1.
Freemasonry
–
The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
Freemasonry
–
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Freemasonry
–
The Masonic
Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter
G)
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons Hall, London, home of the
United Grand Lodge of England
Freemasonry
–
Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
2.
Mortar (masonry)
–
In its broadest sense mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay, such as used between mud bricks. Mortar comes from Latin mortarium meaning crushed, mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder, and water. The most common binder since the early 20th century is Portland cement, there are several types of cement mortars and additives. The first mortars were made of mud and clay, because of a lack of stone and an abundance of clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar. According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in Pakistan. The ancient sites of Harappan civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks, gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids and many other ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, brick arch. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions, in early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during the Old Kingdom, the limestone blocks were bound by mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar was made of gypsum or lime. Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft, in the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. Bitumen mortar was used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece, the excavation of the underground aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates back to c.500 BCE, pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows it to be hardened underwater, thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the Greek islands Thira and Nisiros, or from the then Greek colony of Dicaearchia near Naples, the Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement. Even later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta, introducing aluminum oxide and this mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted penetration by water. Hydraulic mortar was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash, around 500 CE, sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganic−organic composite mortar that had more strength and water resistance than lime mortar. It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, during the Middle Ages when the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar holding weathered bricks
Mortar (masonry)
–
Roman mortar on display at
Chetham's School of Music.
Mortar (masonry)
–
Laying bricks with Portland cement mortar
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar mixed inside a 5-gallon bucket using clean water and mortar from a bag. When it's the right consistency as in the photo (trowel stands up) it's ready to apply.
3.
Brick
–
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks, block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks are made from expanded clay aggregate, fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have an older than fired bricks. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, the earliest bricks were dried brick, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region, ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. In pre-modern China, bricks were being used from the 2nd millennium BCE at a site near Xian, the carpenters manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze, Early civilisations around the Mediterranean adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, during the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of architecture, known as brick Gothic flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland. A clear distinction between the two styles developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone and it was at this time in London, that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents. The transition from the method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone, the Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton
Brick
–
A wall constructed in glazed-headed
Flemish bond with bricks of various shades and lengths
Brick
–
A pallet of bricks stacked without mortar
Brick
–
Raw Indian brick
Brick
–
An old brick wall in
English bond laid with alternating courses of headers and stretchers
4.
Rock (geology)
–
Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a rock, is a combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar. The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock, rock has been used by mankind throughout history. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization, three major groups of rocks are defined, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is a component of geology. At a granular level, rocks are composed of grains of minerals, the aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by chemical bonds. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which the rock was formed, many rocks contain silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74. 3% of the Earths crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock, the proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties. Rocks are geologically classified according to such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles. These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks, over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic, the three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups. However, there are no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks, hence the definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava and this magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planets mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes, an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition, igneous rocks are divided into two main categories, plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earths crust, a common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, the chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowens reaction series. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale, about 64. 7% of the Earths crust by volume consists of igneous rocks, making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, only 0. 6% are syenites and 0. 3% peridotites and dunites
Rock (geology)
–
Balanced Rock stands in the
Garden of the Gods park in
Colorado Springs
Rock (geology)
–
Rock outcrop along a mountain creek near
Orosí,
Costa Rica.
Rock (geology)
–
Sample of igneous
gabbro
Rock (geology)
–
Sedimentary sandstone with iron oxide bands
5.
Marble
–
Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
Marble
–
Marble in Carrrara marble quarry, Italy
Marble
Marble
–
The
Taj Mahal is entirely clad in marble.
Marble
–
Carlo Franzoni's sculptural marble
chariot clock depicting
Clio, the Greek
muse of history.
6.
Granite
–
Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
Granite
–
Granite containing
potassium feldspar,
plagioclase feldspar,
quartz, and
biotite and/or
amphibole
Granite
–
Close-up of granite exposed in
Chennai,
India
Granite
–
The
Cheesewring, a granite
tor
Granite
–
A granite peak at
Huangshan, China
7.
Travertine
–
Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream-colored and it is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and it is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material. Travertine is a sedimentary rock, formed by the precipitation of carbonate minerals from solution in ground and surface waters. Similar deposits formed from water are known as tufa. The word travertine is derived from the Italian travertino, itself a derivation of the Latin tiburtinus ‘of Tibur’ and its namesake is also the origin of Tivoli, a district near Rome. Modern travertine is formed from geothermally heated supersaturated alkaline waters, with raised pCO2, on emergence, waters degas CO2 due to the lower atmospheric pCO2, resulting in an increase in pH. Since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH, precipitation is induced, precipitation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO2, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important, as may photosynthesis. Precipitation may also be enhanced by evaporation in some springs, both calcite and aragonite are found in hot spring travertines, aragonite is preferentially precipitated when temperatures are hot, while calcite dominates when temperatures are cooler. When pure and fine, travertine is white, but often it is brown to yellow due to impurities, travertine may precipitate out directly onto rock and other inert materials as in Pamukkale or Yellowstone for example. The latter has a historic value, because it was one of the quarries that Gian Lorenzo Bernini selected material from to build the famous Colonnade of St. Peters Square in Rome in 1656-1667. Michaelangelo also chose travertine as the material for the ribs of the dome of St Peters Basilica. Travertine derives its name from the town, known as Tibur in ancient Roman times. The ancient name for the stone was lapis tiburtinus, meaning tibur stone, detailed studies of the Tivoli and Guidonia travertine deposits revealed diurnal and annual rhythmic banding and laminae, which have potential use in geochronology. Cascades of natural lakes formed behind travertine dams can be seen in Pamukkale, Turkey, in Central Europes last post-glacial palaeoclimatic optimum, huge deposits of tufa formed from karst springs. On a smaller scale, these karst processes are still working, travertine has been an important building material since the Middle Ages. Travertine has formed sixteen huge, natural dams in a valley in Croatia known as Plitvice Lakes National Park, clinging to moss and rocks in the water, the travertine has built up over several millennia to form waterfalls up to 70 m in height. In the U. S. the most well-known place for travertine formation is Yellowstone National Park, Oklahoma has two parks dedicated to this natural wonder
Travertine
–
Travertine terraces at
Mammoth Hot Springs,
Yellowstone National Park
Travertine
–
Calcium-carbonate-encrusted, yet growing moss, early stage of porous travertine formation.
Travertine
–
Badab-e Surt 's stepped travertine terrace formations. The red color of travertine
terraces is due to
iron carbonate.
Travertine
–
Mausoleum submerged in a travertine pool at
Hierapolis hot springs, Turkey.
8.
Limestone
–
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
Limestone
–
Limestone outcrop in the
Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of
Málaga, Spain
Limestone
–
Limestone quarry at
Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Limestone
–
Cutting the limestone blocks at a quarry in
Gozo,
Malta
Limestone
–
Limestone as building material
9.
Cast stone
–
Cast stone is a concrete masonry product simulating natural-cut stone and is used in architectural applications. Cast stone is used for features, trim, or ornament, facing buildings or other structures. Cast stone can be made from white and/or grey cements, manufactured or natural sands, crushed stone or natural gravels, Cast stone may replace natural-cut limestone, brownstone, sandstone, bluestone, granite, slate, coral rock, travertine, and other natural building stones. Cast stone has been a building material for hundreds of years. The earliest known use of cast stone dates about to the year 1138 at Carcassonne, France, Cast stone was first used extensively in London in the 19th century and gained widespread acceptance in America in 1920. Some researchers have speculated that the Egyptian pyramids were formed using a form of cast stone. It was cheaper and more uniform than natural stone, and widely used, in engineering projects, it had the advantage that transporting the bulk materials and casting them near the place of use was cheaper than transporting very large pieces of stone. According to Rupert Gunnis a Dutchman named Van Spangen set up an artificial stone manufactury at Bow in London in 1800. Having later gone into partnership with a Mr. Powell the firm was broken up in 1828 and his material was not the same as the ceramic body used by Mrs. Coade, but made from Portland cement, broken natural stone, pounded marble and coarse sand. Around 1840 Austin entered into partnership with John Seeley, Seeley had trained at the Royal Academy Schools and also made an artificial stone, which he called artificial limestone, before entering into partnership with Austin. In 1841 Austin and Seeley published their first catalogue, Collection of Ornaments at Austin & Seeleys Artificial Stone Works for Gardens, Parks, the firm continued in production until about 1872. When the blocks are set hard the moulds are loosened and the placed in a solution of silicate of soda for about two weeks for the purpose of indurating and hardening them. Many manufacturers turn out a material that is practically non-porous and is able effectually to resist the influence of sea air or the impure atmosphere of large towns. Today, cast stone is a Portland cement-based architectural precast concrete product manufactured using high quality fine, the use of a high percentage of fine aggregate creates a very smooth, consistent texture for the building elements being cast, resembling natural cut stone. Other ingredients such as chemical admixtures, pozzolans, and pigments also may be added, Cast stone frequently is produced with a low water-to-cement ratio mixture with a dry consistency. The mixture is consolidated into a mould using an air-driven, or electric, tamping device or vibration under pressure, products manufactured in this manner are referred to as vibrant-dry-tamped cast stone. Over the last decade, new types of admixtures have been developed for VDT concrete products and these new admixtures do not normally work with wet cast concrete. These new plasticizers are more efficient than using air-entraining agents to increase compaction in VDT concrete, some plasticizers have chemical properties that react with the cement to increase ultimate strengths of semi-dry concrete
Cast stone
–
The walled city of Carcassonne
Cast stone
–
Lintel in Carcassonne sample of medieval cast stone (1138)
10.
Concrete block
–
A concrete masonry unit is a standard size rectangular block used in building construction. Those that use cinders are called cinder blocks in Canada, the United States, and New Zealand, breeze blocks in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and hollow blocks in the Philippines. In Australia they are known as Besser blocks or besser bricks. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate, in non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all of these varieties. Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, lower density blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash, as an aggregate. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using autoclaved aerated concrete, Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers to reduce weight or improve insulation. The use of blockwork allows structures to be built in the masonry style with layers of staggered blocks. In the US, the most common size is 16 in ×8 in ×8 in. In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually 440 mm ×215 mm ×100 mm excluding mortar joints, in New Zealand and Canada, blocks are usually 390 mm ×190 mm ×190 mm excluding mortar joints. Block cores are typically tapered so that the top surface of the block has a surface on which to spread a mortar bed. Most CMUs have two cores, but three- and four-core units are also produced, a core also allows for the insertion of steel reinforcement, tying individual blocks together in the assembly, with the goal of greatly increased strength. To hold the reinforcement in proper position and to bond the block to the reinforcement, reinforcement is primarily used to impart greater tensile strength to the assembly, improving its ability to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces. A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features, u-shaped blocks or knockout blocks with notches to allow the construction of bond beams or lintel assemblies, using horizontal reinforcing grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as jamb blocks, blocks with grooved ends permit the construction of control joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends. Other features, such as radiused corners known as bullnoses may be incorporated, a wide variety of decorative profiles also exist. Concrete masonry units may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or textures for finish use, special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block unit, such factory-produced units are called split-rib or split-face blocks. Blocks may be scored by grooves the width of a joint to simulate different block modules. For example, an 8-by-16-inch block may be scored in the middle to simulate 8-by-8-inch masonry, with the grooves filled with mortar, American suburban houses typically employ a concrete foundation vibrant and slab with a concrete block wall on the perimeter
Concrete block
–
A stack of rectangular CMUs
Concrete block
–
An inside wall of painted breeze blocks, unplastered
11.
Glass
–
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
Glass
–
The joining of two tubes made of
lead glass during
glass welding.
Glass
–
Moldavite, a natural glass formed by
meteorite impact, from
Besednice, Bohemia
Glass
–
Tube fulgurites
Glass
–
Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production
12.
Cob (material)
–
Cob, cobb or clom is a natural building material made from subsoil, water, some kind of fibrous organic material, and sometimes lime. The contents of subsoil naturally vary, and if it not contain the right mixture it can be modified with sand or clay. Cob is fireproof, resistant to seismic activity, and inexpensive and it can be used to create artistic, sculptural forms, and its use has been revived in recent years by the natural building and sustainability movements. In technical building and engineering such as the Uniform Building Code. Cob is an English term attested to around the year 1600 for an ancient building material that has used for building since prehistoric times. The etymology of cob and cobbing is unclear, but in several senses means to beat or strike, some of the oldest man-made structures in Afghanistan are composed of rammed earth and cob. Cobwork was used in the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 11th and 12th centuries, Cob material is known by many names including adobe, lump clay, puddled clay, chalk mud, wichert, clay daubins, swish, torchis, bauge, bousille, and cat and clay. Cob structures can be found in a variety of climates across the globe, a number of cob cottages survive from mid-19th-century New Zealand. Traditionally, English cob was made by mixing the clay-based subsoil with sand, straw, English soils contain varying amounts of chalk, and cob made with significant amounts of chalk are called chalk cob or wychert. The earthen mixture was then ladled onto a foundation in courses. The construction would progress according to the time required for the course to dry. After drying, the walls would be trimmed and the next course built, with lintels for later such as doors. The walls of a cob house are generally about 24 inches thick, the thick walls provided excellent thermal mass which was easy to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. Walls with a thermal mass value act as a thermal buffer inside the home. The material has a long life-span even in rainy and/or humid climates, provided a tall foundation, Cob is fireproof, while fire cob is a refractory material, and historically, has been used to make chimneys, fireplaces, forges and crucibles. Without fiber, however, cob loses most of its tensile strength, when Kevin McCabe constructed a two-story, four bedroom cob house in England, UK in 1994, it was reputedly the first cob residence built in the country in 70 years. His techniques remained very traditional, the innovations he made were using a tractor to mix the cob and adding sand or shillet. From 2002 to 2004, sustainability enthusiast Rob Hopkins initiated the construction of a cob house for his family and it was a community project, but an unidentified arsonist destroyed it shortly before completion
Cob (material)
–
Building a wall out of cob.
Cob (material)
–
'Cob stitch' repair on old traditional cob cottage in
Devon, England
Cob (material)
–
An example of a modern, Pacific Northwest-style cob home. The exterior cob wall has been plastered for an attractive, uniform appearance.
Cob (material)
–
Sota Construction Corporate Headquarters in
Pittsburgh, featuring cob walls.
13.
Bricklayer
–
A bricklayer, which is related to but different from a mason, is a craftsman who lays bricks to construct brickwork. The terms also refer to personnel who use blocks to construct blockwork walls, in British and Australian English, a bricklayer is colloquially known as a brickie. A stone mason is a term applied to one who lays any combination of stones, cinder blocks, bricklaying may also enjoyed as a hobby. For example, Winston Churchill did bricklaying as a hobby, bricklaying and masonry is an ancient profession that even centuries later requires modern training. While some online sites say they can get you certified in a little as 30 days, most bricklayers today attend vocational or technical schools and receive in-depth and it is likely that as long as man seeks shelter from the elements, there will be work for these skilled professionals. While steel and glass make up the skyscraper, it is hard to imagine a world where the work of a mason is not held in high demand. Picture of an Ehrbarkeit Traditional belt-buckle of a bricklayer, fante also spent a significant portion of his youth apprenticed to his father. In Aleksandr Solzhenitsyns One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, the title character, the long-running British childrens TV series Look and Read featured Bill the Brickie, who would build words with bricks to demonstrate the use of morphemes, such as -ed or -ing. Brick hod Construction Construction worker Guild Stonemasonry
Bricklayer
–
Bricklayer in
Paoua,
Central African Republic
Bricklayer
–
The wounded bricklayer (es) large tapestry
cartoon by
Francisco de Goya
14.
Rebar
–
Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete. Rebar has been used in construction since at least the 15th century, more recently, during the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, the carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods. More recently these techniques have been refined by embedding the steel bars in the concrete, concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concretes behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads, rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area. Rebar may also be used to other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads. External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome, masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar and this combination is known as reinforced masonry. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete, if this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members, or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction, too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard and this phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter. Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the coating from the bars. These bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the USA, fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods. Most commercially available rebar is made from glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins
Rebar
–
A tied rebar beam cage. This will be embedded inside cast concrete to increase its tensile strength.
Rebar
–
Corroded concrete and rebar at the
bridge of
Queen Elizabeth Way crossing the
Welland River in
Niagara Falls, Ontario,
Canada.
Rebar
–
Rebar inside the
Leaning Tower of Nevyansk
Rebar
–
Steel reinforcement bars with color codes indicating the grade
15.
Framing (construction)
–
Framing, in construction, is the fitting together of pieces to give a structure support and shape. Framing materials are wood, engineered wood, or structural steel. Light-frame construction using standardized dimensional lumber has become the dominant construction method in North America, use of minimal structural material allows builders to enclose a large area with minimal cost, while achieving a wide variety of architectural styles. Historically mankind fitted naturally shaped wooden poles together as framework and then began using joints to connect the timbers, the studs in a balloon frame extend two stories from sill to plate. Platform framing superseded balloon framing and is the wooden framing method today. The name comes from each level being framed as a separate unit or platform. Modern light-frame structures usually gain strength from rigid panels but until recently carpenters employed various forms of diagonal bracing to stabilize walls. Diagonal bracing remains a vital part of many roof systems. Special framed shear walls are becoming common to help buildings meet the requirements of earthquake engineering. The alternative to framed construction is called mass wall construction which is made from horizontal layers of stacked materials such as log building, masonry, rammed earth, adobe. Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of exterior walls and interior partitions, the platforms may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and roof, or the ceiling and floor joists of the story above. The platform also provides the support against wind and holds the stick walls true. Any lower platform supports the weight of the platforms and walls above the level of its component headers, framing lumber should be grade-stamped, and have a moisture content not exceeding 19%. There are three common methods of framing a house. Post and beam, which is now used predominantly in barn construction, balloon framing using a technique suspending floors from the walls was common until the late 1940s, but since that time, platform framing has become the predominant form of house construction. Platform framing often forms wall sections horizontally on the prior to erection, easing positioning of studs. The top and bottom plates are end-nailed to each stud with two nails at least 3.25 in in length, studs are at least doubled at openings, the jack stud being cut to receive the lintels that are placed and end-nailed through the outer studs. Others, such as rigid glass-fiber, asphalt-coated fiberboard, polystyrene or polyurethane board, in this latter case, the wall should be reinforced with a diagonal wood or metal bracing inset into the studs
Framing (construction)
–
A wooden-frame house under construction – in this example of platform framing the location of the upper floor is readily discerned by the wide joists between the floors, and the upper structure rests on this platform.
Framing (construction)
–
The erection of a wooden frame in
Sabah, Malaysia.
Framing (construction)
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011)
Framing (construction)
–
A very unusual example of balloon framing: The Jim Kaney Round Barn, Adeline, Illinois, U.S.A.
16.
Tar paper
–
Tar paper is a heavy-duty paper used in construction. Tar paper is made by impregnating paper or fiberglass mat with tar, tar paper is distinguished from roofing felt which is impregnated with asphalt instead of tar, but these two products are used the same way, and sometimes are informally used as synonyms. Tar paper has been in use for centuries, originally felt was made from recycled rags but today felts are made of recycled paper products and sawdust. The most common product is the so-called #15 felt, before the oil crisis felt weighed about 15 pounds per square and hence the asphalt-impregnated felt was called 15# or 15 pound felt. Modern, inorganic mats no longer weigh 0.73 kg/m2, in fact, #15 mats can weigh from 7.5 to 12.5 pounds/sq depending on the manufacturer and the standard to which felt is made. Thirty pound felt, of 30# felt, is now #30 felt, tar paper is more accurately a Grade D building paper which is widely used in the west. Building paper is manufactured from virgin kraft paper, unlike felts, the longer fibres in the kraft paper allow for a lighter weight product with similar and often better mechanical properties than felt. Grade papers are rated in minutes—the amount of time it takes for a sensitive chemical indicator to change colour when a small boat-like sample is floated on water. Common grades include 10,20,30, and 60 minute, the higher the rating the more moisture resistant and the heavier. A typical 20 minute paper will weigh about 3.3 lbs per square, a 30-minute paper 3.75, the smaller volume of material however does tend to make these papers less resistant to moisture than heavier felts. Tar paper is far less common than asphalt felt paper and is used, among other things, for waterproofing roofs to prevent ingress of moisture. It is used in a percentage of built-up roofs, as underlayment with asphalt, wood, shake. It can be installed in several ways, such as staples or roofing nails, but it is also sometimes applied in several layers with hot asphalt, cold asphalt, or non-asphaltic adhesives
Tar paper
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)
Tar paper
–
Workers using special "roofing
shovels " to remove composite shingles as part of a roof repair. Roofing felt or tar paper is here used as underlay(ment) between the wooden sheathing and exterior shingles.
17.
Weep hole
–
A weep, a weep hole, or a weep-brick is a small opening that allows water to drain from within an assembly. Weeps are located at the bottom of the object to allow for drainage, weeps may also be necessary in a retaining wall, so water can escape from the retained earth, thus lessening the hydrostatic load on the wall and preventing moisture damage from freeze/thaw cycles. In such cases the weeps consist of plastic, clay or metal pipes extending through the wall to a layer of porous backfill. Typically, weeps are arranged to direct water which may have entered an assembly from outside back to the outside, weeps may also be found in metal windows and glazed curtain walls to permit interstitial condensation to escape. In building construction, weeps are typically found in a masonry veneer or cavity wall, the cavity serves as a way to drain this water back out through the weep holes. The weep holes allow wind to create an air stream through the cavity, the stream removes evaporated water from the cavity to the outside. Weep holes are placed above windows to prevent dry rot of a wooden window frame. The open head joint process is done by leaving out mortar from the joints and this create open holes of the same size of the typical spacing of the joints. This is the most common method and most effective way to water from the cavity. The spacing between open head joints can be done at every 24 inches, one of the problems with this method is that the open head joints create large holes which may not be appealing. Some maintenance workers may also inadvertently patch those holes up without realizing they are weep holes, there are some products such as aluminum vent and plastic grid that can be inserted into the weep holes to make them less conspicuous. Cotton wicks can be used to form weeps, a rope of up to 12 inches in length is placed in the joints. The other end of the rope is extended up into the cavity wall, the process of evaporation is slower than with weep holes. Also, the cotton could catch fire, another type of weeps is a tube that can be made formed by using hollow plastic or metal. The spacing between the tubes is about 16 inches apart, the installation of the tubes are done at angle to allow water to drip out. If the angle is too steep, the hole inside the wall cavity will be too high for water to come out. If the angle is too flat, the used in laying the bricks may drop into cavity. Sometime a shallow layer of gravel is laid to prevent mortar dropping from blocking the tubes, the thickness of the plastic tube, however small, will create a small dam that allows water to pool inside the wall cavity
Weep hole
–
Weep hole
Weep hole
–
Weep holes with plastic grid inserts
18.
Adobe
–
Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
Adobe
–
Renewal of the surface
coating of an adobe wall in
Chamisal,
New Mexico
Adobe
–
Church at
San Pedro de Atacama,
Chile
Adobe
–
Adobe style in
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Adobe
–
Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at
Cuarenta Casas in Mexico.
19.
Thermal insulation
–
Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes, heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing temperature. Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which thermal conduction is reduced or thermal radiation is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body, the insulating capability of a material is measured with thermal conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating capability, in thermal engineering, other important properties of insulating materials are product density and specific heat capacity. Solid materials chosen for insulation have a low thermal conductivity k, as the thickness of insulation is increased, the thermal resistance also increases. For insulated cylinders, a critical radius must be reached, before the critical radius is reached any added insulation increases heat transfer. If the outside radius of a cylinder is increased by applying insulation, however, at the same time, the convective resistance is reduced. This implies that adding insulation below a critical radius actually increases the heat transfer. If the radius of the cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation. Gases possess poor thermal conduction properties compared to liquids and solids, in order to further augment the effectiveness of a gas it may be disrupted into small cells which cannot effectively transfer heat by natural convection. Convection involves a larger flow of gas driven by buoyancy and temperature differences. In order to accomplish gas cell formation in man-made thermal insulation, glass and this principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as, cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, and cork. Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such as wool, down feathers, the air-trapping property is also the insulation principle employed by homeothermic animals to stay warm, for example down feathers, and insulating hair such as natural sheeps wool. In both cases the primary insulating material is air, and the used for trapping the air is natural keratin protein. Maintaining acceptable temperatures in buildings uses a proportion of global energy consumption. For a period of time, Asbestos was also used, however, when well insulated, a building, is energy-efficient, thus saving the owner money. Provides more uniform throughout the space. Unlike heating and cooling equipment, insulation is permanent and does not require maintenance, upkeep, lowers the carbon footprint of a building
Thermal insulation
–
Mineral wool Insulation, 1600 dpi scan
Thermal insulation
–
Car exhausts usually require some form of heat barrier, especially high performance exhausts where a ceramic coating is often applied
Thermal insulation
–
Common insulation applications in
apartment building in
Ontario,
Canada.
Thermal insulation
–
Thermal insulation applied to exhaust component by means of plasma spraying
20.
Glass wool
–
Glass wool is an insulating material made from fibres of glass arranged using a binder into a texture similar to wool. The process traps many small pockets of air between the glass, and these air pockets result in high thermal insulation properties. Glass wool is produced in rolls or in slabs, with different thermal and mechanical properties and it may also be produced as a material that can be sprayed or applied in place, on the surface to be insulated. The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at the Owens-Illinois Glass Co and he first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933. Gases possess good thermal conduction properties compared to liquids and solids, in order to further augment the effectiveness of a gas it may be disrupted into small cells which cannot effectively transfer heat by natural convection. Convection involves a larger flow of gas driven by buoyancy and temperature differences. In order to accomplish formation of gas cells in man-made thermal insulation, glass. The same principle used in glass wool is used in other man-made insulators such as wool, styrofoam, wet suit neoprene foam fabrics. The air-trapping property is also the principle used in nature in down feathers. Natural sand and recycled glass are mixed and heated to 1,450 °C, the fiberglass is usually produced by a method similar to making cotton candy, by forcing it through a fine mesh by centripetal force, cooling on contact with the air. Cohesion and mechanical strength are obtained by the presence of a binder that “cements” the fibers together, a drop of bonder is placed at each fiber intersection. The fiber mat is then heated to around 200 °C to polymerize the resin and is calendered to give it strength, finally, the wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels, palletized, and stored for use. It is also used to insulate piping and for soundproofing, batts are precut, whereas blankets are available in continuous rolls. Compressing the material reduces its effectiveness, cutting it to accommodate electrical boxes and other obstructions allows air a free path to cross through the wall cavity. One can install batts in two layers across an unfinished attic floor, perpendicular to other, for increased effectiveness at preventing heat bridging. Blankets can cover joists and studs as well as the space between them, batts can be challenging and unpleasant to hang under floors between joists, straps, or staple cloth or wire mesh across joists, can hold it up. Gaps between batts can become sites of air infiltration or condensation and requires strict attention during the installation, by the same token careful weatherization and installation of vapour barriers is required to ensure that the batts perform optimally. Air infiltration can be reduced by adding a layer of cellulose loose-fill on top of the material
Glass wool
–
Fiberglass insulation from a ceiling tile
Glass wool
–
Glass wool batt insulation
Glass wool
–
Fiberglass
pipe insulation with ASJ (All Service Jacket) penetrating
concrete slab opening about to be
firestopped.
Intumescent wrap strip is used to seal off where the fiberglass will be consumed by fire.
Glass wool
–
Installing glass wool batts as ceiling insulation
21.
Plaster
–
Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English plaster usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, the plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens, plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a material, it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing. Forms of plaster have several other uses, in medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models, various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the matrix for fresco painting. Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F, when the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes, if plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F, hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite is produced, γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed. A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led calcined gypsum to be known as plaster of Paris. Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie, nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient. This is the material that was used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster, lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand
Plaster
–
Early 19th Century plasterer at work - painting by
John Cranch (1751 - 1821).
Plaster
–
19th century
stucco plasterwork from
House of Borujerdies in
Kashan,
Iran.
Plaster
–
19th century, plasterwork in
Mazandaran,
Behshahr,
Iran.
Plaster
–
Plasterwork in
Pompeii (79 AD)
22.
Drywall
–
Drywall is a panel made of calcium sulfate dihydrate with or without additives and normally pressed between a facer and a backer. It is used to make walls and ceilings. The plaster is mixed with fibre, plasticizer, foaming agent, and various additives that can decrease mildew, increase fire resistance, drywall construction became prevalent in North America as a speedier alternative to traditional lath and plaster. The first plasterboard plant in the UK was opened in 1888 in Rochester, Sackett Board was invented in 1894 by Augustine Sackett and Fred Kane. It was made by layering plaster within four plies of wool felt paper, sheets were 36 ×36 × 1/4 thick with open edges. Gypsum board evolved between 1910 and 1930 beginning with wrapped board edges and elimination of the two layers of felt paper in favor of paper-based facings. In 1910 United States Gypsum Corporation bought Sackett Plaster Board Company, providing efficiency of installation, it was developed additionally as a measure of fire resistance. Later air entrainment technology made boards lighter and less brittle, then joint treatment materials, rock lath was an early substrate for plaster. As it evolved, it was faced with paper impregnated with gypsum crystals that bonded with the applied facing layer of plaster, a wallboard panel consists of a layer of gypsum plaster sandwiched between two layers of paper. The raw gypsum, CaSO4·2 H2O, is heated to drive off the water then slightly rehydrated to produce the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate, the board is then formed by sandwiching a core of the wet mixture between two sheets of heavy paper or fibreglass mats. When the core sets it is dried in a large drying chamber. Drying chambers typically use natural gas today, to dry 1 MSF of wallboard, between 1,750,000 and 2,490,000 BTU is required. Organic dispersants/plasticisers are used so the slurry will flow during manufacture, coal-fired power stations include devices called scrubbers to remove sulphur from their exhaust emissions. The sulphur is absorbed by powdered limestone in a process called flue-gas desulphurization and this is commonly used in drywall construction in the United States and elsewhere. Drywall panels in the United States are manufactured in 48-inch, 54-inch and 96-inch wide panels in varying lengths to suit the application, lengths up to 12-feet are commonly available, though the most common length is 8-feet. Common panel thicknesses are 1⁄2-inch and 5⁄8-inch, with panels also available in 1⁄4-inch, 3⁄8-inch, 3/4-inch and 1-inch for specific applications, in Europe plasterboard is manufactured in metric sizes, with the common sizes being corollaries of old imperial sizes. Most plasterboard is made in 120 cm-wide sheets, though 90 cm and 60 cm wide sheets are also made,120 cm wide plasterboard is most commonly made in 240 cm lengths, though 250,260,270,280,300 cm and even longer are commonly available. Thicknesses of plasterboard available are 9.5 mm to 25 mm, however four side chamfered drywall is not currently offered by major UK manufacturers for general use
Drywall
–
Vertically hung drywall with
joint compound.
Drywall
–
Drywall is delivered to a building site on a flatbed truck and unloaded with a forked material handler crane. The bulk drywall sheets are unloaded directly to upper floors via a window or exterior doorway.
Drywall
–
Electric screw gun used to drive drywall screws
Drywall
–
Drywall water damage in a closet.
23.
Dry stone
–
Dry stone is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. Dry stone structures are stable because of their construction method. Dry stone technology is best known in the context of wall construction, but dry stone artwork, buildings, bridges, Dry stone walls have been traditionally used in building construction as field boundaries and garden or churchyard walls, and on steep slopes as retaining walls for terracing. Some dry-stone wall constructions in north-west Europe have been dated back to the Neolithic Age, some Cornish hedges are believed by the Guild of Cornish Hedgers to date from 5000 BC, although there appears to be little dating evidence. In County Mayo, Ireland, a field system made from dry-stone walls. The cyclopean walls of the acropolis of Mycenae have been dated to 1350 BC, in Belize, the Mayan ruins at Lubaantun illustrate use of dry stone construction in architecture of the 8th and 9th centuries AD. When used as boundaries, dry stone structures often are known as dykes. Dry stone walls are characteristic of areas of Britain and Ireland where rock outcrops naturally or large stones exist in quantity in the soil. They are especially abundant in the West of Ireland, particularly Connemara and they may also be found throughout the Mediterranean, including retaining walls used for terracing. Such constructions are common where large stones are plentiful or conditions are too harsh for hedges capable of retaining livestock to be grown as field boundaries. Many thousands of miles of such walls exist, most of them centuries old, the technique of construction was brought to America primarily by English and Scots-Irish immigrants. The technique was taken to Australia and New Zealand. Similar walls also are found in the Swiss-Italian border region, where they are used to enclose the open space under large natural boulders or outcrops. The higher-lying rock-rich fields and pastures in Bohemias South-Western border range of Šumava are often lined by dry stone walls built of field-stones removed from the arable or cultural land and they serve both as cattle/sheep fences and the lots borders. Sometimes also the dry stone terracing is apparent, often combined with parts of masonry that are held together by a clay-cum-needles composite mortar. Great Zimbabwe is a city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe, near Lake Mutirikwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the countrys Late Iron Age, construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown, the stone city spans an area of 722 hectares which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people
Dry stone
–
17th century dry stone wall at
Muchalls Castle,
Scotland
Dry stone
–
Inca wall of dry stone construction in
Cusco,
Peru
Dry stone
–
Mosaic embedded in a dry stone wall in Italian
Switzerland
Dry stone
–
Using a batter-frame and guidelines to rebuild a dry stone wall in
South Wales UK
24.
Friction
–
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction, Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces, fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other. Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces, skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation. When surfaces in contact move relative to other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. This property can have consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology, Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation. The complexity of interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis. Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent, in the presence of friction, some energy is always lost in the form of heat. Thus mechanical energy is not conserved, the Greeks, including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction. They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with Themistius stating in 350 A. D. that it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest. The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in 1493, a pioneer in tribology and these laws were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons in 1699. Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities, the understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, the distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulombs friction law, although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758. Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, in Leslies view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before
Friction
–
When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction. The friction increases as the applied force increases until the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.
25.
University of Newcastle (Australia)
–
The University of Newcastle, informally known as Newcastle University, is an Australian public university established in 1965. It has a campus in Callaghan, a suburb of Newcastle. The university also operates campuses in Ourimbah, Port Macquarie, Singapore and it pioneered use of the Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test in the early 1990s. UMAT has since been accepted widely by different medical schools across Australia as a selection criteria. The University of Newcastle is a member of Universities Australia and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, in 2015 Times Higher Education ranked the University of Newcastle number 2 in Australia and number 30 in the world for universities under 50 years of age. The earliest origins of the present-day University of Newcastle can be traced to the Newcastle Teachers College, NUC was created as an offshoot of the New South Wales University of Technology and was co-located with the Newcastle Technical College at Tighes Hill. At the time of its establishment, NUC had just five students and study was restricted to engineering, mathematics. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Newcastle residents campaigned for NUC to be re-constituted as a university in its own right. The new university was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in London. In 1966, the University relocated from Tighes Hill to a largely undeveloped bushland site in Shortland, students at the university celebrate Autonomy Day on 1 July of each year. According to unverified sources, official autonomy was marked on 1 January 1965 with a symbolic ceremonial bonfire held at the site of the Great Hall. This celebration is said to have been officiated by Professor Godfrey Tanner who is said to have poured wine libations onto the ground as to sanctify the land upon which the University rests. Since the university became autonomous on 1 January 1965 autonomy day should be held on 1 January. 1 July actually coincided with the New South Wales University of Technology’s autonomy from the Public Service Board’s authority on 1 July 1954, according to Don Wright, students interpreted Autonomy Day as celebrating the autonomy of the University of Newcastle from the University of New South Wales. The students were entitled to give the celebration whatever meaning they chose, the fact that they called it ‘autonomy day’ heightened the students’ sense of the importance of autonomy and their need to defend it against outside interference. In 1989, the Dawkins reforms amalgamated the Hunter Institute of Higher Education with the University of Newcastle, the Hunter Institute was located in a series of buildings on land immediately adjacent to the University at Callaghan and amalgamation expanded the campus to some 140 hectares. Under the reforms, the University also gained the Newcastle branch of the NSW Conservatorium of Music located in the central business district. In 1998, the university established a partnership with the Institut Wira, in 2002, Ian Firms, a lecturer, failed a large number of student papers from Wira for academic dishonesty, but his actions were reversed by the Newcastle administration and he was discharged
University of Newcastle (Australia)
–
The Medical Sciences Building
University of Newcastle (Australia)
–
Coat of Arms of the University of Newcastle
University of Newcastle (Australia)
–
Nursing Lecture Theatre near Hunter Building, Callaghan Campus (formally the Richardson Theatre)
26.
Brickwork
–
Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks—called courses— are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall, Brick is a popular medium for constructing buildings, and examples of brickwork are found through history as far back as the Bronze Age. The fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of ancient Dur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, much older examples of brickwork made with dried bricks may be found in such ancient locations as Jericho in Judea, Çatal Hüyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan. These structures have survived from the Stone Age to the present day, parts of brickwork include bricks, beds and perpends. The bed is the mortar upon which a brick is laid, a perpend is a vertical joint between any two bricks and is usually—but not always—filled with mortar. An example of a co-ordinating metric commonly used for bricks in the UK is as follows, Bricks of dimensions 215 mm x 102.5 mm ×65 mm, Mortar beds and perpends of a uniform 10 mm. In this case the co-ordinating metric works because the length of a brick is equal to the total of the width of a brick plus a perpend plus the width of a second brick. There are many other brick sizes worldwide, and many of them use this same co-ordinating principle, a brick is given a classification based on how it is laid, and how the exposed face is oriented relative to the face of the finished wall. Stretcher or Stretching brick A brick laid flat with its narrow side exposed. Header or Heading brick A brick laid flat with its width exposed, soldier A brick laid vertically with its long narrow side exposed. Sailor A brick laid vertically with the face of the brick exposed. Rowlock A brick laid on the narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed. Shiner or Rowlock Stretcher A brick laid on the narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed. The practice of laying uncut full-sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength, in some cases these special shapes or sizes are manufactured. A second practice particularly observed in older examples of brickwork is that of building brickwork thicker than the width of any of its individual bricks, in such cases, some of the bricks may well be tied together into the depth of the wall. Historically, this was the dominant method for consolidating the transverse strength of walls, brickwork observing either or both of these two conventions is described as being laid in one or another bond. The advent during the mid twentieth century of the cavity wall saw the popularisation, a cavity wall comprises two totally discrete walls—each one of which is called a wythe or leaf. A cavity separates the two leaves so that there is no connection between them at all
Brickwork
–
Decorative Tudor brick chimneys,
Hampton Court Palace, UK
Brickwork
–
Twelfth-century temple brickwork,
Ayutthaya, Thailand
Brickwork
–
Former Post Office, Arvika, Sweden.
Brickwork
–
Private building, Solna, Sweden.
27.
Wythe
–
A wythe is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit in thickness. A wythe may be independent of, or interlocked with, the adjoining wythe, a single wythe of brick that is not structural in nature is referred to as a veneer. Building Envelope Design Guide - Masonry Wall Systems
Wythe
–
For other uses, see
Wythe (disambiguation).
28.
Crinkle crankle walls
–
A crinkle crankle wall, also known as a crinkum crankum, serpentine, ribbon or wavy wall, is an unusual type of garden wall. The crinkle crankle wall economizes on bricks, despite its sinuous configuration, if a wall this thin were to be made in a straight line, without buttresses, it would easily topple over. The alternate convex and concave curves in the wall provide stability, both crinkle and crankle are defined as something with bends and turns, but the term is also thought to come from Old English meaning zig-zag. The earliest reference to this meaning has been cited in 1598, at that time these garden walls were usually aligned east-west, so that one side faced south to catch the warming sun and were historically used for growing fruit. Many crinkle crankle walls are found in the East Anglia area of England where the marshes of the fen country were drained by Dutch engineers starting in the mid-1600s, the walls construction is attributed to these engineers who called them slangenmuur, meaning snake wall. The county of Suffolk claims at least 50 examples, twice as many as in the whole of the rest of the country, and where crinkle crankle is said to derive from a local dialect. In the estate village of Easton the noted crinkle crankle wall running from the manor house to All Saints Church is supposed to be the longest existing example. In November 2013 a section of the Easton wall suffered damage when a motorist crashed into the wall. An estimated £20,000 worth of damage was caused, the motorist left the scene and has yet to be identified, in Lymington, Hampshire, there are a least two examples of crinkle crankle walls. The oldest is thought to have been constructed at the time of the Napoleonic Wars by exiled Hanoverian soldiers living in the adjacent house, thomas Jefferson incorporated so-called serpentine walls into the architecture of the University of Virginia, which he founded. Flanking both sides of its rotunda and extending down the length of the lawn are 10 pavilions. Although some authorities claim Jefferson invented this design, he was adapting a well-established English style of construction. A university document in his own hand shows how he calculated the savings, dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture by James Stevens Curl
Crinkle crankle walls
–
Crinkle crankle wall in
Bramfield, Suffolk
29.
Concrete masonry unit
–
A concrete masonry unit is a standard size rectangular block used in building construction. Those that use cinders are called cinder blocks in Canada, the United States, and New Zealand, breeze blocks in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and hollow blocks in the Philippines. In Australia they are known as Besser blocks or besser bricks. Clinker blocks use clinker as aggregate, in non-technical usage, the terms cinder block and breeze block are often generalized to cover all of these varieties. Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, lower density blocks may use industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash, as an aggregate. Lightweight blocks can also be produced using autoclaved aerated concrete, Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers to reduce weight or improve insulation. The use of blockwork allows structures to be built in the masonry style with layers of staggered blocks. In the US, the most common size is 16 in ×8 in ×8 in. In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually 440 mm ×215 mm ×100 mm excluding mortar joints, in New Zealand and Canada, blocks are usually 390 mm ×190 mm ×190 mm excluding mortar joints. Block cores are typically tapered so that the top surface of the block has a surface on which to spread a mortar bed. Most CMUs have two cores, but three- and four-core units are also produced, a core also allows for the insertion of steel reinforcement, tying individual blocks together in the assembly, with the goal of greatly increased strength. To hold the reinforcement in proper position and to bond the block to the reinforcement, reinforcement is primarily used to impart greater tensile strength to the assembly, improving its ability to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces. A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features, u-shaped blocks or knockout blocks with notches to allow the construction of bond beams or lintel assemblies, using horizontal reinforcing grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as jamb blocks, blocks with grooved ends permit the construction of control joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends. Other features, such as radiused corners known as bullnoses may be incorporated, a wide variety of decorative profiles also exist. Concrete masonry units may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or textures for finish use, special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block unit, such factory-produced units are called split-rib or split-face blocks. Blocks may be scored by grooves the width of a joint to simulate different block modules. For example, an 8-by-16-inch block may be scored in the middle to simulate 8-by-8-inch masonry, with the grooves filled with mortar, American suburban houses typically employ a concrete foundation vibrant and slab with a concrete block wall on the perimeter
Concrete masonry unit
–
A stack of rectangular CMUs
Concrete masonry unit
–
An inside wall of painted breeze blocks, unplastered
30.
Water
–
Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Water
–
Water in three states: liquid, solid (
ice), and gas (invisible
water vapor in the air).
Clouds are accumulations of water droplets,
condensed from vapor-saturated air.
Water
–
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.
Water
–
Snowflakes by
Wilson Bentley, 1902.
Water
–
Dew drops adhering to a
spider web.
31.
Stucco
–
Stucco or render is a material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a dense solid. It is used as coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe. In English, stucco usually means a coating for the outside of a building, and plaster one for interiors, as described below, but other European languages, importantly including Italian, do not have the same distinction, stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. This has led to English often using stucco for interior decorative plasterwork in relief, especially in art history, the difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster, and mortar is based more on use than composition. Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength, in the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency in an attempt to improve the durability of stucco. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were being replaced by gypsum plaster, traditional stucco is made of lime, sand, and water. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand, and water, lime is added to increase the permeability and workability of modern stucco. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve the properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, lime stucco is a relatively hard material that can be broken or chipped by hand without too much difficulty. The lime itself is white, color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments. Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a degree because of the slight water solubility of lime. Portland cement stucco is very hard and brittle and can easily crack if the base on which it is applied is not stable, typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also used. Todays stucco manufacturers offer a wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive and it was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over a solid masonry, brick or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained a color and was typically textured for appearance. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco, while the increased thickness, the traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats — the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
House of Borujerdi-ha, 1850s,
Kashan,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
Sardar Rafie Yanehsari building (Shahryari building 1),
Hezarjarib District,
Behshahr County,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco used as an exterior coating on a residential building.
Stucco
–
Rock dash stucco used as an exterior coating on a house on Canada's west coast. The chips of quartz, stone, and colored glass measure approx. 3-6 mm (1/8" - 1/4").
32.
Cement
–
A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and adheres to other materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but is used to bind sand, Cement is used with fine aggregate to produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel aggregates to produce concrete. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather, it sets as it dries and it is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting. Hydraulic cements set and become adhesive due to a reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and this allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient Romans used volcanic ash with added lime, the word cement can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium, used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment. In modern times, organic polymers are used as cements in concrete. Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime, hardens by carbonation in the presence of carbon dioxide which is present in the air. The carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be exposed to air and this whole process is called the lime cycle. Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when water is added, Hydraulic cements are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main components being, Belite, Alite, Tricalcium aluminate, Brownmillerite. The chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research, Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary curing ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs, in Egypt stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum, which often contained calcium carbonate. Lime was used on Crete and by the ancient Greeks, there is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potshards as an artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement. A kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing results and it is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country belonging to the towns round about Mt. Vesuvius. This substance when mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other kinds, the Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash with lime. This mixture was able to set under water increasing its resistance, the material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In the absence of ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute
Cement
–
Cement is usually a grey powder before being mixed with other materials and water. Typically, cement powder causes allergic reactions at skin contact and is irritating to skin, eyes, and lungs, so handlers should wear a
dust mask,
goggles, and protective
gloves
Cement
–
The National Cement Share Company of
Ethiopia 's new plant in
Dire Dawa.
33.
Concrete
–
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
Concrete
–
Outer view of the
Roman Pantheon, still the largest unreinforced solid concrete
dome.
Concrete
–
Inside the Pantheon dome, looking straight up. The concrete for the
coffered dome was laid on moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding.
Concrete
–
Opus caementicium exposed in a characteristic Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was usually covered with brick or stone.
Concrete
–
Smeaton's Tower
34.
Building code
–
A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
Building code
–
Code Violation: This fire-rated
concrete block wall is penetrated by
cable trays and
cables. The hole should be
firestopped to restore the
fire-resistance rating of the wall. Instead, it is filled with
flammable polyurethane foam.
Building code
–
"
Sutyagin's skyscraper " (Небоскрёб Сутягина) - supposedly world's tallest wooden single-family house - found to be in violation of fire codes by the city of
Arkhangelsk, Russia, and was demolished. [1]
35.
Brownstone
–
Brownstone is a brown Triassic-Jurassic sandstone which was once a popular building material. The term is used in the United States to refer to a townhouse clad in this material. In the 19th century, Basswood Island, Wisconsin, was the site of a run by the Bass Island Brownstone Company which operated from 1868 into the 1890s. The stone comes from the Hummelstown Quarry in Hummelstown, Pennsylvania, the Hummelstown Quarry is the largest provider of brownstone on the east coast. Typically the stone was transported out of Hummelstown through the Brownstone, connecticut River Brownstone, is also very popular. C. and Baltimore. Quarries from the Passaic Formation in northern New Jersey once supplied most of the used in New York City. The Manhattan neighborhood of the Upper West Side, too, retains many brownstones, Brownstones also predominate in some Hudson County neighborhoods directly across the Hudson River from Manhattan, especially in Hoboken and around Van Vorst Park and Hamilton Park in Jersey City. New York City brownstones usually cost several million dollars to purchase, a typical architectural detail of brownstones in and around New York City is the stoop, a steep staircase rising from the street to the entrance on what amounts to almost the second-floor level. This design was seen as hygienic at the many were built. Lately, it has become fashionable to use the term brownstone to refer to almost any townhouse from a certain period, many townhouses in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn, for example, are basically built of brick, some having concrete masonry cladding to make them resemble actual stone. The Rittenhouse Square and Fairmount, Philadelphia neighborhoods of Philadelphia also include examples of brownstone architecture, many of these homes have been converted into apartment buildings. Back Bay, Boston, is known for its Victorian brownstone homes – considered some of the examples of 19th-century urban design in the United States. Although some brownstones exist in Chicago, a similar residential form known as greystones are by far more prevalent, a greystone is a type of residential structure that utilizes Indiana limestone for its facade, regardless of its overall architectural style. As in Brooklyn, there exists a Greystone Belt in Chicago, with numbers of such structures located in the south. It is estimated that around 30,000 of Chicagos greystones built between 1890 and 1930 are still standing, Brownstone, also known as freestone due to its durability and advantages as a building material, was used by early Quakers in Pennsylvania to construct stone mills and mill houses. In central Pennsylvania, some 1700s-era structures survive, including one used as a residence. Archived from the original on 2006-08-13, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown in Wisconsin. Website devoted to the Weser brownstone quarries from Germany being imported into the US, after Fight, a Brooklyn Brownstones Costly Rescue, The New York Times Website devoted to the colonial-era Quaker Mill House in Pennsylvania
Brownstone
–
Five-story brownstones in
Harlem, just south of 125th Street, 2004
Brownstone
–
The
Barbour County Courthouse (1903–05) in
Philippi, West Virginia, is faced entirely in
Hummelstown brownstone
Brownstone
–
At Rutgers University, Old Queen's, built 1809–1823, was constructed from ashlar brownstone quarried in the hills near New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Brownstone
–
Painted brownstone rowhouses in
Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn,
New York
36.
Glass block
–
Glass brick, also known as glass block, is an architectural element made from glass. Glass bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light, the glass block was originally developed in the early 1900s to provide natural light in manufacturing plants. Glass bricks are produced for both wall and floor applications, glass blocks for use in floors are normally manufactured as a single solid piece, or as a hollow glass block with thicker side walls than the standard wall blocks. These blocks are normally cast into a reinforced concrete gridwork or set into a frame, allowing multiple units to be combined to span over openings in basements. Glass wall blocks should not be used in flooring applications, hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, whilst the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The resulting glass blocks will have a vacuum at the hollow centre. Glass blocks in Europe are manufactured in accordance with the European Standard EN1052-2, the International Standard is ISO TC 160/SG1. The Standards allow for variation in sizes and production irregularity, other methods of construction include several proprietary systems whereby the mortar is replaced by timber or PVC extrusions. Glass brick has an r value between 1.75 and 1.96, close to that of thermopane windows, specialist glass blocks are produced for various applications including, Bullet and vandal resistant blocks are generally solid glass or have very thick side walls similar to pavement blocks. Fire resistance of varying degrees can be achieved by several methods, some manufacturers of glass blocks have developed a method of bonding two glass blocks together with adhesive, producing blocks of up to 160 mm thick with enhanced fire resistance. A recent innovation in the manufacture of blocks is the inclusion of argon gas within the hollow centre of glass wall blocks. This advancement in production technique has resulted in a block which is able to offer significantly improved thermal insulation properties. Some hollow glass blocks are available in coloured variants. These coloured variants fall into two categories, those that are manufactured with coloured glass which are UV stable and can be used in the locations as standard clear glass blocks. The other method by which coloured glass blocks are achieved is to inject a coloured material and this method of producing coloured blocks enables vibrant colours to be achieved which are not possible with coloured glass. The downside of this method is that the coloured coating may not be UV stable and can fade in bright sunshine over time and may therefore. Crown Fountain in Chicago, United States
Glass block
–
Sidewalk skylight (also named 'pavement light') made of glass bricks in
Burlington House,
London
Glass block
–
Glass block wall in
Chicago.
Glass block
–
Crown Fountain is composed of glass brick towers.
Glass block
–
Glass brick labyrinths, used to obscure clear visual line of sight into women's washroom on the left, and men's washroom on the right.
37.
A-jack
–
A-Jacks are a commercially made concrete product used in both open channel and coastal applications. They consist of two concrete T-shaped pieces joined perpendicularly at the middle, forming six legs and they are a product owned and patented worldwide by Poseidon Alliance Ltd. Open channel applications include bank stabilization, flow and grade control, scour protection for bridge piers, the primary mechanism of protection employed is an increase in the relative roughness of the channel bank, the Mannings n is relatively high at 0.1. In coastal applications A-Jacks are used as breakwaters, revetments, artificial reefs, for example, rock can weigh between 150-175 lb/c. f. A suitable rip-rap boulder comparable to a 96 A-Jacks unit would weigh about 5800 lb, A-Jacks also have the advantage of being interlocking and self-stabilizing. For artificial reefs and habitat development, typical reef-building biota find areas of low turbulence within the spaces to establish colonies. Artificial reef Breakwater Gabions KOLOS Masonry Xbloc Integrated Armor System
A-jack
–
A-Jack in shoreline restoration
A-jack
–
Management
38.
Buckyball (football)
–
A football, soccer ball, or association football ball is the ball used in the sport of association football. The name of the ball according to whether the sport is called football, soccer. The balls spherical shape, as well as its size, weight, additional, more stringent, standards are specified by FIFA and subordinate governing bodies for the balls used in the competitions they sanction. Early footballs began as animal bladders or stomachs that would fall apart if kicked too much. Improvements became possible in the 19th century with the introduction of rubber, the modern 32-panel ball design was developed in 1962 by Eigil Nielsen, and technological research continues today to develop footballs with improved performance. In 1863, the first specifications for footballs were laid down by the Football Association, previous to this, footballs were made out of inflated leather, with later leather coverings to help footballs maintain their shapes. In 1872 the specifications were revised, and these rules have been essentially unchanged as defined by the International Football Association Board. Differences in footballs created since this rule came into effect have been to do with the used in their creation. Footballs have gone through a change over time. During medieval times balls were made from an outer shell of leather filled with cork shavings. Another method of creating a ball was using animal bladders for the inside of the making it inflatable. However, these two styles of creating footballs made it easy for the ball to puncture and were inadequate for kicking and it was not until the 19th century that footballs developed into what a football looks like today. In 1838, Charles Goodyear introduced the use of rubber and their discoveries of vulcanisation, Vulcanization is the treatment of rubber to give it certain qualities such as strength, elasticity, and resistance to solvents. Vulcanization of rubber also helps the football resist moderate heat and cold, Vulcanization helped create inflatable bladders that pressurise the outer panel arrangement of the football. Charles Goodyears innovation increased the ability of the ball and made it easier to kick. Most of the balls of this time had tanned leather with eighteen sections stitched together and these were arranged in six panels of three strips each. During the 1900s, footballs were made out of rubber and leather which was perfect for bouncing and kicking the ball, however, when heading the football it was usually painful. This problem was most probably due to absorption of the leather from rain
Buckyball (football)
–
Adidas Telstar -style ball, with the familiar black and white
truncated icosahedron pattern.
Buckyball (football)
–
Leather ball used in the football tournament at the
1936 Summer Olympics.
Buckyball (football)
–
Adidas Torfabrik football used in the
Bundesliga in
2011
Buckyball (football)
–
1930
39.
Ashlar
–
Ashlar is finely dressed masonry, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared or the masonry built of such stone. It is the finest stone masonry unit, generally cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, one such decorative treatment consists of small grooves achieved by the application of a metal comb. Generally used only on softer stone ashlar, this decoration is known as masons drag, ashlar is in contrast to rubble masonry, which employs irregularly shaped stones, although sometimes minimally worked or selected for similar size, or both. Ashlar is related but distinct from other stone masonry that is finely dressed but not quadrilateral, such as curvilinear masonry, ashlar may be coursed, which involves lengthy horizontal courses of stone blocks laid in parallel, and therefore with continuous horizontal joints. Ashlar may also be random, which involves stone blocks laid with deliberately discontinuous courses, in either case, it generally uses a joining material such as mortar to bind the blocks together, although dry ashlar construction, metal ties, and other methods of assembly have been used. The dry ashlar of Inca architecture in Cusco and Machu Picchu is particularly fine, the word is attested in Middle English and derives from Old French aisselier, from Latin axilla, diminutive of axis, plank. Ashlar blocks have been used in the construction of buildings as an alternative to brick or other materials. In classical architecture, ashlar wall surfaces were contrasted with rustication. The term is used to describe the dressed stone work of prehistoric Greece and Crete. For example, the tombs of Bronze Age Mycenae use ashlar masonry in the construction of the so-called beehive dome. This dome consists of finely cut ashlar blocks that decrease in size and these domes are not true domes, but are constructed using the corbel arch. Ashlar masonry was also used in the construction of palace facades on Crete. These constructions date to the MM III-LM Ib period, ca, in modern European masonry the blocks are generally about 35 centimetres in height. When shorter than 30 centimetres, they are called small ashlar. In some Masonic groupings, which such societies term jurisdictions, ashlars are used as a metaphor for how ones personal development relates to the tenets of their lodge. Ablaq Dimension stone Opus quadratum Rustication Stone cladding Stone veneer
Ashlar
–
Inca Empire Inca wall at
Machu Picchu, constructed in
dry ashlar masonry laid in parallel
courses
Ashlar
40.
Slipform stonemasonry
–
Slipform stone masonry is a method for making a reinforced concrete wall with stone facing in which stones and mortar are built up in courses within reusable slipforms. It is a cross between traditional mortared stone wall and a stone wall. Short forms, up to 60 cm high, are placed on both sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stone work, the stones are placed inside the forms with the good faces against the form work. Concrete is poured in behind the rocks, rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is approximately half reinforced concrete and half stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or both sides, after the concrete sets enough to hold the wall together, the forms are “slipped’ up to pour the next level. With slipforms it is easy for a novice to build free-standing stone walls, slipform stone masonry was developed by New York architect Ernest Flagg in 1920. Flagg built a vertical framework as tall as the wall, then inserted 2x6 or 2x8 planks as forms to guide the stonework, when the masonry work reached the top of a plank, Flagg inserted another one, adding more planks until he reached the top of the wall. Helen and Scott Nearing modified the technique in Vermont in the 1930s, using slipforms that were slipped up the wall
Slipform stonemasonry
–
Slipforms oiled to prevent concrete from sticking to the wood.
Slipform stonemasonry
–
Slipform stone with rebar ready for concrete
Slipform stonemasonry
–
Placing stones inside the forms.
Slipform stonemasonry
–
Window frames are placed in the forms.
41.
Stone veneer
–
Stone veneer is used as a protective and decorative covering for exterior or interior vertical walls and surfaces. The veneer is typically 1 inch thick and must weigh less than 15 pounds per square foot so that no structural supports will be required. Stone veneer can be made from natural stone as well as manufactured stone, natural stone veneer is made from real stone that is either collected, i. e. fieldstone, or quarried. The stone is cut to a consistent thickness and weight for use as a veneer and this stone is often called thin stone veneer invented by Gernot Ehrlich. Manufactured stone veneer is a building material manufactured to replicate the look of natural stone. The names artificial stones, faux stone, stacked stone veneer, manufactured stone, manufactured Stone veneer is fabricated by pouring a lightweight concrete mix into rubber forms of different style and then painted with a coloring process which makes it resemble real stone. The stone veneer produced is then attached to walls with special mortars, flexible stone veneer is fabricated by pulling a thin layer of stone from a slab of slate, sandstone, or mica schist. It is backed by a composite material, the advantages of manufactured stone veneer over natural stone are, cost weight variety of designs and colors good look for home, office, Hotel etc. Manufactured veneer is cheaper than stone, approximately 1/3 to 1/2 the cost of natural stone. Its light weight eliminates the need for wall ties or footings, the variety of designs and colors makes available options which would not be available with natural stone, since natural stone is used in the general area around the locality which it is extracted. Furthermore, manufactured stone veneer has a larger factor than natural stone. Natural stone can be chipped, cut, and shaped to any size needed, the cut off pieces can be reused. While manufactured stone veneer can not be cut to fit because it exposes the inner concrete from which the manufactured stone is made of. The user ends up with areas that require a small cut fill piece that has exposed concrete edges, also, manufactured stone contains lime nuggets which can leech out and stain the surface over time when exposed to water. Manufactured stone is not a naturally occurring product and, due to its cast origin and painted exterior, it is subject to changes caused by exposure to the UV in sunlight. Manufactured stone is a porous product and it absorbs much more water than real stone and it will transfer the moisture through to the wall of the structure causing many of the same issues seen with improperly installed stucco. Being a porous product manufactured stone is subjected to ice wedging, as water seeps into the manufactured stone and then freezes, chunks of the face will pop off leaving a rugged edge which looks similar to the edge of a broken sidewalk. Repair can be expensive as the piece of stone must be cut out
Stone veneer
–
Stone veneer installation
42.
Gabion
–
A gabion is a cage, cylinder, or box filled with rocks, concrete, or sometimes sand and soil for use in civil engineering, road building, military applications and landscaping. For erosion control, caged riprap is used, for dams or in foundation construction, cylindrical metal structures are used. In a military context, earth- or sand-filled gabions are used to protect sappers, infantry, leonardo da Vinci designed a type of gabion called a Corbeille Leonard for the foundations of the San Marco Castle in Milan. Other uses include retaining walls, noise barriers, temporary walls, silt filtration from runoff, for small or temporary/permanent dams, river training. They may be used to direct the force of a flow of water around a vulnerable structure. Gabions are also used as fish screens on small streams, a gabion wall is a retaining wall made of stacked stone-filled gabions tied together with wire. Gabion walls are usually battered, or stepped back with the slope, gabion baskets have some advantages over loose riprap because of their modularity and ability to be stacked in various shapes. Gabions have advantages over more rigid structures, because they can conform to subsidence, dissipate energy from flowing water and resist being washed away and their strength and effectiveness may increase with time in some cases, as silt and vegetation fill the interstitial voids and reinforce the structure. They are sometimes used to prevent falling stones from a cut or cliff endangering traffic on a thoroughfare, the life expectancy of gabions depends on the lifespan of the wire, not on the contents of the basket. The structure will fail when the wire fails, galvanized steel wire is most common, but PVC-coated and stainless steel wire are also used. PVC-coated galvanized gabions have been estimated to survive for 60 years, Some gabion manufacturers guarantee a structural consistency of 50 years. In the United States, gabion use within streams first began with projects completed from 1957 to 1965 on North River, Virginia and Zealand River, more than 150 grade-control structures, bank revetments and channel deflectors were constructed on the two U. S. Forest Service sites. Eventually, a portion of the in-stream structures failed due to undermining. In particular, corrosion and abrasion of wires by bedload movement compromised the structures, other gabions were toppled into channels as trees grew and enlarged on top of gabion revetments, leveraging them toward the river channels. Gabions have also used in building, as in the Dominus Winery in the Napa Valley, California by architects Herzog & de Meuron. There are various designs of gabions to meet particular functional requirements. For example, Bastion, a gabion lined internally with a membrane, typically of nonwoven geotextile to permit use of a granular soil fill, mattress, a form of gabion with relatively small height relative to the lateral dimensions, commonly very wide. For protecting surfaces from wave erosion and similar attack, rather than building or supporting high structures, trapion, a form of gabion with a trapezoidal cross section, designed for stacking to give a face that is sloping rather than stepped
Gabion
–
Gabions with
cannon, from a late 16th century illustration.
Gabion
–
Reinforced earth with gabions supporting a multilane roadway,
Sveti Rok,
Croatia.
Gabion
–
Up close view of a bank protection made with mattresses in Vrtižer, Slovakia.
Gabion
–
Bridge abutment with gabions.
43.
Zinc
–
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
Zinc
–
Zinc, 30 Zn
Zinc
–
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Zinc
–
Zinc acetate
Zinc
–
Zinc chloride
44.
Steel
–
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
Steel
–
The
steel cable of a
colliery winding tower
Steel
–
Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Steel
–
Iron ore pellets for the production of steel
Steel
–
A Bessemer converter in
Sheffield,
England
45.
Hot-dip galvanizing
–
Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization. Galvanized steel can be welded, however, one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes, galvanized steel is suitable for high-temperature applications of up to 392 °F. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the metallic layer. Like other corrosion protection systems, galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere, however, zinc is a more electropositive metal in comparison to steel. The process of hot-dip galvanizing results in a bond between zinc and steel with a series of distinct iron-zinc alloys. The resulting coated steel can be used in much the way as uncoated. A typical hot-dip galvanizing line operates as follows, Steel is cleaned using a caustic solution and this removes oil/grease, dirt, and paint. The caustic cleaning solution is rinsed off, the steel is pickled in an acidic solution to remove mill scale. The pickling solution is rinsed off, a flux, often zinc ammonium chloride is applied to the steel to inhibit oxidation of the cleaned surface upon exposure to air. The flux is allowed to dry on the steel and aids in the process of the liquid zinc wetting and adhering to the steel, the steel is dipped into the molten zinc bath and held there until the temperature of the steel equilibrates with that of the bath. The steel is cooled in a tank to reduce its temperature. Lead is either added to primary Z1 grade zinc or already contained in used secondary zinc, a third, declining method is to use low Z5 grade zinc. Steel strip can be hot-dip galvanized in a continuous line, hot-dip galvanized steel strip is extensively used for applications requiring the strength of steel combined with the resistance to corrosion of zinc. Roofing and walling, safety barriers, handrails, consumer appliances, one common use is in metal pails. Other modern techniques have largely replaced hot-dip for these sorts of roles and this includes electrogalvanizing, which deposits the layer of zinc from an aqueous electrolyte by electroplating, forming a thinner and much stronger bond. In 1742, French chemist Paul Jacques Malouin described a method of coating iron by dipping it in molten zinc in a presentation to the French Royal Academy. In 1772 Luigi Galvani, galvanizings namesake, discovered the process that takes place between metals during an experiment with frog legs. In 1801 Alessandro Volta furthered the research on galvanizing when he discovered the electro-potential between two metals, creating a corrosion cell
Hot-dip galvanizing
–
Crystalline surface of a hot-dip galvanized handrail.
Hot-dip galvanizing
–
A street lamp in Singapore showing the characteristic spangle.
Hot-dip galvanizing
–
A hot-dip galvanizing 'kettle' with fume hood
46.
Retaining wall
–
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil. A basement wall is one kind of retaining wall. But the term refers to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. These are cantilevered from a footing and rise above the grade on one side to retain a level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist the pressures generated by loose soils or, in some cases. Every retaining wall supports a “wedge” of soil, the wedge is defined as the soil which extends beyond the failure plane of the soil type present at the wall site, and can be calculated once the soil friction angle is known. As the setback of the wall increases, the size of the wedge is reduced. This reduction lowers the pressure on the retaining wall, the most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the tendency of the retained material to move downslope due to gravity. Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall, earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a system causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height. Unless the wall is designed to retain water, It is important to have proper drainage behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the design value. Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall. Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining.5 against lateral sliding and overturning, gravity walls depend on their mass to resist pressure from behind and may have a batter setback to improve stability by leaning back toward the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units. Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing, earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone. Cantilevered retaining walls are made from a stem of steel-reinforced. These walls cantilever loads to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below, sometimes cantilevered walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads
Retaining wall
–
A
gravity -type
stone retaining wall
Retaining wall
Retaining wall
–
Various types of retaining walls
Retaining wall
–
Construction types of gravity retaining walls
47.
Cellular confinement
–
Research and development of cellular confinement systems began with the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1975 to devise a method for building tactical roads over soft ground. Today cellular confinement systems are made from strips 50–200 mm wide. The CCS is folded and shipped to the job site in a collapsed configuration, efforts for civilian commercialization of the cellular confinement system by the Presto Products Company, led to the Geoweb®. This cellular confinement system was made from high density polyethylene, relatively strong, lightweight, the cellular confinement system was used for load support, slope erosion control and channel lining and earth retention applications in the United States and Canada in the early 1980s. However, Richardson laments 25 years later on the absence of research papers on geocells in all of the geosynthetic national and international conferences. Fortunately in the last decade research and development in geocell systems expanded significantly, additional literature reviews can be found in Kief et al. Geocells are recognized as a suitable geosynthetic reinforcement of granular soils to support static and moving wheel loads on roadways, railways, but stiffness of the geocells was identified as a key influencing factor for geocell reinforcement, and hence the rigidity of the entire pavement structure. Utilizing recent advances in polymer and nano technology, extensive R&D was carried out to improve geocell wall stiffness, thermal and elastic properties, the result was a cellular confinement system manufactured from Neoloy, a novel polymeric alloy. NPA is an alloy of polyamide nano-fibers dispersed in a polyethylene matrix. that are subject to long-term heavy static and dynamic loading. Laboratory plate loading tests, full-scale moving wheel tests, and field demonstrations showed that the performance of geocell-reinforced bases depends on the modulus of the geocell. Geocells with an elastic modulus had a higher bearing capacity. NPA Geocells showed higher results in ultimate bearing capacity, stiffness, CCS have been successfully installed in thousands of projects worldwide. The lifespan of CCS in slope protection applications, for example, is critical as vegetative growth. This in effect compensates for any loss of confinement in the CCS. Similarly, load support applications for low volume roads that are not subject to heavy loading usually have a design life. However, in applications such as reinforcement of the structural layer of asphalt highway pavements. The required design life for such roads under heavy loads is typically 20–25 years. The few standards for CCS were developed more than 40 years ago and have changed little since, on the other hand ISO/ASTM procedures have been developed for testing polymers in the space and automobile industries, as well as for other geosynthetic products
Cellular confinement
–
A cellular confinement system being installed on an experimental trail in south-central Alaska.
Cellular confinement
–
Wood matrix after installation in
Wrangell–St. Elias Park in Alaska.
Cellular confinement
–
Geocells
48.
Sandbag
–
The advantages are that the bags and sand are inexpensive. When empty, the bags are compact and lightweight for easy storage and they can be brought to a site empty and filled with local sand or soil. Disadvantages are that filling bags is labor-intensive, without proper training, sandbag walls can be constructed improperly causing them to fail at a lower height than expected, when used in flood-control purposes. They can degrade prematurely in the sun and elements once deployed and they can also become contaminated by sewage in flood waters making them difficult to deal with after flood waters recede. In a military context, improvised up-armouring of tanks or armoured personnel carriers with sandbags is not effective against cannons, building sandbag walls is a simple, effective way to prevent or reduce flood water damage. Sandbags filled and stacked efficiently reduce costly flood water damage, sandbags are commonly used in preparation for flooding to help protect homes and buildings from water damage. When used correctly they can help homeowners and business owners mitigate losses as a result of flood waters, although generally not recommended to stack above three courses in height, if a barricade to protect structures from impending water damage is needed higher single-stack placement can be effective. Pyramid Placement Method Use pyramid placement to increase the height of sandbag protection—Use caution when raising levee height and it is critical to determine the height of the sandbag raise by accessing the latest reliable forecast of flood conditions. Ringing Sand Boil Method The term ‘sand boil’ comes from its look—like water boiling up from the ground, in order to create a sand boil, water has to be higher on one side of the levee than the other, creating higher pressure on one side of the levee. A sandbag ring constructed around boil to combat seepage and sediment loss, the military uses sandbags for field fortifications and as a temporary measure to protect civilian structures. Because burlap and sand are inexpensive, large protective barriers can be erected cheaply, the friction created by moving soil or sand grains and multiple tiny air gaps makes sandbags an efficient dissipator of explosive blast. The most common sizes for sandbags are 14 by 26 inches to 17 by 32 inches and these dimensions, and the weight of sand a bag this size can hold, allow for the construction of an interlocking wall like brickwork. Individual filled bags are not too heavy to lift and move into place and they may be laid in excavated defences as revetment, or as free-standing walls above ground where excavations are impractical. Cotton ducking sandbags last considerably longer than burlap and are preferable for long-term use. However, the vast majority of sandbags used by modern military, sandbags have been used since at least the late 18th century. For example, British loyalists used sandbag and log fortifications in the 1781 Siege of Ninety-Six during the American Revolutionary War, sandbags have traditionally been filled manually using shovels. Since the 1990s, machine filling has become common, allowing the work to be done more quickly and efficiently. Bulk bags, also known as big bags, are larger than traditional sandbags
Sandbag
–
Residents and volunteers work to fill sandbags during the
Mississippi and Missouri river floods of 1993.
Sandbag
–
Troops from the Grenadier Guards constructing sandbag defences around government buildings in Birdcage Walk, London, May 1940.
Sandbag
–
Sandbags being filled using a ladder on sawhorses with
traffic cones as
chutes or
funnels,
Moorhead, Minnesota, 2009.
Sandbag
–
Manual filling of sandbags.
