive powers with a more independent Executive Council which has set term limits. Not aligned to any section of the union it has grown in influence within lay activist ranks, officers. It is widely accepted that they challenge the Unite General Secretary election due to be called in 2017. United Left, the main grouping, which includes supporters of the Labour Party. Supported Len McCluskey in his election, a private presentation given by Unites former joint general secretary Tony Woodley showed that membership of the union had stood at 1.44 million in 2007 but declined by 262,740 between 2007 and 2010. During 2012, despite wider falling trade union membership and the economic climate, Unite increased its membership by more than 50,000 members. Ron Singer, a retired GP of 30 years and Unite member, however, the union were heavily criticised and accused of scaremongering over similar comments. In February 2013, Unite was among other organisations and individuals who gave their support to the Peoples Assembly in a letter published by The Guardian newspaper, former leader Derek Simpson received a payment of over £500,000 when he left his post in 2010. There was a 2008 rooftop hunger strike at Unites Transport House building in Belfast, the participants were formerly shop stewards of the Transport and General Workers Union, now the T&G section of Unite the Union. This election was for a term until December 2010. The Executive council also postponed the adoption of the new rule book and this action was taken in light of the potential success of a legal challenge to Simpsons extension of tenure by a single member of the union
9.
Gray's Inn Road
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Grays Inn Road, formerly Grays Inn Lane, also spelt without the apostrophe, is a major road in central London, in the London Borough of Camden. It is named after Grays Inn, one of the four Inns of Court, the road starts in Holborn, near Chancery Lane tube station and the boundaries of the City of London and the London Borough of Islington. From here it goes north and slightly west, forming the boundary between Clerkenwell to the east and Holborn, Bloomsbury and finally St Pancras to the west. Along its course the road passes the Eastman Dental Hospital and the UCL Eastman Dental Institute, Grays Inn, ITN, ITV and the London Welsh Centre. Near the north end of the road, where it meets Cromer Street and Acton Street, throughout its route the road keeps to the higher ground, above the valley of the River Fleet to the east. In earlier times it was the route from London to Hampstead. The area of Grays Inn Road was clearly populated from palaeolithic times,350, 000-year-old Grays Inn Lane Hand Axe in 1679, one of the important artefacts in the emerging consciousness of human antiquity, now in the British Museum. Given the roads height above the Fleet valley, it may have formed part of an ancient trackway, from at least the 13th century onwards it was in the possession of the Grey family, after whom Grays Inn is named. The name Purtepol Street is recorded in the time of Henry III, in a document of 1299 it is called Street of Pourtepol without London, which is appropriate as it lies only just outside the boundary of the City. In a document of 1468 the road is called Graysynlane, otherwise Portpole Lane, todays Portpool Lane, which leads off Grays Inn Road to the east, is a separate road which is not mentioned prior to 1641. On the Woodcut map of c.1561, Greys ynne la. is shown leading from Holborn Bars to Grays Inn, from where it becomes an unnamed track leading into the country. John Ogilby and William Morgans map of 1676 shows Grayes-Inn Lane which is built up as far as Elm Street. Richard Horwoods map calls the whole stretch from Holborn to modern Kings Cross Grays Inn Lane, the Bourne Estate is a group of well-regarded Edwardian tenement blocks southeast of the junction with Clerkenwell Road
10.
Social Democratic Federation
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The Social Democratic Federation was established as Britains first organised socialist political party by H. M. Hyndman, and had its first meeting on 7 June 1881. Those joining the SDF included William Morris, George Lansbury, James Connolly, however, Friedrich Engels, Karl Marxs long-term collaborator, refused to support Hyndmans venture. Many of its leading members had previously been active in the Manhood Suffrage League. The British Marxist movement effectively began in 1880 when a businessman named Henry M. Hyndman read Karl Marxs magnum opus Capital in French translation while crossing to America, upon his return to London, Hyndman sought out Marx, then an exile living not far from his home. In preparation for the convention, Hyndman circulated among the delegates his book England for All, Marx took great offence and broke off personal relations with his English epigone. The Federation was strongly opposed to the Liberal Party which then claimed to represent the movement in parliament. The party attracted to its banner a number of Britains leading radicals, including William Morris, Edward Aveling and his partner Eleanor Marx, Henry Hyndman dominated the SDF from the beginning. One key to his personal authority lay in his purse, which paid the bulk of its administrative expenses, some in the Federation were unhappy, regarding Hyndman as domineering in personal relations and sectarian in political thinking. Hyndmans detractors considered him politically ambitious and lacking in principle, and their ill will, for more detail, see Socialist League. Hyndman gathered his supporters for his defense, while his opponents, who included William Morris, Belfort Bax, Eleanor Marx. After protracted debate, on 27 December a motion of censure on Hyndman was adopted, after which the majority of the Council, freshly victorious and they considered Hyndman opportunistic and obsessed with parliamentary politics to the detriment of trade union organisation. Hyndman retained the party publications Justice and To-Day and the 500 or so members of the SDF chose sides as one small organisation became two smaller ones, the SDFs foray into electoral politics had proven to be both controversial and wholly ineffective. In the winter of 1885/86 the SDF made its first appreciable advance in the public eye, the SDF agitated for the Right to Work and made demands for the establishment of state-directed co-operative colonies on underutilised lands. The police forced the SDF-led demonstration out of the Square, john Burns led the protesters down Pall Mall en route to Hyde Park bearing a red flag. Along the way the marchers scuffled with jeering onlookers and a riot ensued, with smashed windows, the party claimed a big boost in membership in the aftermath, with its official organ, Justice, selling 4,000 copies of each issue. The next autumn a protest of socialists and radicals was called for Trafalgar Square for 13 November 1887. This body of police and military forces used horses, batons, some 200 demonstrators were taken to the hospital,150 of whom needed surgical treatment. Three hundred demonstrators were arrested and 112 police officers injured and this demonstration and its forcible suppression became known as Bloody Sunday to a generation
11.
Quoin
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Quoins are masonry blocks at the corner of a wall. Stone quoins are used on stone or brick buildings, brick quoins may appear on brick buildings that extrude from the facing brickwork in such a way as to give the appearance of uniformly cut blocks of stone larger than the bricks. Where quoins are used for decoration and not for load-bearing, they may be made from a variety of materials beyond brick, stone or concrete, extending to timber. This forms a long-side, short-side alternate pattern, which by using the same size blocks alternates when the viewer passes the corner and this can be called the alternate, horizontal quoining technique. The long and short quoining method instead places long stone blocks with their lengths oriented vertically and this load bearing quoining is common in Anglo-Saxon buildings such as that of St Benets Church in Cambridge, England
12.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
