1.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
2.
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
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Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 are a series of notes written between April and August 1844 by Karl Marx. Not published by Marx during his lifetime, they were first released in 1927 by researchers in the Soviet Union, the notebooks are an early expression of Marxs analysis of economics, chiefly Adam Smith, and critique of the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel. The notebooks cover a range of topics including private property, communism. They are best known for their expression of Marxs argument that the conditions of modern industrial societies result in the estrangement of wage-workers from their own life activity/work. The young Marx had been ignored until recently, because his early works were considered more philosophical and by some as not scientific enough. However, Marxist humanists regard this book as one of the most important texts by Marx and crucial for understanding his entire thought, and Marxians also refer to it. In the first manuscript in which there are extensive quotes on economics from Adam Smith, Marx exposes his theory of alienation and he explains how, under capitalism, more and more people rely on labour to live. That is, before people could rely in part on Nature itself for its needs, in modern society, if one wants to eat, one must work. He thereby owes it the possibility to exist first as a worker, in other words, the worker relies on labour to gain money to be able to live, but he doesnt live, he only survives, as a worker. Labour is only used to more wealth, instead of achieving the fulfillment of human nature. ‘Excerpt notes of 1844’ also called the ‘Paris manuscripts’ are known as some of Karl Marx’s earliest writings on philosophy plus economics, however, they were only published in the 1930s after the Soviet Revolution of 1917 had already taken place. Money was invented only to overcome difficulties exchanging goods, since it was, hence money, as the empiricist John Stuart Mill says, is just the medium of exchange to be more flexible. For Marx, the problem with money consists of the fact that from being a substitute money becomes a good and it does not represent the value of a certain or several goods, instead, the value of those goods is represented by a certain amount of money. Therefore, due to its flexibility, money could purchase everything, as did Aristotle, Marx argues that the market system does not serve a mere desire of exchange, but the aim of profit. To gain profits, money is to be invested and thereby becomes capital resulting in capitalism, Marx defines capital as “accumulated labour”. The fetishism of money is born, men are evaluated in terms of their materialistic creditability. This also becomes an economic judgement of their morality, the consequence is that human individuality and morality becomes a vehicle for money. The main objective of men moves towards earning as much money as possible and this enhances the formation and size of gaps between the capitalist and the labourer, and gives power to those who are wealthy
3.
Theses on Feuerbach
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The Theses on Feuerbach are eleven short philosophical notes written by Karl Marx as a basic outline for the first chapter of the book The German Ideology in 1845. Like the book for which they were written, the theses were never published in Marxs lifetime, the document is best remembered for the epigrammatic 11th thesis and final line, Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it. In February 1845 Karl Marx was deported from France at the behest of minister of foreign affairs François Guizot, Marx found sanctuary in Brussels, where he was joined for a number of months by his political compatriot Frederick Engels beginning in April of that same year. Marx began work upon a book detailing his new philosophy of history and these theses were initially written as a raw outline for the first chapter of The German Ideology, and most of these were developed at greater length in that work. The Theses identify political action as the truth of philosophy, famously concluding, Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways. While the text wishes to retain the stance of German critical idealism. Despite their best efforts to find a publisher, The German Ideology was not published during the lifetime of either Karl Marx or Frederick Engels. The polemical work was published in full only in 1932 by the Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party in Moscow. Nor did Marx publish the Theses on Feuerbach during his lifetime and this material was instead later edited by Friedrich Engels and published in February 1888 as a supplement to his pamphlet Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy. Marxs original unedited text was published only in 1924 in German and Russian translation as part of Marx-Engels Archives, Book I, the Eleventh Thesis is engraved in the entryway of Humboldt University on Unter den Linden in Berlin. The Socialist Unity Party of Germany ordered this in 1953 as part of reconstruction following World War II. The Eleventh Thesis is also Marxs epitaph, engraved on his tombstone in Highgate Cemetery in London, along with the line of the Communist Manifesto, Workers of All Lands
4.
The German Ideology
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The German Ideology is a set of manuscripts written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels around April or early May 1846. Marx and Engels did not find a publisher, but the work was retrieved and published for the first time in 1932 by David Riazanov through the Marx-Engels Institute in Moscow. The multi-part book consists of many satirically written polemics against Bruno Bauer, other Young Hegelians, part I, however, is a work of exposition giving the appearance of being the work for which the Theses on Feuerbach served as an outline. The work is a restatement of the theory of history Marx was beginning to call the materialist conception of history, the text itself was written by Marx and Engels in Brussels in 1845 and 1846 but it was not published until 1932. The Preface and some of the alterations and additions are in Marxs hand, the bulk of the manuscript is in Engels hand, except for Chapter V of Volume II and some passages of Chapter III of Volume I which are in Joseph Weydemeyers hand. Chapter V in Volume II was written by Moses Hess and edited by Marx, the text in German runs to around 700 pages. The nature of individuals depends on the conditions determining their production. How far the productive forces of a nation are developed is shown by the degree to which the division of labor has been carried, also, there is a direct link between division of labor and forms of ownership. The ruling class, in ruling the material force of society, is simultaneously the ruling force of society. They regulate the production and distribution of ideas of their age, as the ruling class changes with time, so too do the ideals and the new ruling class must instill upon its society its own ideas which will become universal. The ruling ideas are thought to be the universal interest, however, it is an illusion that the ideas of the ruling class are the communal interests. This system will remain in place so long as society is organized around the need for a ruling class. To illustrate this theoretical framework, Marx draws on his formulation of base, historical development is the reflection of changes in the economic and material relations of the base. When the base changes, a revolutionary class becomes the new ruling class that forms the superstructure, during revolution, the revolutionary class makes certain that its ideas appeal to humanity in general so that after a successful revolution these ideas appear natural and universal. These ideas, which the elements of society propagate, then become the governing ideology of the historical period. Furthermore, the governing ideology mystifies the economic relations of society and this approach allows us to cease understanding history as a collection of dead facts or an imagined activity of subjects
5.
The Communist Manifesto
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The Communist Manifesto is an 1848 political pamphlet by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It presents an approach to the class struggle and the problems of capitalism. It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, the Communist Manifesto is divided into a preamble and four sections, the last of these a short conclusion. The introduction begins by proclaiming A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of communism, All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre. Subsequently, the introduction exhorts Communists to openly publish their views and aims, the first section of the Manifesto, Bourgeois and Proletarians, elucidates the materialist conception of history, that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Societies have always taken the form of a majority living under the thumb of an oppressive minority. In capitalism, the working class, or proletariat, engage in class struggle against the owners of the means of production. As before, this struggle will end in a revolution that restructures society, the bourgeoisie constantly exploits the proletariat for its labour power, creating profit for themselves and accumulating capital. Proletarians and Communists, the section, starts by stating the relationship of conscious communists to the rest of the working class. While the degree of reproach toward rival perspectives varies, all are dismissed for advocating reformism and it ends by declaring an alliance with the social democrats, boldly supporting other communist revolutions, and calling for united international proletarian action—Working Men of All Countries, Unite. In spring 1847 Marx and Engels joined the League of the Just, at its First Congress in 2–9 June, the League tasked Engels with drafting a profession of faith, but such a document was later deemed inappropriate for an open, non-confrontational organisation. Engels nevertheless wrote the Draft of the Communist Confession of Faith, a few months later, in October, Engels arrived at the Leagues Paris branch to find that Moses Hess had written an inadequate manifesto for the group, now called the League of Communists. In Hesss absence, Engels severely criticised this manifesto, and convinced the rest of the League to entrust him with drafting a new one and this became the draft Principles of Communism, described as less of a credo and more of an exam paper. On the 28th, Marx and Engels met at Ostend in Belgium, the League thus unanimously adopted a far more combative resolution than that at the First Congress in June. Marx and Engels were subsequently commissioned to draw up a manifesto for the League, upon returning to Brussels, Marx engaged in ceaseless procrastination, according to his biographer Francis Wheen. Following this, he spent a week in Ghent to establish a branch of the Democratic Association there. This imposition spurred Marx on, who struggled to work without a deadline, in all, the Manifesto was written over 6–7 weeks. Although Engels is credited as co-writer, the draft was penned exclusively by Marx
6.
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon
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Later English editions, such as an 1869 Hamburg edition, were entitled The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. The essay discusses the French coup of 1851 in which Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte assumed dictatorial powers and it shows Marx in his form as a social and political historian, treating actual historical events from the viewpoint of his materialist conception of history. Along with Marxs contemporary writings on English politics, the Eighteenth Brumaire is a source for understanding Marxs theory of the capitalist state. The title refers to the Coup of 18 Brumaire in which Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in revolutionary France, the traditions of all the dead generations burden, like a nightmare, the minds of the living. Marxs interpretation of Louis Bonapartes rise and rule is of interest to scholars studying the nature. Many Marxist scholars regard the coup as a forerunner of the phenomenon of 20th-century fascism and he forgot to add, the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce. Caussidière for Danton, Louis Blanc for Robespierre, the Montagne of 1848 to 1851 for the Montagne of 1793 to 1795, and the same caricature occurs in the circumstances of the second edition of the Eighteenth Brumaire. Marxs sentiment echoed an observation made by Friedrich Engels at exactly the same time Marx began work on this book, in a letter to Marx of 3 December 1851, Engels wrote from Manchester. Thus the 18th Brumaire would already be upon us, yet this motif appeared even earlier, in Marxs 1837 unpublished novel Scorpion and Felix, this time with a comparison between the first Napoleon and King Louis Philippe, Every giant. Presupposes a dwarf, every genius a hidebound philistine, the first are too great for this world, and so they are thrown out. But the latter strike root in it and remain, caesar the hero leaves behind him the play-acting Octavianus, Emperor Napoleon the bourgeois king Louis Philippe. Marxist philosophy Historical materialism The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon Preface to the Second Edition The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, Charles H. Kerr, the Eighteenth Brumaire Of Louis Bonaparte, International Publishers, New York City,1963
7.
Grundrisse
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The Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie is a lengthy, unfinished manuscript by the German philosopher Karl Marx. Left aside by Marx in 1858, it remained unpublished until 1939, the Grundrisse is very wide-ranging in subject matter and covers all six sections of Marxs economics. It is often described as the draft of Das Kapital. Due to its breadth and its incorporation of themes from Marxs earlier writings, the Grundrisse is central to Marxs body of work. Towards the end of his life, Marx, according to Nicolaus, viewed the latter “with a scepticism bordering on rejection. ”The Grundrisse, on the hand, was one of the few texts which Marx spoke of “with a tone of achievement. French philosopher Louis Althusser believed that Marxs thought had been misunderstood, Althusser believed these errors to result from the notion that Marxs entire body of work forms a coherent whole. Althusser proffered a radical break in Marxs thought, which can be seen by comparing the unpublished Grundrisse. The Grundrisse became available in different languages over a period of time, the translation of the Grundrisse into English in 1973 had a profound effect on the then-emerging field of cultural studies. These seminars culminated in the publication of a paper titled “Marx’s Notes on Method. The Economics of Marx’s Grundrisse, an Annotated Summary, new York, St. Martins Press,1989. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx,1843 to Capital, new York, Monthly Review Press,1970. Marx Beyond Marx, Lessons on the Grundrisse, time, Labor, and Social Domination, A Reinterpretation of Marxs Critical Theory. Terrell Carber, ed. London, Routledge,2015, complete text, Marxists Internet Archive, www. marxists. org/
8.
Capital: Critique of Political Economy
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Capital, Critique of Political Economy by Karl Marx is a foundational theoretical text in communist philosophy, economics and politics. In Capital, Critique of Political Economy, Marx proposes that the force of capitalism is in the exploitation of labour. The owner of the means of production is able to claim the right to this value because he or she is legally protected by the ruling regime. In producing capital, the workers continually reproduce the conditions by which they labour. The critique of the economy of capitalism proposes that, Wage-labour is the basic cell-form of a capitalist society. After two decades of study and preparatory work the first volume appeared in 1867, The production process of capital. These three volumes are known as Das Kapital. The first of three volumes of Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Ökonomie was published on 14 September 1867, dedicated to Wilhelm Wolff, and was the sole volume published in Marx’s lifetime. Capital, Volume II, subtitled The Process of Circulation of Capital, was prepared by Friedrich Engels from notes left by Karl Marx and published in 1885. It is divided into three parts, The Metamorphoses of Capital and Their Circuits, The Turnover of Capital, in Volume II, the main ideas behind the marketplace are to be found, how value and surplus-value are realized. Its dramatis personae, not so much the worker and the industrialist, but rather the money owner, the merchant, the trader. Moreover, workers appear in Volume II, essentially as buyers of goods and, therefore. Reading Volume II is of significance to understanding the theoretical construction of Marxs whole argument. Marx himself quite precisely clarified this place, in a letter sent to Engels on 30 April 1868, In Book 1. But now we investigate the conditions under which elements are found at hand, namely the social intertwining of the different capitals, of the component parts of capital. Volume II of Capital has indeed been not only a sealed book, to a large extent, it remains so to this very day. Part 3 is the point of departure for a topic given its Marxist treatment later in detail by, among others, Rosa Luxemburg. Capital, Volume III, subtitled The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole, was prepared by Friedrich Engels from notes left by Karl Marx, transformation of Surplus-Profit into Ground Rent
