1.
Sanremo
–
Sanremo or San Remo is a city on the Mediterranean coast of western Liguria in north-western Italy. Founded in Roman times, it has a population of 57,000 and it hosts numerous cultural events, such as the Sanremo Music Festival and the Milan–San Remo cycling classic. The name of the city is a contraction of SantEremo di San Romolo, which refers to Romulus of Genoa. It is often stated in modern folk stories that Sanremo is a translation of Saint Remus, in Ligurian, his name is San Rœmu. The spelling San Remo is on all ancient maps of Liguria, the ancient Republic of Genoa, Italy in the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and it was used in 1924 in official documents under Mussolini. This form of the name appears still on road signs and, more rarely. It has been the most widely used form of the name in English at least since the 19th century, once the Roman settlement of Matutia or Villa Matutiana, Sanremo expanded in the Early Middle Ages when the population moved to the high grounds. The nobility built a castle and the village of La Pigna to protect the town from Saracen raids. At first subjected to the countship of Ventimiglia, the community later passed under the dominion of the Genoese bishops, in 1297 they sold it to the Doria and De Mari families. It became a town in the second half of the 15th century, after which it expanded to the Pigna hill. The almost perfectly preserved old village remains, Sanremo remained independent from Genoese Republic. In 1753, after 20 years of conflicts, it rose against Genoese hegemonical attempts. At that time the latter polity built the fortress of Santa Tecla, the fortress was used as a prison until 2002. It is now being transformed into a museum, after the French domination and the Savoy restoration in 1814, Sanremo was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. From the middle of the 18th century the town grew rapidly, in due to the development of tourism, which saw the first grand hotels built. The Empress Sissi of Austria, Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the most notable of these was the British Mandate of Palestine. Sanremo is the home of International Institute of Humanitarian Law, the most notable institute in courses about refugees, sanremos Mediterranean climate and attractive seacoast setting on the Italian Riviera make it a popular tourist destination. Besides tourism, the city is active in the production of extra virgin-grade olive oil and it is one of the agricultural commodities in western Liguria and in particular within the province of Imperia
2.
University of Oxford
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
3.
Purity and Danger
–
Purity and Danger, An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo is a 1966 book by the anthropologist and cultural theorist Mary Douglas. It is her best known work, in 1991 the Times Literary Supplement listed it as one of the hundred most influential non-fiction books published since 1945. It has gone through numerous reprints and re-editions, in 2003 a further edition was brought out as volume 2 in Mary Douglas, Collected Works. The line of inquiry in Purity and Danger traces the words, what is regarded as dirt in a given society is any matter considered out of place. She attempted to clarify the differences between the sacred, the clean and the unclean in different societies and times, but this does not entail judging religions as pessimistic or optimistic in their understanding of purity or dirt—e. g. as dirt-affirming or otherwise. Through a complex and sophisticated reading of ritual, religion, and lifestyle, Douglas challenged Western ideas of pollution, making clear how the context, instead, Douglas argued that the laws were about symbolic boundary-maintenance. Prohibited foods were those that did not seem to fall neatly into any category, for example, pigs place in the natural order was ambiguous because they shared the cloven hoof of the ungulates, but did not chew cud. Later in a 2002 preface to Purity and Danger, Douglas went on to retract this explanation of the kosher rules, instead, she proposed that the dietary laws intricately model the body and the altar upon one another. For instance, among land animals, Israelites were only allowed to eat animals that were allowed to be sacrificed. Douglas concluded from this that animals that are abominable to eat are not in fact impure and she claimed that later interpreters had misunderstood this. In Powers of Horror, where Julia Kristeva elaborates her theory of abjection, she recognizes the influence of Douglas’s “fundamental work, edwin Ardener in Man, New Series,2,1, p.139. Melford Spiro in American Anthropologist, New Series,70,2, william McCormack in Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,6,2, pp. 313–314. Tamney in Sociological Analysis,28,1, pp. 56–57, phillip R. Kunz in Review of Religious Research,10,2, pp. 114–115. Albert James Bergesen, review essay in American Journal of Sociology,83,4, P. H. Gulliver in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 30,2, Fiftieth Anniversary Volume, pp. 462–464. Sacred contagion Richard Fardon, Mary Douglas, An Intellectual Biography,2002 edition on google books Leonore Davidoff, Speaking Volumes, Purity and Danger, Times Higher Education Supplement 19 May 1995
4.
Natural Symbols
–
Natural Symbols, Explorations in Cosmology is an influential book by the British cultural anthropologist Mary Douglas. Further editions were published in 1973,1982,1996,2003 and it was also published in 2003 as volume 3 in Mary Douglas, Collected Works. The group–grid pattern was later to be refined and redeployed in laying the foundations of the theory of risk. Albert James Bergesen, Rituals, Symbols, and Society, Explicating the Mechanisms of the Moral Order, richard Fardon, Mary Douglas, An Intellectual Biography, ch.5
5.
British Academy
–
The British Academy is the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. It receives a grant from the Department for Business, Innovation. In 2014/15 the British Academys total income was £33,100,000, including £27,000,000 from BIS. £32,900,000 was distributed during the year in grants, awards. The British Academy was established in 1902 and received its Royal Charter in the same year and it is now a fellowship of more than 900 leading scholars spanning all disciplines across the humanities and social sciences. The Academy is a self-governing and independent registered charity, based at 10–11 Carlton House Terrace in London, as a learned society, it seeks to foster and promote the full range of work that makes up the humanities and social sciences, including inter- and multi-disciplinary work. Until 1927–28 the Academy had no premises, then it moved to some rooms in No.6 Burlington Gardens. In 1968 it moved the short distance to Burlington House and it subsequently moved to headquarters near Regents Park. Then in 1998 the Academy moved to its present headquarters in Carlton House Terrace, overlooking St Jamess Park, the Terrace was designed by John Nash and built in the 1820s and 1830s. Number 10 was formerly the London residence of the Ridley family, in March 2010, the Academy embarked on a £2. 75m project to renovate and restore the public rooms in No. 11, following the departure of former tenant the Foreign Press Association, the work was completed in January 2011 and the new spaces include a new 150-seat Wolfson Auditorium are available for public hire. The history, problems and achievements of the Academy have been recorded in works by two of its Secretaries, Sir Frederic Kenyon’s volume of 37 pages covers the years up to 1951, Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s volume covers the years 1949 to 1968. Election as a Fellow of the British Academy recognises high scholarly distinction in the humanities or social sciences, fellows may use the letters FBA after their names. The British Academy channels substantial public funding support for individuals and organisations pursuing humanities and social sciences research and scholarship in the UK. In 2014/15, the Academy received around £30m to support research and researchers across the humanities, funds available to the Academy were invested in the following main areas, research career development, a portfolio of research grant opportunities, and international engagement. The demand and quality of applications submitted for Academy funding remains high and this year the Academy received around 3,600 applications and made 588 awards to scholars based in around 100 different universities across the UK – a success rate of 16%. The Academy also funds and coordinates a network of overseas institutes which provide local expertise, logistical support, as the UKs national voice for the humanities and social sciences, the British Academy seeks to promote and protect the interests and health of these disciplines and their research base. The Centre was established in October 2009 initially funded by the Economic and Social Research Council and it oversees a programme of activity engaging the expertise within the humanities and social sciences to shed light on policy issues. It produces substantive reports making recommendations on policy and practice
6.
CBE
–
There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not Head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
7.
Order of the British Empire
–
There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
8.
Social anthropology
–
In the USA, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology. Differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue, Social and cultural anthropologists, and some who integrate the two, are found in most institutes of anthropology. Thus the formal names of institutional units no longer necessarily reflect fully the content of the disciplines these cover, most retain the name under which they were founded. It is differentiated from sociology, both in its methods, and in its commitment to the relevance and illumination provided by micro studies. It extends beyond strictly social phenomena to culture, art, individuality, many social anthropologists use quantitative methods, too, particularly those whose research touches on topics such as local economies, demography, human ecology, cognition, or health and illness. The subject has been enlivened by, and has contributed to, approaches from other disciplines, such as philosophy, the history of science, psychoanalysis, the subject has both ethical and reflexive dimensions. An example of this is the effect, whereby those being studied may alter their behaviour in response to the knowledge that they are being watched and studied. Social anthropology has historical roots in a number of 19th-century disciplines, including ethnology, folklore studies, thus, savages from the colonies were displayed, often nudes, in cages, in what has been called human zoos. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology, at the time, the field was dominated by the comparative method. It was assumed that all societies passed through an evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were seen as evolutionary living fossils that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful and it was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced Polynesian migrations across the Pacific Ocean for instance - although some of them believed it originated in Egypt. Finally, the concept of race was actively discussed as a way to classify -, Tylor and James George Frazer are generally considered the antecedents to modern social anthropology in Britain. Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of uniformity of mankind, Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements. The Golden Bough was abridged drastically in subsequent editions after his first, the findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description. As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, theoretically, he advocated a functionalist interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs
9.
Comparative religion
–
Comparative religion is the branch of the study of religions concerned with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices of the worlds religions. In general the comparative study of religion yields a deeper understanding of the fundamental concerns of religion such as ethics, metaphysics. Studying such material is meant to give one a richer and more sophisticated understanding of human beliefs and practices regarding the sacred, numinous, spiritual, other religions that fit this description are sometimes included but are often omitted. The original belief in the One God of Abraham eventually became strictly monotheistic present-day Rabbinic Judaism, christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and continuation of the Jewish Old Testament. Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament prophecy and this signaled a break with Islam and started a new religious system, that also represents the predecessor of the Baháí Faith. Christianity and Judaism are two other Abrahamic religions that diverge in theology and practice, the historical interaction of Islam and Judaism started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam. There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism, and as Islam developed, it became the major religion closest to Judaism. There are many traditions within Islam originating from traditions within the Hebrew Bible or from post-biblical Jewish traditions and these practices are known collectively as the Israiliyat. The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam, Islam accepts many aspects of Christianity as part of its faith - with some differences in interpretation - and rejects other aspects. Islam believes the Quran is the revelation from God and a completion of all previous revelations. Several important religions and religious movements originated in Greater Iran, that is and they include Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, Ætsæg Din, Yazdanism, Ahl-e Haqq, Zurvanism, Mandaeism, Manichaeism, and Mazdakism. Indian religions refers to a number of religions that have originated on the Indian subcontinent and they encompass Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Buddhism and modern Hinduism are both post-Vedic religions, gautama Buddha is mentioned as an Avatar of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. Prominent Hindu reformers such as Gandhi and Vivekananda acknowledge Buddhist influence, Gandhi, like Hindus, did not believe Buddha established a non-Hindu tradition. He writes, I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism, a Taoic religion is a religion, or religious philosophy, that focuses on the East Asian concept of Tao. This forms a group of religions including Taoism, Confucianism, Jeung San Do, Shinto, I-Kuan Tao, Chondogyo. In large parts of East Asia, Buddhism has taken on some taoic features, Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. It is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered and is associated with nature, the flow of Chi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao
10.
University College London
–
University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
11.
Russell Sage Foundation
–
The Russell Sage Foundation is an American philanthropic foundation that primarily funds research relating to income inequality. Located in New York City, it is a research center, the foundation also publishes, under its own imprint, the books that derive from the work of its grantees and visiting scholars. The foundation focuses on labor markets, immigration and ethnicity, and social inequality in the United States and her will added a $5 million bequest in 1917. The Foundation was also responsible for reforms in health care, city planning, consumer credit, labor law, the training of nurses. In 1907, the foundation funded the Pittsburgh Survey, the first systematic effort to survey working class conditions in a large U. S. city, considered a major Progressive Era achievement, the findings inspired labor reforms and helped end twelve-hour days and seven-day weeks for steel workers. Between 1909 and 1922, the Foundation spent nearly a sixth of its capital to build Forest Hills Gardens, the aim was to demonstrate the economic and social viability of an intelligently planned suburban community. The first lots sold for $800, and a new suburb began thriving by 1917, in 1922, the Foundation helped launch the Regional Plan Association to research, write and publish a plan to guide the future development of the New York metropolitan region. In its first 40 years, the Foundation spent more than $1 million on the Regional Survey, researchers completed 12 massive volumes as part of the effort, with the first being published in 1928-29. The Foundation also provided support for social feminists such as Mary van Kleeck, since World War II, the Foundation has devoted its efforts to strengthening the social sciences as a means of achieving more informed and rational social policy. It launched a variety of programs to draw the social sciences closer to decision-makers in other professions and this initiative included funds for research on social indicators, a collection of data that measure the quality of life. In the 1950s, the Foundation supported research on the practice and it established the Foundation Center, a non-profit that maintains data on organized philanthropy. It was also the first to publish The Foundation Directory, a listing of the nation’s several thousand largest foundations. During this decade, the foundation also received money from the Ford Foundation for the utilization of the behavioral sciences. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Foundation turned to ethics, including patients rights, extreme measures to sustain life. Foundation-supported books from this period include Bernard Barber’s Drugs and Society, the Foundation was an early force in the development of behavioral economics, launching the Behavioral Economics program in 1986 with the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Books on behavioral economics published by Russell Sage include Quasi Rational Economics, three charter members of the Roundtable subsequently received the Noble Prize in economics, George Akerlof, Daniel Kahneman, and Thomas Schelling. The Foundation launched new programs to study immigration, the rise of economic inequality, between 1992 and 2000, the Foundation worked with the Ford Foundation to conduct a Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. In 2000, the Foundation partnered with the Population Reference Bureau to produce The American People, Census 2000, edited by Reynolds Farley of the University of Michigan and John Haaga of PRB
12.
Northwestern University
–
Composed of twelve schools and colleges, Northwestern offers 124 undergraduate degrees and 145 graduate and professional degrees. Northwestern was founded in 1851 by John Evans, for whom the City of Evanston is named and its founding purpose was to serve the Northwest Territory, an area that today includes the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota. Instruction began in 1855, women were admitted in 1869, today, the main campus is a 240-acre parcel in Evanston, along the shores of Lake Michigan 12 miles north of downtown Chicago. The universitys law, medical, and professional schools are located on a 25-acre campus in Chicagos Streeterville neighborhood, in 2008, the university opened a campus in Education City, Doha, Qatar with programs in journalism and communication. In 2016, Northwestern opened its San Francisco space at 44 Montgomery St. which hosts journalism, engineering, Northwestern is a large research university with a comprehensive doctoral program and it attracts over $650 million in sponsored research each year. Northwestern has the tenth largest university endowment in the United States, in 2017, the university accepted 9. 0% of undergraduate applicants from a pool of 37,255. Northwestern is a member of the Big Ten Conference and remains the only private university in the conference. The Northwestern Wildcats compete in 19 intercollegiate sports in the NCAAs Division I Big Ten Conference, on January 28,1851, the Illinois General Assembly granted a charter to the Trustees of the North-Western University, making it the first chartered university in Illinois. The schools nine founders, all of whom were Methodists, knelt in prayer, John Evans, for whom Evanston is named, bought 379 acres of land along Lake Michigan in 1853, and Philo Judson developed plans for what would become the city of Evanston, Illinois. The first building, Old College, opened on November 5,1855, to raise funds for its construction, Northwestern sold $100 perpetual scholarships entitling the purchaser and his heirs to free tuition. Willard Residential College is named in her honor, Northwestern admitted its first women students in 1869, and the first woman was graduated in 1874. Northwestern fielded its first intercollegiate football team in 1882, later becoming a member of the Big Ten Conference. In the 1870s and 1880s, Northwestern affiliated itself with already existing schools of law, medicine, Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law is the oldest law school in Chicago. The Association of American Universities invited Northwestern to become a member in 1917, in 1933, a proposal to merge Northwestern with the University of Chicago was considered but rejected. Northwestern was also one of the first six universities in the country to establish a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps in the 1920s, after the golden years of the 1920s, the Great Depression in the United States hit Northwestern hard. Its annual income dropped 25 percent from $4.8 million in 1930-31 to $3.6 million in 1933-34. Investment income shrank, fewer parents could pay full tuition, and annual giving from alumni, the university responded with two salary cuts of 10 percent each for all employees. It imposed a freeze, a building freeze, and slashed appropriations for maintenance, books
13.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
14.
E. E. Evans-Pritchard
–
Sir Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, known as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, was an English anthropologist who was instrumental in the development of social anthropology. He was Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Oxford from 1946 to 1970. Evans-Pritchard was educated at Winchester College and studied history at Exeter College, Oxford, where he was influenced by R. R. Marett, there he came under the influence of Bronisław Malinowski and especially Charles Gabriel Seligman, the founding ethnographer of the Sudan. His first fieldwork began in 1926 with the Azande, a people of the upper Nile, Evans-Pritchard continued to lecture at the LSE and conduct research in Azande and Bongo land until 1930, when he began a new research project among the Nuer. This work coincided with his appointment to the University of Cairo in 1932, after his return to Oxford, he continued his research on Nuer. It was during this period that he first met Meyer Fortes, Evans-Pritchard began developing Radcliffe-Browns program of structural-functionalism. As a result, his trilogy of works on the Nuer, evans-Pritchards empirical work in this vein became well-known through philosophy of science and rationality debates of the 1960s and 1970s involving Thomas Kuhn and especially Paul Feyerabend. During the Second World War Evans-Pritchard served in Ethiopia, Libya, Sudan, in Sudan he raised irregular troops among the Anuak to harass the Italians and engaged in guerrilla warfare. In 1942 he was posted to the British Military Administration of Cyrenaica in North Africa, in documenting local resistance to Italian conquest, he became one of a few English-language authors to write about the tariqa. After a brief stint in Cambridge, Evans-Pritchard became professor of anthropology at the University of Oxford. He remained at All Souls College for the rest of his career, one of his students was Talal Asad, who now teaches at the City University of New York. Evans-Pritchards later work was more theoretical, drawing upon his experiences as anthropologist to philosophize on the nature of anthropology, in 1950 he famously disavowed the commonly held view that anthropology was a natural science, arguing instead that it should be grouped amongst the humanities, especially history. In 1965, he published the influential work Theories of Primitive Religion. Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard was born in Crowborough, East Sussex, England and he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1944. Known to his friends and family as EP, Evans-Pritchard had five children with his wife Ioma and his youngest son, Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, is an investigative reporter for the London Daily Telegraph and author of The Secret Life of Bill Clinton. His younger daughter, Deirdre Evans-Pritchard, PhD, is an expert on folklore and she is a recipient of the Fulbright Fellowship. His eldest daughter, Shineen Evans-Pritchard, is a businesswoman and he also had two other children, twins, Nicky Evans-Pritchard, who works in computers, and John Evans-Pritchard, an economics teacher and author of several books. Evans-Pritchard died in Oxford on 11 September 1973, in 1972, a Festschrift was prepared for him, entitled Essays in Sudan ethnography, presented to Sir Edward Evans-Pritchard
15.
Steve Rayner
–
Steve Rayner is James Martin Professor of Science and Civilization at Oxford University and Director of the Institute for Science, Innovation and Society, a member of the Oxford Martin School. He describes himself as a social scientist having been trained in philosophy, comparative religion. A key research interest is climate policy, in particular adaptation and he is also interested in wicked problems, uncomfortable knowledge and clumsy solutions. He is currently principal investigator of the Oxford Programme for the Future of Cities, having spent much of his research career outside of academia, he also professes a commitment to changing the world through social science. His doctoral research applied and developed Douglas’s Cultural Theory studying the dynamics of British far-left groups in the mid-20th century. Subsequent work has explored the role of culture in the perception and management of environmental, technological. Rayner has authored or co-authored over 175 published works, including nine books, rayner’s recent work addresses problematic issues in the relationship between science and governance as well as the governance of science. He has expressed concerns about attempts to resolve clashes in values either through appeals to science on the one hand or through public participation on the other. He also held appointments as Professor of Sociology and as the Chief Social Scientist at the International Research Institute for Climate Prediction. Before Columbia University, he held the rank of Chief Scientist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, located in the Washington DC office, he led the Global Change Research Group from 1991 to 1996. Previously, he was Deputy Director of the Global Environmental Studies Center at Oak Ridge National Laboratory where he was responsible for research in Policy, Energy and Human Systems. Throughout this period he held visiting or adjunct appointments at Cornell University, Virginia Tech, Boston University. Rayner is a Professorial Fellow of Keble College and Honorary Professor of Climate Change and he is also a Senior Fellow of The Breakthrough Institute, a non-partisan environmental think-tank based in Californiaa Bay Area. He is a Member of the Lead Experts Group of the UK Governments Foresight Programme on the Future of Cities. He served as a member of the IPCC for the Second, Third and Fourth Assessment Reports, between 2002 and 2008 he also directed the ESRCs £5.2 million Science in Society Programme. He is a Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Royal Society of Arts, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the Society for Applied Anthropology. His work has covered by the New York Times, BBC, Economist, New Scientist, Guardian, Nature, Sky News, Globe and Mail. Criticism of the Kyoto Protocol Adaptation Climate engineering Wicked problems Steve Rayner at the Institute for Science, Innovation and Society
16.
Peter Brown (historian)
–
Peter Robert Lamont Brown, FBA, is Rollins Professor of History Emeritus at Princeton University. He is credited with having brought coherence to the field of Late Antiquity and his work has concerned, in particular, the religious culture of the later Roman Empire and early medieval Europe, and the relation between religion and society. Peter Brown was born in Dublin, Ireland, to a Scots-Irish Protestant family, when asked to comment on his intellectual formation, Brown has indicated that he completed his public schooling a year early, returning to Ireland in 1952, the year he turned 17. It was then in Dublin that he read Mikhail Rostovtzeffs The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire and he went on to read Modern History at New College, Oxford, from 1953 to 1956. In his final year, he undertook a Special Subject on The Age of Augustine. Following his graduation Brown began, but did not complete, a thesis under the external supervision of Arnaldo Momigliano. At a time when it was possible to remain in the College after the Prize Fellowship, All Souls College subsequently elected him a Research Fellow in 1963. The Modern History Faculty of the University of Oxford appointed him a Special Lecturer in 1970 and he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1971. Brown left Oxford to become Professor of Modern History and Head of the Department of History at Royal Holloway College in the University of London. He subsequently left Britain to become Professor of Classics and History in the University of California at Berkeley and then Philip and Beulah Rollins Professor of History at Princeton University. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1979, a Fellow of the Medieval Academy of America in 1988, and a Resident Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1995. Before joining the faculty at UC Berkeley and Princeton, Brown held visiting professorships at both institutions, at UC Berkeley in 1975, and at Princeton in 1983-6. He has also held visiting professorships at UCLA and in Italy, other engagements as a visiting teacher have taken Brown to Toronto in the 1970s and, since 2000, to Hungary and Iceland. At Princeton, Brown was given the Presidents Award for Distinguished Teaching in 2000, a significant number of his former students in the UK and US have gone on to substantive academic posts. Brown has delivered several named lecture series, Richard Lectures at the University of Virginia. He has also delivered a multitude of named single lectures and these include national academic occasions in the UK and US, the Raleigh Lecture in History in the British Academy, and the Charles Homer Haskins Lecture for the American Council of Learned Societies. In 2007, Brown gave a talk at the opening of the Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity. In 2015 he was hosted by the Group for the Study of Late Antiquity at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, Brown has also frequently been a keynote speaker at conferences and congresses
17.
Anthropology
–
Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
18.
History of anthropology
–
History of anthropology in this article refers primarily to the 18th- and 19th-century precursors of modern anthropology. The term anthropology itself, innovated as a New Latin scientific word during the Renaissance, has meant the study of man. The topics to be included and the terminology have varied historically, at present they are more elaborate than they were during the development of anthropology. For a presentation of social and cultural anthropology as they have developed in Britain, France. The term anthropology ostensibly is a compound of Greek ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, human being. The compound, however, is unknown in ancient Greek or Latin and it first appears sporadically in the scholarly Latin anthropologia of Renaissance France, where it spawns the French word anthropologie, transferred into English as anthropology. It does belong to a class of words produced with the suffix, such as archeo-logy, bio-logy, etc. “the study of. ”The mixed character of Greek anthropos. There is no independent noun, logia, however, of meaning in classical Greek. The word λόγος has that meaning, James Hunt attempted to rescue the etymology in his first address to the Anthropological Society of London as president and founder,1863. He did find an anthropologos from Aristotle in the standard ancient Greek Lexicon, which he defines the word as “speaking or treating of man. ”This view is entirely wishful thinking, as Liddell and Scott go on to explain the meaning, “i. e. fond of personal conversation. ”If Aristotle. The lack of any ancient denotation of anthropology, however, is not an etymological problem, Liddell and Scott list 170 Greek compounds ending in –logia, enough to justify its later use as a productive suffix. The ancient Greeks often used suffixes in forming compounds that had no independent variant, the etymological dictionaries are united in attributing –logia to logos, from legein, “to collect. ”The thing collected is primarily ideas, especially in speech. The American Heritage Dictionary says, “ derivatives independently built to logos, marvin Harris, a historian of anthropology, begins The Rise of Anthropological Theory with the statement that anthropology is “the science of history. Just as natural history comprises the characteristics of organisms past and present, so cultural or social history comprises the characteristics of society past and it includes both documented history and prehistory, but its slant is toward institutional development rather than particular non-repeatable historical events. According to Harris, the 19th-century anthropologists were theorizing under the presumption that the development of society followed some sort of laws and he decries the loss of that view in the 20th century by the denial that any laws are discernable or that current institutions have any bearing on ancient. He coins the term ideographic for them, the 19th-century views, on the other hand, are nomothetic, that is, they provide laws. He intends “to reassert the methodological priority of the search for the laws of history in the science of man. ”He is looking for “a general theory of history. ”The use of “tends to” implies some degree of freedom to happen or not happen, but in strict determinism, given certain causes, the result and only that result must occur. Different philosophers, however, use determinism in different senses. ”Institutions are not a physical reality, when they act in society, they do so according to the laws of history, of which they are not aware, hence, there is no historical element of free will
19.
Archaeology
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
20.
Biological anthropology
–
It is a subfield of anthropology that provides a biological perspective to the systematic study of human beings. As a subfield of anthropology, biological anthropology itself is divided into several branches. All branches are united in their application of evolutionary theory to understanding human morphology. Primatology, the study of primate behavior, morphology. Reasons via homology and analogy to infer how and why similar human traits evolved, human behavioral ecology, the study of behavioral adaptations from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives. Human adaptation, the study of human responses to environmental stresses. Bioarchaeology, the study of past human cultures through examination of human remains recovered in an archaeological context, the examined human remains usually comprises bones, but may include preserved soft tissue. Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skillsets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, paleopathology is the study of disease in antiquity. Scientific physical anthropology began in the 18th century with the study of racial classification, the first prominent physical anthropologist, the German physician Johann Friedrich Blumenbach of Göttingen, amassed a large collection of human skulls. In 1897 Columbia University appointed Franz Boas as a physical anthropologist for his expertise in measuring schoolchildren, from his German education and training, Boas emphasized the mutability of the human form and minimized race in favor of culture. Ales Hrdlicka, a physician, studied anthropology in France under Leonce Manouvrier before working at the Smithsonian Institution from 1902. Earnest Hooton, a Classics PhD from the University of Wisconsin, entered anthropology as an Oxford Rhodes Scholar under R. R. Marett, there was much intellectual continuity with Germans such as Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur. In 1951 Sherwood Washburn, a Hooton alumnus, introduced a new physical anthropology and he changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process. Anthropology expanded to comprehend paleoanthropology and primatology, in contrast to much of medical anthropology, it does not generally take a critical approach to biomedicine and Western medicine. Instead, it seeks to improve medical practice and biomedical science through the integration of cross-cultural or biocultural, behavioral. As an academic discipline, biomedical anthropology is closely related to human biology, currently, the only accredited degree program in biomedical anthropology is at Binghamton University. Other anthropology departments, such as that of the University of Washington, anthropometry, the measurement of the human individual Craniometry Ethology Evolutionary biology Evolutionary psychology Paleontology Physiognomy Primatology Sociobiology Michael A
21.
Cultural anthropology
–
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology, which perceives cultural variation as a subset of the anthropological constant, a variety of methods are involved in cultural anthropological, including participant observation, interviews, and surveys. The term civilization later gave way to definitions given by V. Gordon Childe, with forming an umbrella term. Anthropologists have argued that culture is human nature, and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, since humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, people living in different places or different circumstances develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local and the global. Colonialism and its processes increasingly brought European thinkers into direct or indirect contact with primitive others, the umbrella term socio-cultural anthropology draws upon both cultural and social anthropology traditions. Anthropology is with the lives of people within different parts of the world, particularly in relation to the discourse of beliefs, in addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought. Other ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of creating similar beliefs, Morgan, in particular, acknowledged that certain forms of society and culture could not possibly have arisen before others. For example, industrial farming could not have been invented before simple farming, Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized. Some 20th-century ethnologists, like Julian Steward, have argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments. But these ethnographers also pointed out the superficiality of such similarities. They noted that even traits that spread through diffusion often were given different meanings, others, such as Claude Lévi-Strauss, have argued that apparently similar patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought. Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas, Boas first articulated the idea in 1887. civilization is not something absolute, but. is relative, and. Our ideas and conceptions are only so far as our civilization goes. Although, Boas did not coin the term, it became common among anthropologists after Boas death in 1942, to express their synthesis of a number of ideas Boas had developed. Boas believed that the sweep of cultures, to be found in connection with any sub-species, is so vast, Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims. Whether or not these claims require a specific ethical stance is a matter of debate and this principle should not be confused with moral relativism. Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism, ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that ones peoples arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful
22.
Aerial archaeology
–
Aerial archaeology is the study of archaeological remains by examining them from altitude. Early investigators attempted to gain birdseye views of sites using hot air balloons, photographs may be taken either vertically, that is from directly overhead, or obliquely, meaning that they are taken at an angle. In order to provide an effect, an overlapping pair of vertical photographs, taken from slightly offset positions. The advantages of aerial photographs to archaeologists are manifold, large sites could for the first time be viewed accurately, in their entirety and within their landscape. This aided the production of plans and also inspired archaeologists to look beyond the discrete monument. Photos are taken vertically for the purposes of planning and spatial analysis, through the process of photogrammetry, vertical photos can be converted into scaled plans. Archaeological features may also be visible from the air than on the ground. In temperate Europe, aerial reconnaissance is one of the most important ways in which new archaeological sites are discovered and these are referred to as shadow marks. Frost can also appear in winter on ploughed fields where water has naturally accumulated along the lines of buried features, in cases like the Nazca lines, the features are meaningless from the ground but easily visible from the air. Aerial archaeology is used in the processes of research and investigation in aviation archaeology, archaeological field survey Cropmark Shadow marks Xenoarchaeology Bibliography Bourgeois, J. and Meganck, M. Aerial Photography and Archaeology 2003. ISBN 90-382-0782-4 Brophy, K. and Cowley, D, from the air, understanding aerial archaeology. ISBN 0-7524-3130-7 Riley, D. N. Air photography and archaeology, ISBN 0-8122-8087-3 Wilson, D. R. Air photo interpretation for archaeologists, London, The History Press Ltd. ISBN 0-7524-1498-4 Aerial Archaeology Research Group Emporia State University, Aerial Archaeology Aerial and Remote Sensing Archaeology Link, aerialArchaeology. com focuses heavily on near-earth imaging technologies such as kite aerial photography, remote-control powered parachutes, balloons, and model airplanes and helicopters. *** Off-line April 20,2010 *** ACE Foundation Kite Aerial Photographers - Archaeology Sir Henry Wellcome Aerial Archaeology in Northern France
23.
Aviation archaeology
–
Aviation archaeology is a recognized sub-discipline within archaeology and underwater archaeology as a whole. It is an activity practiced by enthusiasts and academics in pursuit of finding, documenting, recovering, and preserving sites important in aviation history. For the most part, these sites are aircraft wrecks and crash sites, the activity dates to post-World War II Europe when, after the conflict, numerous aircraft wrecks studded the countryside. Many times, memorials to those involved in the crashes were put together by individuals, families, landholders, the United Kingdom, whose land was littered with enemy aircraft, introduced a scrap metal initiative for the public which encouraged its disposal. Members of the public who found aircraft sites, especially farmers who could dig them up, beginning in the 1970s, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, looting of aviation wreck sites began to disturb the general public. As the activity grew, laws and regulations were created in areas to counter problems created, such as trespassing. Crash sites vary in size and content, some may have fuselages, engines, Remains of military aircraft crash sites may also be removed by various aircraft restoration groups, particularly if the aircraft was found largely intact. In general, most recent-day aircraft crashes are removed entirely, due to environmental regulations, for example, military crashes in Arizona originate from numerous air bases, past and present. Because of the warm and sunny weather, much of the U. S. Army Air Forces flight training was located in the state, numerous air bases dotted the states - creating conditions for numerous training accidents. Old abandoned US Army Air Corp auxiliary fields and those converted to city municipal airports provide archaeological sites to be researched and investigated. The internet is a media for sharing, recording, educating. For identifying aircraft type and manufacturer by part numbers and manufacturing inspection stamps can be analysed, from detailed GPS data & maps, to researching accident reports information, numerous resources help create a complete picture of the historic event. Accident reports, such as the official US Air Force Accident Report Form 14 becomes the foundation of archaeology research, from there, newspaper articles, county clerk records, sheriff & coroner reports, and library records all aid an aviation archaeologist in their research. Legal protection of aircraft wreck sites is highly variable, in terms of protection by aircraft ownership, the U. S. Navy retains indefinite ownership of all Naval aircraft, including terrestrial or submerged wreck sites. The U. S. Air Force has no policies regarding disturbance of vintage aircraft wreck sites, Sites on federal land are further protected under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 throughout a determination process. The act stipulates that all historic sites must undergo a Section 106 review to determine eligibility for the National Register of Historical Places prior to being disturbed. Federal lands include, among others, National Parks, National Forests, National Marine Sanctuaries, in most cases, the State Historic Preservation Officer will determine whether or not an aviation site is eligible for the register. The National Register deems aviation wreck sites as “any aircraft that has crashed, ditched, damaged, stranded
24.
Biblical archaeology
–
For the movement associated with William F. Albright and also known as biblical archaeology, see Biblical archaeology school. The principal location of interest is what is known in the relevant religions as the Holy Land, the scientific techniques used are the same as those used in general archaeology, such as excavation and radiocarbon dating. Biblical archaeology is polemical as there are a number of points of view regarding the nature of its purpose, a number of points of view from important archaeologists are included in the section on Expert Commentaries. In order to understand the significance of biblical archaeology it is first necessary to understand two basic concepts, archaeology as a framework and the Bible as an object for research. Archaeology is a science, not in the Aristotelian sense of cognitio certa per causas and it might be thought that archaeology would have to disregard the information contained within religions and many philosophical systems. This contemporary perception of the myth, mainly developed by Bultmann, has encouraged scientists such as archaeologists to examine the areas indicated by the biblical tales. Other authors prefer to talk about the archaeology of Palestine and to define the relevant territories as those to the east and west of the River Jordan and this indicates that biblical archaeology or that of Palestine is circumscribed by the territories that were the backdrop to the biblical stories. The raison d’etre of biblical archaeology derives from the fact that it allows an understanding of the peoples that inhabited the Holy Land and it allows an understanding of their history, culture, identity and movements. This makes it possible to know the location of the stories. Albright, G. Ernest Wright and Yigael Yadin, using this approach, introduced by P. Biblical archaeology lends fundamental support to exegetical studies, the geographical area that circumscribes the area of interest for biblical archaeology is obviously the biblical lands, also known as the Holy Land. Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece and Rome have greater connections with the stories from the New Testament, in the same way that the spatial criteria vary according to the various points of view of the different researchers, there are also a variety of dates that are of interest. This time period is considered by authorities to be too wide. The term Apostolic Church is taken to mean the period when Jesuss apostles were alive. This period ends with the death of John the Evangelist, the date of his death is not known. However, some consider that the authors of the Fourth Gospel. 8500–4300 BC Pre-Pottery Neolithic = c, 8500–6000 BC Pre-Pottery Neolithic A = c. The most important historical sources include Josephus, Origen, Eusebius, Egeria or Aetheria, was a Spanish woman who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land between 381 and 384
25.
Forensic anthropology
–
Forensic anthropology is the application of the anatomical science of anthropology and its various subfields, including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy, in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable, Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental to the investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves. Along with forensic pathologists, forensic dentists, and homicide investigators, using physical markers present on a skeleton, a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a victims age, sex, stature, and ancestry. The methods used to identity a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various anthropologists, through the collection of thousands of specimens and the analysis of differences within a population, estimations can be made based on physical characteristics. Through these, a set of remains can potentially be identified, today, forensic anthropology is a well established discipline within the forensic field. Anthropologists are called upon to investigate remains and to identify individuals from bones when other physical characteristics which could be used to identify a body no longer exist. Forensic anthropologists work in conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics, in addition to these duties, forensic anthropologists often assist in the investigation of war crimes and mass fatality investigations. Anthropologists have also helped victims of genocide in countries around the world. War crimes anthropologists have helped investigate include the Rwandan Genocide and the Srebrenica Genocide, the use of anthropology in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of physical anthropology. The field of anthropology began in the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the years of the twentieth century. Earnest Hooton pioneered the field of anthropology and became the first physical anthropologist to hold a full-time teaching position in the United States. He was a committee member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists along with its founder Aleš Hrdlička. Hootons students created some of the first doctoral programs in physical anthropology during the early 20th century, in addition to physical anthropology, Hooton was a proponent of criminal anthropology. Now considered a pseudoscience, criminal anthropologists believed that phrenology and physiognomy could link a persons behavior to specific physical characteristics, the use of criminal anthropology to try to explain certain criminal behaviors arose out of the eugenics movement, popular at the time. The study of information helped shape anthropologists understanding of the human skeleton. Another prominent early anthropologist, Thomas Wingate Todd, was responsible for the creation of the first large collection of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd acquired 3,300 human skulls and skeletons,600 anthropoid skulls and skeletons, todds contributions to the field of anthropology remain in use in the modern era and include various studies regarding suture closures on the skull and timing of teeth eruption in the mandible. Todd also developed age estimates based on characteristics of the pubic symphysis
26.
Maritime archaeology
–
A specialty within maritime archaeology is nautical archaeology, which studies vessel construction and use. As with archaeology as a whole, maritime archaeology can be practised within the historical, industrial, an associated discipline, and again one that lies within archaeology itself, is underwater archaeology, which studies the past through any submerged remains be they of maritime interest or not. An example from the era would be the remains of submerged settlements or deposits now lying under water despite having been dry land when sea levels were lower. The study of submerged aircraft lost in lakes, rivers or in the sea is an example from the historical, industrial or modern era, many specialist sub-disciplines within the broader maritime and underwater archaeological categories have emerged in recent years. This fact has led to shipwrecks often being described in the media, archaeological material in the sea or in other underwater environments is typically subject to different factors than artifacts on land. However, as with terrestrial archaeology what survives to be investigated by modern archaeologists can often be a fraction of the material originally deposited. There are those in the community who see maritime archaeology as a separate discipline with its own concerns. Others value an integrated approach, stressing that nautical activity has economic and social links to communities on land, all that is required is the mastering of skills specific to the environment in which the work occurs. Before the industrial era, travel by water was often easier than over land, as a result, marine channels, navigable rivers and sea crossings formed the trade routes of historic and ancient civilisations. For example, the Mediterranean Sea was known to the Romans as the sea because the Roman empire spread around its coasts. The historic record as well as the remains of harbours, ships and cargoes, later, nations with a strong maritime culture such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Spain were able to establish colonies on other continents. Wars were fought at sea over the control of important resources, of late maritime archaeologists have been examining the submerged cultural remains of China, India, Korea and other Asian nations. Saltwater is particularly inimical to iron artefacts including metal shipwrecks, an example of such a collection is the Mary Rose. Where it remains even after the passage of time, the iron or steel hull is often fragile with no remaining metal within the layer of concretion and corrosion products. Even in deep water, commercial activities such as pipe-laying operations, such a wreck is the Mardi Gras shipwreck sunk in the Gulf of Mexico in 4,000 feet of water. The shipwreck lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an inspection crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company. Large pipelines can crush sites and render some of their remnants inaccessible as pipe is dropped from the surface to the substrate thousands of feet below. Trawl nets snag and tear superstructures and separate artifacts from their context, the wrecks, and other archaeological sites that have been preserved have generally survived because the dynamic nature of the sea bed can result in artifacts becoming rapidly buried in sediments
27.
Paleoethnobotany
–
Paleoethnobotany or Archaeobotany, is the study of remains of plants cultivated or used by man in ancient times, which have survived in archaeological contexts. Paleoethnobotany is the archaeological sub-field that studies plant remains from archaeological sites, Plant macrofossils are preserved through four main modes of preservation at archaeological sites. First, plant remains, usually cereal grains, chaff, seeds and these are referred to as charred or carbonised plant remains. This mode of preservation is biased towards plant remains that come into contact with fire, through cooking or fuel use, Second, plant remains deposited in permanently waterlogged anoxic conditions are preserved as the absence of oxygen prohibits microbial activity. This mode of preservation occurs in deep archaeological features such as wells, in settlements where organic refuse is rapidly deposited. A wide range of plant remains are preserved, including seeds, fruit stones, nutshells, leaves, straw. Third, calcium-phosphate mineralisation of plant remains occurs usually in latrine pits and in middens, in latrine pits, plant remains which have been consumed by humans are the most common items, such as seeds of flavourings, fruit pips and fruit stones. Finally, plant remains are preserved by desiccation in arid environments, delicate vegetative plant remains are preserved, such as onion skin and artichoke bracts, alongside fruit stones, cereal chaff and seeds of wild plants. Paleoethnobotanists use a variety of methods to recover and identify plant remains, charred plant remains are usually recovered by flotation. The matrix is slowly added to agitated water, the soil, sand, and other heavy material, known as heavy fraction, will sink to the bottom. The less dense material such as charred seeds, grains. The material that floats to the top, called light fraction, is poured into a sieve, the light fraction is then dried and later examined under a low power microscope. Samples of the fraction are also gathered for later analysis. Flotation can be undertaken manually with buckets, or by machine-assisted flotation where water is circulated through a series of tanks by a pump, waterlogged plant remains are separated from the matrix by a combination of wet-sieving and/or small-scale flotation in a laboratory. Desiccated plant remains are recovered by dry-sieving, using a stack of different sieves to separate larger items such as cereal straw. Identification literature as well as a collection of modern plant materials are crucial for reliable results. Depending on the type of material, and its condition, also other methods such as sections or SEM are applied. Paleoethnobotanists also recover and analyze microremains, human and animal excrements, or plant impressions in ceramic sherds, palynology is a mature and distinct scientific discipline that studies pollen, typically in the context of reconstructing past environments
28.
Zooarchaeology
–
Zooarchaeology is the study of faunal remains. Faunal remains are the left behind when an animal dies. It includes, bones, shells, hair, chitin, scales, hides, proteins, of these items, bones and shells are the ones that occur most frequently at archaeological sites where faunal remains can be found. Much of the time, most of the remains do not survive. They often decompose or break because of various circumstances and this can cause difficulties in identifying the remains and interpreting their significance. The development of zooarchaeology in Eastern North America can be broken up into three different periods, the first being the Formative period starting around the 1860s, the second being the Systematization period beginning in the early 1950s, and the Integration period which began about 1969. Full-time zooarchaeologists didn’t come about until the Systematization period, before that it was just a technique that was applied but not specifically studied. Zooarchaeological specialists started to come about partly because of a new approach to archaeology known as “processual archaeology. ”This approach puts more emphasis on explaining why things happened, archaeologists began to specialize in zooarchaeology, and their numbers increased from there on. Zooarchaeology is primarily used to answer several questions and these include, What was the diet like, and in what ways were the animals used for food. Which were the animals that were eaten, in what amounts, who were the ones to obtain the food, and did the availability of that food depend on age or gender. How was culture, such as technologies and behavior, influenced by, what purposes, other than food, were animals used for. Zooarchaeology can also tell us what the environment might have been like in order for the different animals to have survived, in addition to helping us understand the past, zooarchaeology can also help us to improve the present and the future. Studying how people dealt with animals, and its effects can help us avoid many potential ecological problems and this specifically includes problems involving wildlife management. For example, one of the questions that wildlife preservationists ask is whether they should keep animals facing extinction in several smaller areas, based on zooarchaeological evidence, they found that animals that are split up into several smaller areas are more likely to go extinct. One of the techniques that use is close attention to taphonomy. This includes studying how items are buried and deposited at the site in question, what the conditions are that aid in the preservation of these items, another technique that zooarchaeologists use is lab analysis. This analysis can include comparing the skeletons found on site with already identified animal skeletons and this not only helps to identify what the animal is, but also whether the animal was domesticated or not. Yet another technique that zooarchaeologists use is quantification and they make interpretations based on the number and size of the bones
29.
Anthrozoology
–
Anthrozoology is the subset of ethnobiology that deals with interactions between humans and other animals. It is a field that overlaps with other disciplines including anthropology, ethnology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine. A major focus of research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party. It includes scholars from fields such as anthropology, sociology, biology, history, the interaction and enhancement within captive animal interactions. In the UK, the University of Exeter runs an MA in Anthrozoology which explores human-animal interactions from anthropological perspectives, there are now three primary lists for HAS scholars and students—H-Animal, the Human-Animal Studies listserv, and NILAS, as well as the Critical Animal Studies list. There are now over a dozen journals covering HAS issues, many of them founded in the last decade, and hundreds of HAS books, most of them published in the last decade. Brill, Berg, Johns Hopkins, Purdue, Columbia, Reaktion, Palgrave-McMillan, University of Minnesota, University of Illinois, beginning in 2011, ASI has partnered with Wesleyan Animal Studies, who will be hosting the fellowship in conjunction with ASI. There are also a handful of HAS conferences per year, including organized by ISAZ and NILAS. Finally, there are more HAS courses being taught now than ever before, the ASI website lists over 300 courses in twenty-nine disciplines at over 200 colleges and universities, not including over 100 law school courses. Animals and Society Institute Anthrozoology Research Group H-Animal Human-Animal Studies listserve Humanimalia, a journal of human-animal interface studies NILAS
30.
Molecular anthropology
–
Generally, comparisons are made between sequence, either DNA or protein sequence, however early studies used comparative serology. By examining DNA sequences in different populations, scientists can determine the closeness of relationships between populations, Molecular anthropology has been extremely useful in establishing the evolutionary tree of humans and other primates, including closely related species like chimps and gorillas. However, more recent studies have modified the commonality of 98 percent to a commonality of 94 percent, such information is useful in searching for common ancestors and coming to a better understanding of how humans evolved. There are two continuous linkage groups in humans that are carried by a single sex, the first is the Y chromosome, which is passed from father to son. Anatomical females carry a Y chromosome only rarely, as a result of genetic defect, the other linkage group is the mitochondrial DNA. MtDNA can only be passed to the generation by females. The non-recombinant portion of the Y chromosome and the mtDNA, under normal circumstances, part of the Y chromosome can undergo recombination with the X chromosome and within ape history the boundary has changed. Such recombinant changes in the non-recombinant region of Y are extremely rare, Mitochondrial DNA became an area of research in phylogenetics in the late 1970s. Unlike genomic DNA, it offered advantages in that it did not undergo recombination, the process of recombination, if frequent enough, corrupts the ability to create parsimonious trees because stretches of amino acid subsititions. When looking between distantly related species, recombination is less of a problem since recombination between branches from common ancestors is prevented after true speciation occurs, when examining closely related species, or branching within species, recombination creates a large number of irrelevant SNPs for cladistic analysis. MtDNA, through the process of division, become clonal over time, very little, too often none. While recombination may occur in mtDNA, there is risk that it will be passed to the next generation. As a result, mtDNA become clonal copies of each other, as a result, mtDNA does not have pitfalls of autosomal loci when studied in interbreeding groups. Another advantage of mtDNA is that the hyper-variable regions evolve very quickly and this allowed the use of mitochondrial DNA to determine that the relative age of the human population was small, having gone through a recent constriction at about 150,000 years ago. Mitochondrial DNA has also used to verify the proximity of chimpanzees to humans relative to gorillas. More recently, the genome has been used to estimate branching patterns in peoples around the world, such as when the new world was settled. The problem with these studies have been that they rely heavily on mutations in the coding region, many of the mtDNA have far more mutations and at rarely mutated coding sites relative to expectations of neutral mutations. Mitochondrial DNA offers another advantage over autosomal DNA, there are generally 2 to 4 copies of each chromosome in each cell
31.
Neuroanthropology
–
Neuroanthropology is the study of the relationship between culture and the brain. Neuroanthropology explores how the brain gives rise to culture, how culture influences brain development, structure and function, moreover, neuroanthropologists consider how new findings in the brain sciences help us understand the interactive effects of culture and biology on human development and behavior. Cultural neuroscience Social neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Neuroculture Neuroplasticity Books Arbib, Michael A, the Metaphorical Brain 2, Neural Networks and Beyond. E. G. dAquili, Laughlin, C. D. and McManus J The Spectrum of Ritual, donald, Merlin Origins of the Modern Mind, Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition. Donald, Merlin A Mind So Rare, The evolution of human consciousness Norton, New York, Henry Holt & Co. Dumit, J. Picturing personhood, brain scans and biomedical identity, the Origin of Mind, Evolution of Brain, Cognition, and General Intelligence. Ways of Knowing, New Approaches in the Anthropology of Experience, Laughlin, C. D. and E. G. dAquili Biogenetic Structuralism. John McManus and E. G. dAquili Brain, Symbol and Experience, the Encultured Brain, An Introduction to Neuroanthropology. Quartz, S. R. and T. J Sejnowzki Liars, Lovers, skoyles, John R. and Sagan, Dorion Up from Dragons, The Evolution of Human Intelligence. McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN 0-07-137825-1 Winkelman, Michael Shamanism, The Neural Ecology of Consciousness, toward a neuroanthropology of ethics, Introduction. In, Jens Clausen and Neil Levy Handbook of Neuroethics, Springer, Volume 1, pp 289–298 Domínguez D, JF, Neuroanthropology and the Dialectical Imperative. Anthropological Theory 12, 5-27 Domínguez D, JF, Turner, R, Lewis, ED, and Egan, GF Neuroanthropology, A Humanistic Science for the Study of the Culture–Brain Nexus. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 5, 138–47 Domínguez D, JF, Lewis, ED, Turner, R and Egan, GF The Brain in Culture and Culture in the Brain, chiao Progress in Brain Research, Vol 178, Cultural Neuroscience, Cultural Influences on Brain Function. Elsevier, The Netherlands, pp. 43–6 Iacoboni, M. Lieberman, M. D. Knowlton, B. J. Molnar-Szakacs, moritz, M. Throop, C. J. et al. Watching social interactions produces dorsomedial prefrontal and medial parietal BOLD fMRI signal increases compared to a resting baseline, a historical survey and neuroanthropological perspective. In, Jens Clausen and Neil Levy Handbook of Neuroethics, Springer, Volume 1, in, Barfield, Thomas The Dictionary of Anthropology, pp. 340–2. Rilling, J. K. Barks, S. K. Parr, L. A. Preuss, T. M. Faber, T. L. Pagnoni, a comparison of resting-state brain activity in humans and chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A104, 17146-51, roepstorff, A Postscript, Mapping brain mappers, An ethnographic coda
32.
Palaeoanthropology
–
Hominoids are a primate superfamily, the hominid family is currently considered to comprise both the great ape lineages and human lineages within the hominoid superfamily. The Homininae comprise both the human lineages and the African ape lineages, the term African apes refers only to chimpanzees and gorillas. The terminology of the biological family is currently in flux. The term hominin refers to any genus in the human tribe, since, the great apes were considered the closest relatives of human beings, based on morphological similarity. The science arguably began in the late 19th century when important discoveries occurred that led to the study of human evolution. The discovery of the Neanderthal in Germany, Thomas Huxleys Evidence as to Mans Place in Nature, the modern field of paleoanthropology began in the 19th century with the discovery of Neanderthal man, and with evidence of so-called cave men. Debates between Thomas Huxley and Richard Owen focused on the idea of human evolution, Huxley convincingly illustrated many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes in his 1863 book Evidence as to Mans Place in Nature. By the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, Descent of Man, even many of Darwins original supporters balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through natural selection. Prior to todays general acceptance of Africa as the root of genus Homo, although Schlosser was very cautious, identifying the tooth only as “. Anthropoide g. et sp. indet. ”He was hopeful that future work would discover a new anthropoid in China. Eleven years later, the Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson was sent to China as a mining advisor and it was he who, in 1918, discovered the sites around Zhoukoudian, a village about 50 kilometers southwest of Beijing. However, because of the nature of the initial finds. Work did not resume until 1921, when the Austrian paleontologist, Otto Zdansky, fresh with his degree from Vienna. Zdansky conducted short-term excavations at Locality 1 in 1921 and 1923, with that done, Zdansky returned to Austria and suspended all fieldwork. News of the fossil hominin teeth delighted the scientific community in Beijing, at the epicenter of excitement was Davidson Black, a Canadian-born anatomist working at Peking Union Medical College. Black shared Andersson’s interest, as well as his view that central Asia was a home for early humankind. The Zhoukoudian Project came into existence in the spring of 1927, being the first institution of its kind, the Cenozoic Laboratory opened up new avenues for the study of paleogeology and paleontology in China. The Laboratory was the precursor of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Chinese Academy of Science, the first of the major project finds are attributed to the young Swedish paleontologist, Anders Birger Bohlin, then serving as the field advisor at Zhoukoudian. He recovered a left lower molar that Black identified as unmistakably human, the news was at first met with skepticism, and many scholars had reservations that a single tooth was sufficient to justify the naming of a new type of early hominin
33.
Primatology
–
Primatology is the scientific study of primates. There are two centers of primatology, Western primatology and Japanese primatology. These two divergent disciplines stem from their cultural backgrounds and philosophies that went into their founding. Although, fundamentally, both Western and Japanese primatology share many of the principles, the areas of their focus in primate research. Western primatology stems primarily from research by North American and European scientists, the study of primatology looks at the biological and psychological aspects of non-human primates. The focus is on studying the links between humans and primates. It is believed that by understanding our closest animal relatives, we might understand the nature shared with our ancestors. The general belief is that the observation of nature must be either extremely limited. Either way, the observers must be neutral to their subjects and this allows for data to be unbiased and for the subjects to be uninfluenced by human interference. Field is done in natural environments, in which scientific observers watch primates in their natural habitat, laboratory study is done in controlled lab settings. In lab settings, scientists are able to perform controlled experimentation on the learning capabilities, in semi-free ranging studies, scientists are able to watch how primates might act in the wild but have easier access to them, and the ability to control their environments. Such facilities include the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center in Georgia, all types of primate study in the Western methodology are meant to be neutral. Although there are certain Western primatologists who do more subjective research, early field primatology tended to focus on individual researchers. Researchers such as Dian Fossey and Jane Goodall are examples of this, long-term sites of research tend to be best associated with their founders, and this led to some tension between younger primatologists and the veterans in the field. The discipline of Japanese primatology was developed out of animal ecology and it is mainly credited to Kinji Imanishi and Junichiro Itani. Imanishi was an animal ecologist who began studying wild horses before focusing more on primate ecology and he helped found the Primate Research Group in 1950. Junichiro was a renowned anthropologist and a professor at Kyoto University and he is a co-founder of the Primate Research Institute and the Centre for African Area Studies. The Japanese discipline of primatology tends to be interested in the social aspects of primates
.jpg)
