1.
Commodore (United States)
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Commodore was an early title and later a rank in the United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and the Confederate States Navy. For over two centuries, the designation has been varying levels of authority and formality. Because the U. S. Congress was originally unwilling to authorize more than four officer ranks in the navy until 1862, considerable importance was attached to the title of commodore. Like its Royal Navy counterpart at the time, the U. S. Navy commodore was not a higher rank, an American commodore in the early period, like an English commodore or a French chef descadre, was an officer assigned temporary command of more than one ship. He continued his permanent or regular rank during the assignment, once employed as a commodore, however, many jealously held onto the impressive title after their qualifying assignment ended. The Navy Department tried to discourage such continuing usage because it led to confusion, in 1857, Congress established the grade of flag officer. This generic title was intended to promote the efficiency of the Navy, like the courtesy-title commodores, flag officers reverted to captain once their squadron command assignment was completed. Because of the acute need for officers at the beginning of the American Civil War, naval tradition was ignored, eighteen commodores were authorized on July 16,1862. The rank of commodore continued in the Navy until March 3,1899, in short, U. S. Navy commodores were not being treated as flag officers by other navies, or given the respect that the Navy Department thought was their due. If there were an odd number of admirals, the lower half of the list was to be the larger. The U. S. Supreme Court later held that the rank of commodore had been removed from the U. S. Navy and this act disgruntled all the brigadier generals, who could now be outranked by officers who were their juniors in terms of service. This was a point of controversy for many years, especially after 1916. Thus the two-star rank of admiral was now equal to that of major general. The COMINCH of the U. S. Navy and Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Ernest J. King, president Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed, making the suggestion that the title be revived. As a result, the officer rank for the U. S. Navy. In actual practice, some officers on admirals staffs were also promoted to the rank of commodore, by the end of the War in the Pacific in August 1945, there were over 100 commodores in the U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard. After World War II, and with the drawdown in size of both the Navy and the Coast Guard, very few of the wartime commodores were ever promoted to rear admiral. All promotions to commodore ceased in 1947, and nearly all of the commodores who had held the rank had either been promoted to rear admiral or had retired from the Navy by 1950
2.
Mathew Brady
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Mathew B. Brady was one of the first American photographers, best known for his scenes of the Civil War. He studied under inventor Samuel F. B, Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams, when the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals, after the war, these pictures went out of fashion, and the government did not purchase the master-copies as he had anticipated. Brady’s fortunes declined sharply, and he died in debt, Brady was born on May 18,1822 in Warren County, New York near Lake George, the youngest of three children of Irish immigrant parents, Andrew and Samantha Julia Brady. He himself originally said that he was born in Ireland, at age 16, Brady moved to Saratoga, New York, where he met portrait painter William Page, and became Pages student. In 1839, the two traveled to Albany, New York, and then to New York City, where Brady continued to study painting with Page, and also with Pages former teacher, Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse had met Louis Jacques Daguerre in France in 1839, at first, Bradys involvement was limited to manufacturing leather cases that held daguerreotypes. But soon he became the center of the New York artistic colony that wished to study photography, Morse opened a studio and offered classes, Brady was one of the first students. In 1849, he opened a studio in Washington, D. C. where he met Juliet Handy, in 1850, Brady produced The Gallery of Illustrious Americans, a portrait collection of prominent contemporary figures. The album, which featured noteworthy images including the elderly Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage, was not financially rewarding but invited increased attention to Brady’s work, in 1856, Brady placed an ad in the New York Herald offering to produce photographs, ambrotypes and daguerreotypes. This inventive ad pioneered, in the USA, the use of typeface and fonts that were distinct from the text of the publication, at first, the effect of the Civil War on Bradys business was a brisk increase in sales of cartes de visite to departing soldiers. However, he was taken with the idea of documenting the war itself. He first applied to an old friend, General Winfield Scott, for permission to travel to the battle sites, Lincoln granted permission in 1861, with the proviso that Brady finance the project himself. His efforts to document the American Civil War on a grand scale by bringing his photographic studio onto the battlefields earned Brady his place in history, despite the dangers, financial risk, and discouragement by his friends, Brady was later quoted as saying I had to go. A spirit in my feet said Go, and I went and his first popular photographs of the conflict were at the First Battle of Bull Run, in which he got so close to the action that he barely avoided capture. While most of the time the battle had ceased before pictures were taken, Brady came under fire at the First Battle of Bull Run, Petersburg. He also employed Alexander Gardner, James Gardner, Timothy H. OSullivan, William Pywell, George N. Barnard, roche, and seventeen other men, each of whom was given a traveling darkroom, to go out and photograph scenes from the Civil War
3.
East India Squadron
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Part of the duties of this squadron was serving with the Yangtze River Patrol in China. The East India Squadron was established in 1835 and existed until it became part of the Asiatic Squadron in 1868. Shortly before Senator Levi Woodbury of New Hampshire became secretary of the Navy in 1831, Edmund Roberts had sent him a letter detailing the state of Far Eastern commerce. Near the end of year, American pepper trader Friendship returned to her home port of Salem, to report that Sumatran pirates had killed the first officer. In response to public outcry, President Andrew Jackson dispatched the Potomac on the first of what were to be two punitive expeditions to Sumatra, Roberts succeeded with Siam and Muscat. Peacock returned in 1835–37 with Dr. W. S. W. Ruschenberger bearing ratifications of those treaties, peacock, which in 1828 had been broken down and rebuilt as an exploration vessel, joined the United States Exploring Expedition in 1838. East India Squadron Columbia and John Adams had also joined the circumnavigating Expedition, indeed, stories about the riches of Far East created the national myth about the vast potential of the China market. Kennedy subsequently established the East India Squadron, some Americans in China suffered during the first Opium War of 1839 as Chinese indignant about British opium traders failed to distinguish between English-speaking people of European ancestry. Commodore Kearny was given command of a squadron consisting of the 42-year-old frigate Constellation, Kearny arrived in China in March 1842 and the Opium War soon ended. Kearny first learned of the Treaty of Nanking when he arrived in Hong Kong, Kearny observed the treatys provisions opening five Chinese ports to British trade, and sought equal trading opportunity for Americans. Viceroy of Guangzhou offered Kearny a treaty giving Americans fair treatment, Kearny did not have authority to sign such a treaty, but tactfully informed Ke agreement would be forthcoming as soon as authorized negotiators arrived. Caleb Cushing reached China in 1844, and the Treaty of Wanghia was signed on 2 July, in December 1845, Commodore James Biddle exchanged ratifications of the Treaty of Wanghia at Poon Tong, a village outside Guangzhou. The treaty was the first treaty between China and the United States, Biddle delivered his request that Japan agree to a similar treaty to that which he had just negotiated with China. In 1852, Commodore Matthew C. Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia for Japan, aboard a black-hulled steam frigate, he ported Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and USS Susquehanna at Uraga Harbor near Edo on July 8,1853. His actions at this crucial juncture were informed by a study of Japans previous contacts with Western ships. Perry returned in February 1854 with twice as many ships, finding that the delegates had prepared a treaty embodying virtually all the demands in Fillmores letter. Perry signed the Convention of Kanagawa on March 31,1854 and departed, the agreement was made with the Shogun, the de facto ruler of Japan. The Johanna Expedition was an operation that occurred in August 1851 during the American anti-slavery patrols in the Indian Ocean
4.
John H. Aulick
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John Henry Aulick was an officer in the United States Navy whose service extended from the War of 1812 to the end of the antebellum era. Born in Winchester, Virginia, Aulick was appointed a midshipman on 15 November 1809, during the War of 1812, he served in Enterprise and took part in her battle with HMS Boxer on 4 September 1813. After that engagement ended in an American victory, Aulick served as master of the prize. Following the war, he served in Saranac, Ontario, Brandywine, Constitution, from 1851 to 1852, Aulick commanded the East India Squadron but was forced to give up command of the projected Japanese expedition to Commodore Matthew C. This was the result of quarrels during the first leg of his journey with the captain of the flagship, Aulick retired in 1861 and died at Washington, D. C. on 27 April 1873. Two ships have been named USS Aulick for him
5.
Newport, Rhode Island
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Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The City of Newport is located approximately 37 miles southeast of Providence,21 miles south of Fall River and it is known as a New England summer resort and famous for its mansions. It was a major 18th-century port city and also contains a number of surviving buildings from the colonial era of the United States. The city is the county seat of Newport County and it was known for being the city of some of the Summer White Houses during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013 and its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. They left Portsmouth, Rhode Island after a fallout with Anne Hutchinson. As part of the agreement, Coddington and his followers took control of the side of the island. They were soon joined by Nicholas Easton, who had recently expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for holding heretical beliefs. The settlement grew to be the largest of the four settlements of Rhode Island. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke, peace did not last long in Newport, as many did not like Coddingtons autocratic style. As a result, a counter-faction was formed by 1650, led by Nicholas Easton, Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640. In 1658, a group of Jews were allowed to settle in Newport who were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain, the Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second-oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest standing synagogue in the United States, in 1663, the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its Royal Charter, and Benedict Arnold was elected its first Governor at Newport. The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the 18th century. They brought with them experience and connections, capital. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera who arrived in 1745, Rivera introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil, which became one of the leading industries and made Newport rich. Newports inhabitants who were engaged in whaling developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles, Aaron Lopez fled to Newport from Lisbon in 1752 and is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. To him in a degree than to any one else was due the rapid commercial development which made Newport for a quarter of a century afterward the most formidable rival of New York
6.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
7.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
8.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
9.
Oliver Hazard Perry
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Oliver Hazard Perry was an American naval commander, born in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. He was the son of United States Navy Captain Christopher Raymond Perry and of Sarah Wallace Alexander, during the war against Britain, Perry supervised the building of a fleet at Erie, Pennsylvania. He earned the title Hero of Lake Erie for leading American forces in a naval victory at the Battle of Lake Erie, receiving a Congressional Gold Medal. His leadership materially aided the successful outcomes of all nine Lake Erie military campaign victories, and the victory was a turning point in the battle for the west in the war. He is remembered for the words on his flag, Dont Give Up the Ship and his message to General William Henry Harrison which reads in part, We have met the enemy. In 1815, he successfully commanded Java in the Mediterranean during the Second Barbary War, so seminal was his career that he was lionized in the press. He has been memorialized, and many places, ships. As a boy, Perry lived in Tower Hill, Rhode Island and he was the oldest of five boys born to Christopher and Sarah Perry. Perry came from a line of accomplished naval men from both sides of his family. His mother taught Perry and his brothers to read and write and had them attend Trinity Episcopal Church regularly. Theodore Dehon, rector of the church from 1797 to 1810, had a significant influence on the young Perry and he was educated in Newport, Rhode Island. At twelve years of age, Perry sailed with his father to the West Indies aboard the USS General Greene and he was appointed a midshipman in the United States Navy on April 7,1799, at the age of thirteen. The ship made its first stop in Cuba, charged with receiving American merchant ships, Perrys service aboard the General Greene continued during the Quasi-War with France. He first experienced combat on February 9,1800, off the coast of the French colony of Haiti, during the First Barbary War, he served aboard the USS Adams and later was first lieutenant of USS Nautilus. He then served under Captain John Rodgers on the USS Constitution and he was placed in charge of construction of gunboats in Newport and Westerly, Rhode Island. On January 9,1811, Revenge ran aground off Rhode Island and was lost. Seeing fairly quickly that he could not save the vessel, turned his attention to saving the crew, the subsequent court-martial exonerated Perry, placing blame on the ships pilot. In January 2011, a team of divers claimed to have discovered the remains of Revenge, following the court-martial, Perry was given a leave of absence from the Navy
10.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
11.
Commodore (rank)
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Commodore is a naval rank used in many navies that is superior to a navy captain, but below a rear admiral. Non-English-speaking nations often use the rank of flotilla admiral or counter admiral or senior captain as an equivalent, as an official rank, a commodore typically commands a flotilla or squadron of ships as part of a larger task force or naval fleet commanded by an admiral. A commodores ship is typically designated by the flying of a Broad pennant and it is often regarded as a one-star rank with a NATO code of OF-6, but whether it is regarded as a flag rank varies between countries. The rank of commodore derives from the French commandeur, which was one of the highest ranks in orders of knighthood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a commenda. The Dutch Navy also used the rank of commandeur from the end of the 16th century for a variety of temporary positions, the Royal Netherlands Air Force has adopted the English spelling of commodore for an equivalent rank. The rank of commodore was at first a position created as a title to be bestowed upon captains who commanded squadrons of more than one vessel. In many navies, the rank of commodore was merely viewed as a senior captain position, Commodore is the highest rank in the Irish Naval Service held by the Chief of Naval Operations. This is because Ireland, despite having the largest part of EU waters to patrol, has among the smallest navies and thus the rank of admiral for flag officers seemed inappropriate. In the Royal Navy, the position was introduced to combat the cost of appointing more admirals—a costly business with a fleet as large as the Royal Navys at that time. In 1899, the rank of commodore was discontinued in the United States Navy. To correct this inequity, the rank of commodore as a single star flag officer was reinstated by both services in the early 1980s. As a result of confusion, the services soon renamed the new one-star rank as commodore admiral within the first six months following the ranks reintroduction. The title of commodore continues to be used in the U. S, although not flag officers, modern day commodores in the U. S. In the Argentine Navy, the position of commodore was created in the late 1990s, and is usually and it is not a rank but a distinction and, as such, can be issued by the chief of staff without congressional approval. Its equivalents are colonel-major in the Army and commodore-major in the Air Force and it is usually—but incorrectly—referred to as navy commodore, to avoid confusion with the air force commodore, which is equivalent to the navys captain and armys colonel. The sleeve lace is identical to that of the Royal Navy, the following articles deal with the rank of commodore as it is employed OF-6 one-star flag officer rank in various countries. Commodore, in Spanish comodoro, is a rank in the Argentine Air Force and this rank is the equivalent of a colonel in the Argentine Army, and a colonel or group captain in other air forces of the world. The Argentine rank below commodore is the rank of vice-commodore equivalent to a lieutenant-colonel in the Argentine Army, Commodore is a rank in the Royal Netherlands Air Force
12.
USS Shark (1821)
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The first USS Shark was a schooner in the United States Navy. Built in the Washington Navy Yard to the designs of Henry Steers, on 11 May 1821, Matthew C. Perry was ordered to take command of Shark, and the ship was ready to receive her crew on 2 June 1821. Shark sailed from the Washington Navy Yard on 15 July for New York and she cleared New York harbor on 7 August to make her first cruise for the suppression of the slave trade and piracy. Sailing by way of the Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands, she landed Dr. Ayers at Sierra Leone in west Africa in October and returned by way of the West Indies to New York on 17 January 1822. / Shark put to sea from New York on 26 February and joined Commodore James Biddles squadron for the suppression of piracy, on 25 March, Lt. Perry took formal possession of what is now Key West, Florida, in the name of the United States. He called the island Thompsons Island to honor Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson, under orders from Commodore Biddle, Shark departed Nassau on 14 August for another cruise to the coast of Africa and returned to Norfolk, Virginia on 12 December 1822. She again sailed for the West Indies in February 1823, on 5 October, she sailed from New York carrying Commodore John Rodgers and three Navy surgeons to Thompsons Island to determine the fitness of that place as a naval base. She debarked Rodgers and his party at Norfolk on 16 November 1823 before resuming her cruise in the West Indies and she returned to New York on 13 May 1824. After repairs in the New York Navy Yard, Shark sailed from New York on 5 October 1825 and cruised in the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico until 29 August 1826, when she arrived at Norfolk. She departed Norfolk and proceeded to the coast of Africa to protect slaves freed from captured slave ships, after seeing that the liberated slaves were safely established in Liberia, she returned by way of the Caribbean and arrived at New York on 5 July 1827. The busy schooner sailed again on 24 July for a cruise to the Newfoundland fisheries to defend American interests there and she then resumed her duty in the West Indies, which included anti-slavery and anti-piracy patrols and periodic voyages to West Africa to check the American settlements there. She cleared Gibraltar for the United States on 22 January 1838, sailing by way of the West Indies, arrived at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 24 March. Shark put to sea from Hampton Roads on 22 July 1839 for duty with the Pacific Squadron and she was the first United States man-of-war to pass through the Straits of Magellan from east to west, a feat accomplished on 13 December 1839 en route to Callao, Peru. During the next five years, she spent much of her time along the coast of Peru to protect American citizens and property during civil disturbances in that country. The Secretary of the Navy noted in 1841 that “all who witnessed the operations of the Shark were inspired with increased respect for the American flag. ”She also made infrequent cruises northward to observe conditions in Panama and to receive mail. However, her effort to recross the bar ended in disaster on 10 September, the ship was a total loss, but her entire crew was saved. Upon learning of the demise, the Royal Navy and Hudsons Bay Companys officers at Fort Vancouver immediately coordinated and dispatched a relief effort, including food, tobacco. A court of inquiry absolved Lt. Neil M. Howison of all blame for the loss of his ship, several artifacts associated with the wrecked schooner are on public display in Oregon
13.
Africa Squadron
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The Africa Squadron was a unit of the United States Navy that operated from 1819 to 1861 to suppress the slave trade along the coast of West Africa. However, the term was often ascribed generally to anti-slavery operations during the leading up to the civil war. Although technically coordinated with a British West Africa Squadron based in Sierra Leone, matthew Perry was the first commander of the squadron, and based himself in Portuguese Cape Verde. The squadron was generally ineffective, since the ships were too few, and since much of the activity had shifted to the Niger River delta area. In the two years of Perrys leadership, only one slaver was reported to have captured. In the 16 years of operation, only the crews of 19 slave ships went to trial. These slavers were acquitted or only lightly fined, other commanders, however, were more successful. The Africa Squadrons cruising area eventually ranged from Cape Frio to the south, however, the squadrons supply depot was in Cape Verde archipelago, approximately 2500 miles from the northern-most centers of the slave trade in the Bight of Biafra and southward. The navy department did not move the location until 1859. At the same time the department put Madeira out of bounds for the squadron, the majority of the squadrons cruising in its first decade was along the coast of Western Africa, with particular attention to Liberian interests. By the 1850s much of the trade in this area had been eliminated by the British, based in their colony at Sierra Leone
14.
USS Fulton (1837)
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USS Fulton was a steamer that served the U. S. Navy prior to the American Civil War, and was recommissioned in time to see service in that war. However, her participation was limited to being captured by Confederate forces in the port of Pensacola, Florida, at the outbreak of war. The second ship to be named Fulton by the Navy, a wheel steamer, was launched 18 May 1837 by New York Navy Yard. She was often called Fulton II, Fulton cruised the Atlantic coast, aiding ships in distress, conducting ordnance experiments, and training officers in gunnery. A major event of her service came on 23 November 1838. Decommissioned at New York 23 November 1842, Fulton lay in ordinary until 1851, Fulton was essentially a harbor defense ship and was unsuitable for the cruising missions then emphasized by Navy policy. Accordingly, the New York Navy Yard rebuilt her in 1851 as a more conventional warship. Fulton was recommissioned 25 January 1852 for duty in the Home Squadron, during the next six years, aside from necessary repair periods in the yards at Washington, D. C. Norfolk, Virginia, and Boston, Massachusetts, Fulton ranged from the Caribbean to the Gulf of St, the next year Fultons commanding officer obtained the release of five American merchant ships held at Tampico, Mexico, by revolutionary forces. From October 1858 to May 1859 Fulton joined in operations commanded by Commodore W. B, shubrick during his negotiations to improve relations with Paraguay, sailing the La Plata and the Parana and Paraguay Rivers. After lying out of commission at Norfolk, Virginia, from 7 May 1859 to 30 July 1859, Fulton cruised off Cuba to suppress the trade until laid up at Pensacola, Florida. Captured by the Confederates when they took the Pensacola yard on 12 January 1861, Fulton was considered for use in the Confederate States Navy and she was destroyed in the evacuation of the yard by the Confederates upon Federal reoccupation 10 May 1862. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
15.
Brooklyn Navy Yard
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It was bounded by Navy Street and Flushing and Kent Avenues, and at the height of its production of warships for the United States Navy, it covered over 200 acres. The tremendous efforts of its 70,000 workers during World War II earned the yard the nickname The Can-Do Shipyard, following the American Revolution, the waterfront site was used to build merchant vessels. Federal authorities purchased the old docks and 40 acres of land for $40,000 in 1801, many officers were housed in Admirals Row. Military chain of command was strictly observed, the nations first ironclad ship, Monitor, was fitted with its revolutionary iron cladding at the Continental Iron Works in nearby Greenpoint. By the American Civil War, the yard had expanded to employ about 6000 men, in 1890, the ill-fated Maine was launched from the yards ways. In 1937, the battleship North Carolina was laid down, in 1938, the yard employed about 10,000 men, of whom one-third were Works Progress Administration workers. The battleship Iowa was completed in 1942 followed by the Missouri, on 12 January 1953, test operations began on Antietam, which emerged in December 1952 from the yard as Americas first angled-deck aircraft carrier. At its peak, during World War II, the yard employed 70,000 people,24 hours a day, the Brooklyn Naval Hospital, constructed 1830–38 and rebuilt 1841–43, was decommissioned in the mid-1970s. It was one of the oldest naval hospitals in the United States, the 60, 000-square-foot complex was designed by Martin E. Thompson. The hospital had its beginning in 1825 when the Secretary of the Navy purchased 25 acres adjacent to the Brooklyn Naval Yard. The hospital was active from the Civil War through World War II with the Navy Surgeon General reporting in 1864 an average of 229 patients, the hospital also counted on its staff some of first female nurses and medical students in the United States Navy. On November 19,1964, based on the study, the closure of the yard was announced, along with the Armys Fort Jay on Governors Island and its Brooklyn Army Terminal. At the time, the yard employed 10,600 civilian employees and 100 military personnel with a payroll of about US$90 million. The closure was anticipated to save about 18.1 million dollars annually, the plan was never put in place. The Wagner Administration looked to the industry to build a car plant inside the yard. No U. S. car manufacturer was interested, and foreign car manufacturers claimed that with the conversion of the dollar, the Navy decommissioned the yard in 1966, after the completion of the Austin-class amphibious transport dock USS Duluth. The Johnson administration refused to sell the yard to the City of New York for 18 months, when the new Nixon administration came into power, they signed the papers to sell the yard to the city. Leases were signed inside the yard even before the sale to the city was signed, cLICKs lease with the newly formed Seatrain Shipbuilding was not very business friendly
16.
USS Mississippi (1841)
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USS Mississippi, a paddle frigate, was the first ship of the United States Navy to bear that name. She was named for the Mississippi River and her keel was laid down by the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1839, built under the personal supervision of Commodore Matthew Perry. She was commissioned on 22 December 1841, with Captain W. D. Salter in command and she returned to Norfolk for repairs on 1 January 1847, then arrived at Veracruz on 21 March 1847, carrying Perry to take command of the American fleet. At once she and her men plunged into operations against Veracruz, supplying guns. Through the remainder of the war, Mississippi contributed guns, men, Mississippi cruised the Mediterranean Sea during 1849–1851, picking up Louis Kossuth on his way into exile, before returning to the United States to prepare for Commodore Perrys expedition to Japan. Serving as the flagship, it was commanded by Sydney Smith Lee, the squadron cleared Hampton Roads on 24 November 1852, for Madeira, the Cape of Good Hope, Hong Kong, and Shanghai, which was reached 4 May 1853. Mississippi returned to New York City on 23 April 1855, and again sailed for the Far East on 19 August 1857, to base at Shanghai and she returned to ordinary at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860, but was reactivated when the American Civil War became inevitable. On 27 November 1861, off Northeast Pass of the Mississippi River, she joined Vincennes in capturing the British bark Empress, the following spring, she joined Farraguts squadron for the planned assault on New Orleans. After several attempts, on 7 April 1862, she and Pensacola successfully passed over the bar at Southwest Pass, one of her sailors, Seaman Christopher Brennan, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his part in the battle. The city was now doomed, and Mississippi, her heavy draft making her less suitable to river operations than lighter ships, ordered upriver for the operations against Port Hudson, Louisiana, Mississippi sailed with six other ships lashed in pairs, while she sailed alone. On 14 March 1863, she grounded while attempting to pass the forts guarding Port Hudson, under enemy fire, every effort was made to refloat her by Captain Melancton Smith and his executive officer George Dewey. At last, her machinery was destroyed, her battery spiked, when the flames reached her magazines, she blew up and sank. She lost 64 men, with the accompanying ships saving 223 of her crew, list of steam frigates of the United States Navy Bibliography of early American naval history This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here, Japan America Society of Greater Philadelphia The Philadelphia origins of U. S. S. Mississippi, 1843-1846 MS272 held by Special Collection & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
17.
Mosquito Fleet
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The term Mosquito Fleet has had a variety of uses around the world. A squadron of shallow-draft schooners sent to the West Indies under the command of Commodore David Porter to suppress piracy between 1823 and 1825, founding the West Indies Squadron, the name of a United States Navy squadron detachment, commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, that fought against the Mexican fortresses at Tuxpan and Villahermosa during the Mexican-American War, in the Civil War, it was the name of Commodore George Hollins River defense fleet that opposed the Union Gulf Blockade fleet in the Battle of the Head of Passes. A fleet of steam vessels which plied the waters of Puget Sound during the late 19th century. It was also used to describe the various steamboats and other craft that served on the rivers. There was also a fleet on the east coast of the United States. A fleet of converted yachts used by the US Navy during World War I off the Atlantic Coast of France to patrol for U-boats and provide support for convoys into Brest and this fleet was also called the Suicide Fleet. The fast, wooden PT boat used by the American navy in World War II, with the most famous being PT-109, skippered by Lieutenant Junior Grade John F. Kennedy, a future president of the United States. The term Mosquito Fleet also refers to the fleet of small ketches and schooners operating in the coastal and gulf waters of South Australia. In the early days of settlement at Geraldton, the Johnstone River had a bar at the mouth. The problem of ships being unable to enter the river made it difficult for bags of sugar from the district sugar mills to be transported to southern refineries. To overcome this problem, shallow draft steam ships and lighters were used to carry the bags of sugar out to larger ships. The small ships became known as The Mosquito Fleet
18.
Little Belt affair
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The Little Belt Affair was a naval battle on the night of 16 May 1811. The encounter took place off the North Carolina coast, the Little Belt Affair was one of many incidents and events that led to the War of 1812. It was fifteen days after an incident involving HMS Guerriere, a frigate, on 1 May Guerriere had stopped the brig USS Spitfire off Sandy Hook in New Jersey and had impressed Maine citizen John Diggio, the apprentice sailing master of Spitfire. Secretary of the Navy Paul Hamilton had ordered President, along with USS Argus, commodore John Rodgers, commanding the frigate President, had left Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia several days earlier and was aware of the Guerriere incident. He was off the Virginia Capes and sailing up the coast towards New York, Little Belt was sighted to the east at about noon on 16 May. Believing her to be Guerriere, Rodgers pursued, Little Belts captain, Arthur Bingham, had spotted President one hour earlier. Bingham signaled President asking for identification but received none, however, he noticed a blue pennant showing the ships nationality was American. Bingham continued south, but Rodgers continued his pursuit because he wanted to know the strangers identity, by 15,30, President was close enough for Rodgers to make out part of the British ships stern. However, the angle he saw her made her appear larger than she was, Little Belt was much smaller than President, displacing only 460 tons in contrast to Presidents 1,576. The sloop mounted just 20 guns, while President carried 44, the British and American accounts disagree over what followed. As President closed with Little Belt, Bingham thought the frigate was manoeuvring to rake his ship with gunfire, Bingham wore ship three times to avoid the threat. The ships were not within hailing range until long after sunset, at about 10,15, each captain demanded the other identify his ship. Each refused to answer before the other, each captain later claimed he had been the first to ask. Shortly after this, a shot was fired, but it was disputed who did so, however, the ships were soon engaged in a battle which the sloop had no chance of winning. After just fifteen minutes, most of Binghams guns had been put out of action, President returned and Rodgers asked Bingham if he had struck. Bingham replied he had not, and President withdrew, President had only one man injured. Little Belt, however had nine dead and 23 injured, the sloop was also badly damaged in the encounter. The next morning, Lieutenant John Creighton went from President to Little Belt to lament the affair and offer Bingham space at any American port, Bingham asked why President had attacked his much smaller ship
19.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
20.
USS President (1800)
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USS President was a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy, nominally rated at 44 guns. George Washington named her to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution and she was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City. President was one of the six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navys capital ships, Forman Cheeseman, and later Christian Bergh were in charge of her construction. On 16 May 1811, President was at the center of the Little Belt Affair, her crew mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt as HMS Guerriere, the ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes. Subsequent U. S. and Royal Navy investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution, the incident contributed to tensions between the U. S. and Great Britain that led to the War of 1812. During the war, President made several extended cruises, patrolling as far away as the English Channel and Norway, she captured the armed schooner HMS Highflyer and numerous merchant ships. In January 1815, after having been blockaded in New York for a year by the Royal Navy, President attempted to run the blockade, during the chase, she was engaged and crippled by the frigate HMS Endymion off the coast of the city. The British squadron captured President soon after, and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS President until she was broken up in 1818, Presidents design was copied and used to build the next HMS President in 1829. During the 1790s, American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary Pirates in the Mediterranean, congresss response was the Naval Act of 1794. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates, however, joshua Humphreys design was long on keel and narrow of beam to allow for mounting very heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling scheme to limit hogging, the ships were extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates, Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size. He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, George Washington named President in order to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution. In March 1796, before Presidents keel could be laid down, Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794. At the onset of the Quasi-War with France in 1798, funds were approved to complete her construction and her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain Silas Talbot. Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of Presidents sister ships, Constitution and United States and these included raising the gun deck by 2 in and moving the main mast 2 ft further rearward. President was built to a length of 175 ft between perpendiculars and a beam of 44.4 ft, although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman, work on her was discontinued in 1796
21.
HMS Belvidera (1809)
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HMS Belvidera was a 36-gun Royal Navy Apollo-class fifth-rate frigate built in Deptford in 1809. She saw action in the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, in 1846 she was reduced to harbour service, in 1860 she became a receiving ship, and she was finally disposed of in 1906. Belvidera was commissioned in January 1800 under Captain Charles Dashwood, in March, Captain Richard Byron replaced Dashwood. On 22 July 1810, Belvidera and Nemesis, Captain William Ferris, were sailing close to the shore of Studtland and that evening a boat from Belvedera sighted three Danish gun-vessels in a large bay. Next day, seven boats from the two attacked the Danes. Two of the Danish vessels, Balder and Thor, commanded by Lieutenants Dahlreup, each mounted two long 24-pounders and six 6-pounder howitzers and had a crew of 45 men. The third gun-vessel carried one long 24-pounder and a crew of 25 men, the British captured both Balder and Thor without suffering any casualties, though the Danes lost four men killed. 5, ran up a fiord where her crew abandoned her, in 1811, Belvidera became the flagship of Admiral Herbert Sawyer on the Halifax station. The British were not aware that war had been declared and after returning fire they managed to evade their pursuers during the night, belvideras course during the fight had led the Americans away from a British convoy from Jamaica, allowing the convoy to escape attack. Belvidera arrived in Halifax on June 27 with three prizes that she captured on the way. On 16 July 1812, Belvidera was part of a British squadron that gave chase to USS Constitution, another of the United States heavy frigates, in the very light winds, both sides put out boats to tow the ships. Constitution gained an advantage by using her anchors to pull herself about four miles ahead of Belvidera, Captain Byron then copied the manoeuvre of Constitution and managed to bring the two ships within gunshot. They exchanged fire as a breeze came up, and by daylight on 19 July Constitution. For the remainder of the war, Belvidera was active in the blockade of the American coast, capturing many American merchant ships, and, schooner Friendship, of 98 tons, sailing from Charleston to New York, carrying cotton. Also, they captured the ship Eleanor, Belvidera, Aeolus, Africa, Shannon and Guerriere were among the vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of USS Nautilus on 16 July. At the time of her capture she mounted 16 guns, had crew of 106 men and was under the command of Lieutenant William M. Crane, on 21 August Belvidera captured the U. S. privateer 7-gun schooner Bunkers Hill, with 72 men. On 10 September Belvidera detained Citizen, two days later Belvidera captured the American schooner Hiram. She had a crew 28 men and was sailing from Baltimore to Bordeaux with a cargo of coffee, sugar, in the engagement the British had six men wounded, one of whom later died, but Belvidera herself suffered no casualties
22.
Second Barbary War
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The Second Barbary War, was the second of two wars fought between the United States and the North African Barbary states of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algeria. The war between the Barbary states and the U. S. ended when the U. S. Senate ratified Decatur’s Algerian treaty on December 5,1815. Shaler then negotiated a new treaty after the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816, after the end of the war, the United States and European nations stopped their practice of paying tribute to the pirate states to forestall attacks on their shipping. It helped mark the beginning of the end of piracy in that region, within decades, European powers built ever more sophisticated and expensive ships which the Barbary pirates could not match in numbers or technology. After the First Barbary War, the U. S. found its attention diverted to its relationship with Great Britain over trade with France. At the same time, the major European powers were involved in the Napoleonic Wars. At the conclusion of the War of 1812, however, the United States returned to the problem of Barbary piracy, on 3 March 1815, the U. S. Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers, and two squadrons were assembled and readied for war. The squadron under the command of Commodore William Bainbridge was ported in Boston, Decaturs squadron was ready to set sail first and departed 20 May 1815. Elliott, the brigs Firefly, Spark and Flambeau, each with 14 guns, commanded by Lieutenants George W. Kodgers, Thomas Gamble, nicholson, and the schooners Torch and Spitfire, both with 12 guns, commanded by Lieutenants Wolcott Chauncey and Alexander J. Dallas. Bainbridges command was still assembling, and did not depart until 1 July, shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers, Decaturs squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshuda, and, in the Battle off Cape Gata, captured it. Not long afterward, the American squadron likewise captured the Algerian brig Estedio off Cape Palos, by the final week of June, the squadron had reached Algiers and had initiated negotiations with the Dey. After the United States made persistent demands for compensation, mingled with threats of destruction, by terms of the treaty signed aboard the Guerriere in the Bay of Algiers,3 July 1815, Decatur agreed to return the captured Meshuda and Estedio. The Algerians returned all American captives, estimated to be about 10, Algeria also paid $10,000 for seized shipping. The treaty guaranteed no further tributes by the United States and granted the United States full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea, the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli agreed without any resistance, but the Dey of Algiers was more recalcitrant, and the negotiations were stormy. The leader of the mission, Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, believed that he had negotiated a treaty to stop the slavery of Christians. However, due to confused orders, just after the treaty was signed and this caused outrage in Britain and Europe, and Exmouths negotiations were seen as a failure. As a result, Exmouth was ordered to sea again to complete the job and he gathered a squadron of five ships of the line, reinforced by a number of frigates, later reinforced by a flotilla of six Dutch ships. On 27 August 1816, following a round of failed negotiations, the attack immobilized many of the Deys corsairs and shore batteries, forcing him to accept a peace offer of the same terms as he had rejected the day before
23.
African Slave Trade Patrol
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African Slave Trade Patrol was part of the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade between 1819 and the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861. Due to the abolitionist movement in the United States, a squadron of American navy warships were assigned to slave traders in. The operations were ineffective and after forty-two years only about 100 suspected slave ships were captured. The first American squadron was sent to Africa in 1819 and for years after the ships were rotated out. Also, the slavers knew that if they hoisted a Spanish or Portuguese flag they could easily escape pursuit, congress made it difficult for the navy to keep a small force in Africa until 1842 when the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Great Britain was signed. Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent to command the Africa Squadron again after serving as its commander in 1821 in the USS Shark. The British captured hundreds of ships and fought several naval battles, their success was largely due to the superior size of their navy. The Brazil Squadron, the West Indies Squadron, the East India Squadron, on 13 June 1844, the brig USS Truxtun was placed back in commission with Commander Henry Bruce in charge. Two weeks later, she sailed down the Delaware River and passed between the capes and into the Atlantic, after visiting Funchal, Madeira, the ship joined the African Station off Tenerife in the Canary Islands. For the next sixteen months, Truxtun patrolled off West Africa, visiting Monrovia, Liberia and Sierra Leone, Truxtun also sailed to Maio islands of Santiago, and São Vicente. The Americans captured only one slaver on their cruise in 1845, the vessel was caught on the Rio Pongo in Guinea and was taken without incident. Though she was only about 100 tons, she carried 346 slaves, the Americans also discovered that she had landed 339 slaves near Matanzas, in Cuba, the year before. No one can imagine the sufferings of slaves on their passage across, unless the conveyances in which they are taken are examined, a good hearty negroe costs but twenty dollars, or thereabouts, and brings from three to four hundred dollars in Cuba. The capture of the Spitfire gave the American navy the incentive to increase the strength of the Africa Squadron, on October 30,1845, the Truxtun weighed anchor at Monrovia, and she headed west towards Gosport Navy Yard which she reached on November 23. She was then decommissioned on November 28, the brig USS Perry served in the South Atlantic with the Brazil Squadron beginning in 1847. Perry got under way from Philadelphia on May 16,1847 with specific orders to patrol between Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Lieutenant John A. Davis was informed that suspected slavers in the American barque Ann D. Richardson were bound for the coast of Africa under false papers. Perry then seized the ship off Rio de Janeiro on December 16, investigation proved that both ships had been engaged in the slave trade and were sent to, New York, New York as prizes
24.
Ivory Coast Expedition
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The Ivory Coast Expedition, or the Liberia Expedition, was a naval operation in 1842, launched by the United States against the West African Bereby people. After the attacks on the merchant ships Mary Carver and Edward Barley, the expedition was successful in exacting redress by destroying the fortified town of Little Bereby and by killing the chief responsible for the attacks on American shipping. The expedition to the Ivory Coast began on June 6,1842, all of the ships, except Porpoise, had a Marine Detachment aboard. From Cape Verde the Americans headed toward the coast, their mission being to support Liberia, an American colony for freedmen, in suppressing the slave trade and this meant conducting an investigation of the Mary Carver and Edward Barley incidents. Perry arrived off the West African coast near Sinoe in mid-November, accordingly, the commodore disguised Porpoise as a merchantman and sent her in to shore. Almost immediately war-canoes appeared and tried to control of the ship. Sinoe was selected as a base, partly because the Sinoe tribe was suspected of treachery as well as the Bereby tribe and it was around this time that the Porpoise left the expedition for duty elsewhere. During the palaver the African leaders claimed that the American sailors were the aggressors, either way Commodore Perry ordered that the natives villages be burned. Three prisoners were sent to Monrovia and the landing party then returned to their ships. By December 1, the three vessels were off Blue Barra where another landing took place to escort Perry for another meeting with African authorities. The party returned later that night after dispersing gifts as a sign of friendship, the shore party made another landing at Setra Koo on December 5 for the meeting with a principal chief. The landing at Caval was a tense one though there was no fighting, Crack-O denied that his people had done anything wrong, so he touched his ears and his tongue, with his sword, as a gesture of truthfulness. Governor Roberts asked Crack-O if he would attend the Great Palaver at Little Bereby, next Perry sailed his squadron for Little Bereby on December 11 and arrived on December 14 and landed his fifty marines and 150 sailors. The meeting was held in a house about fifty yards from the gates, during which Roberts began discussing with Crack-O the Mary Carver. It was apparent that the king was not telling the truth, so Commodore Perry stepped closer to Crack-O to advise him to stop lying and a scuffle ensued. The chief attempted to drag Perry to his spear, but the commodore threw off his attacker, but before getting out the door, a marine sergeant opened fire with his musket and hit the king while two others bayoneted him. Simultaneously the native interpreter ran out of the house and skirmishing erupted between the American sentries and some Bereby riflemen, another skirmish resulted and the marines and sailors charged towards the Africans and routed them. The three American warships also opened fire and helped silence the enemy, a few war-canoes were captured as well, when the battle was over, many of the Africans were killed or wounded though the Americans suffered no casualties
25.
Bakumatsu
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Bakumatsu refers to the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended. Between 1853 and 1867 Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku, the major ideological-political divide during this period was between the pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi and the shogunate forces, which included the elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of Bakumatsu to seize personal power, the second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi, or revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians. The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War, frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and they were hoping for Japan to become a base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The violent demands made by the British frigate Phaeton in 1808 shocked many in Japan, in 1825, the Edict to expel foreigners at all cost was issued by the Shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners, it remained in place until 1842. Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through rangaku and these domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverbatory furnaces to produce the necessary for firearms. Following the Morrison incident involving the Morrison under Charles W. King in 1837, after the victory of the British over the Chinese in the 1840 Opium War, many Japanese realized that traditional ways would not be sufficient to repel Western intrusions. To resist Western military forces, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to the Tokugawa Shogunate, a national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign domination. Some like Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced, Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of Western knowledge and Eastern morality would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan, after 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason, put under house arrest, forced to commit ritual suicide, Perrys four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed and he gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to several buildings around the harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments were soon started in order to build modern cannons
26.
First Battle of Tabasco
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The First Battle of Tabasco was fought during the Mexican–American War, in October 1846, in an attempt to capture cities along the Tabasco coast. On 14 May 1846, Conner established his base at Anton Lizardo, Veracruz and placed Veracruz, Alvarado, Tampico, and Matamoros under blockade. Commodore Matthew C. Perry was named as Conners replacement in the fall of 1846, on 16 Oct. Perry left Anton Lizardo with the steamboats Mississippi, Vixen and McLane and the schooners Reefer, Bonita, Nonata, and Forward. On 23 Oct. Perry captured Frontera and moved upriver, finding Tabasco the next morning at 9 AM, traconis withdrew his 300 men from the town allowing Perry to occupy the town by 5 PM, capturing five Mexican vessels. However, at night, Perry recalled his landing party and Traconiss forces returned to the city, traconis received a delegation of U. S. Marines who requested their surrender, but responded Tell Commodore Perry that I would sooner die with my garrison before handing over this place. Perry realized that a bombardment of the city was the option to drive out the Mexican troops. On the morning of October 26, the Mexicans started firing on Perrys ships who replied in kind, as the U. S troops began to bombard the town, the flagpole of the Mexican headquarters was shot though and fell. The foreign merchants asked for a ceasefire, which Perry complied with, Perry established a naval blockade with the McLane and Forward. The success, after many preceding failures, boosted the morale of the navy, second Battle of Tabasco Nevin, David, ed. The Old West, The Mexican War, new York, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. Casualties of Naval Actions in the War with Mexico, a Continent Divided, The U. S. -Mexico War. The Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, The University of Texas Arlington
27.
Tampico Expedition
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The Battle of Tampico was fought November 15,1835, in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. Gregorio Gómez and the Mexican Centralist garrison engaged Gen. José Antonio Mexía and 150 American volunteers and this was part of an uprising against General Santa Anna, and its outcome affected the future of the Texas War of Independence. After the Mexican Congress elected General Santa Anna as President of Mexico in 1833, he appointed Valentín Gómez Farías as his vice president, however, the Vice President began implementing liberal reforms, particularly impacting the Mexican Army and the Catholic Church. These reforms angered the conservative forces, who urged Santa Anna to abandon his semi-retirement. Santa Anna agreed and led the reaction against liberalization, forcing Gómez Farías, when the revolt began in October 1835, a majority of the Texas colonists remained loyal to Mexico. The Consultation, a meeting at San Felipe de Austin on November 7,1835 resulted in a statement that the colonists were defending the principles of the Mexican Constitution of 1824. This statement emboldened Santa Annas exiled opponents in the United States, Mexican General José Antonio Mexía and several other political opponents of Santa Annas opponents fled to New Orleans, USA where they planned to resist the Centralist government. Mexia declared that capturing Tampico, Mexico would be a stroke against that government. In October 1835, Mexía raised a force in New Orleans for the purpose of supporting Federalist opposition thought to be present in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. On October 29, Mexia reported to Texian leaders that he had commissioned the armed schooner Mary Jane, to transport his expedition with a 12-pound cannonade and two eight-pound cannon. He added that there was a crew of fifty men, armed and provisioned for three months, plus 150 men ready for service on land, the latter included a captain, eight seamen, a first mate, a second mate, two cooks and two stewards. The expedition departed from New Orleans on November 6,1835, richard Hall, master of the schooner Mary Jane had declared his destination to be Galveston and Matagorda. The cargo was reported as.10 barrels of flour,20 barrels of beef,10 barrels of pork,6 barrels and 20 boxes of fish,8 boxes of hardware and 20 boxes of potatoes. Five days after her departure, the ship encountered a storm that allegedly blew it off course, only then did Mexias staff tell the volunteers aboard the ship that the Mary Jane was bound for Tampico, not for Texas. Before the ship passed the bar, a storm blew in, the ship began taking on water, so Mexia ordered his men to throw some of the artillery and other supplies overboard, believing that lightening the load would free the ship. Captain John M. Allen and Hall went ashore with six sailors to contact the fort protected the port. The twenty-four man garrison not only quickly surrendered the fort and its three 24-pound cannon to Mexias forces, they switched sides and joined the expedition, Mexia and 150 supporters waded ashore and spent some time drying out. On November 15, they attempted to capture that important port city, the bulk of the Tampico garrison, commanded by Gregorio Gomez Palomino, had remained loyal to the centralist government
28.
Siege of Veracruz
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The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day siege of the key Mexican beachhead seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War. Lasting from March 9–29,1847, it began with the first large-scale amphibious assault conducted by United States military forces, U. S. forces then marched inland to Mexico City. After the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista, much of Zachary Taylors Army of Occupation was transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott in support of the upcoming campaign. That campaign, determined by Scott and other Washington officials, would be a Veracruz landing, Veracruz was considered to be the strongest fortress in North America at the time. Puebla Libres, Orizaba, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Tehuantepec national guards, Fort San Juan de Ulúa – offshore on the Gallega Reef. Gen. Jose Durán with 1,030 men and 135 guns, artillery, Puebla and Jamiltepec activo battalions, companies of Tuxpan, Tampico, see Orders of Battle Mexican War. The Americans arrived at Anton Lizardo, Veracruz in early March, Scott agreed with Conners suggestion for a landing site at Collado Beach,3 mi south of Veracruz. The 1st Regular Division under Worth was chosen to make the landing first, followed by Pattersons volunteers, Conners Mosquito Fleet moved to within 90 yd of the beach to supply covering fire if necessary. By 12,15 pm on 9 March, this force was off Collado Beach, just before the main force touched the beach, a gig dashed ahead, and General Worth with his staff jumped ashore. Worths whole division landed without firing or receiving a single shot, by 11 pm, Scotts entire army had been brought ashore without a single man lost, and the first large scale amphibious landing conducted by the U. S. military was a success. Once ashore Pattersons division began marching northward to effect a complete envelopment of the city, one of Pattersons brigades under Gideon Pillow drove off a Mexican cavalry at Malibrán, cutting off the Alvarado road and the citys water supply. Quitman and Shields managed to drive off cavalry attempting to prevent the investment, by 13 March, the U. S. had completed a 7 mi siege line from Collado in the south to Playa Vergara in the north. On 17 March, siege lines were dug for Scotts siege artillery, sufficient for taking the city, the besiegers were plagued by sorties from the city, and Col. Juan Aguayo used the cover of a storm to slip his Alvarado garrison into Veracruz. Perry, Conners successor, returned from Norfolk, Virginia after making repairs on the USS Mississippi, perry and Conner met with Scott regarding the Navys role in the siege, and offered six guns that were to be manned by sailors from the ships. The naval battery was constructed under the direction of Captain Robert E. Lee 700 yd from the city walls. On March 22, Morales declined a surrender demand from Scott, the Naval batterys heavy cannonballs easily broke the coral walls. Congreve rockets were fired into the defenses and the fire forced the abandonment of Fort Santiago as Mexican morale began to drop. On March 24, Persifor F. Smiths brigade captured a Mexican soldier with reports that Antonio López de Santa Anna was marching an army from Mexico City to the relief of Veracruz
29.
Second Battle of Tabasco
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The Second Battle of Tabasco, also known as the Battle of Villahermosa, was a battle fought in June 1847 during the Mexican-American War as part of the U. S. blockade of Mexican Gulf ports. Home Squadron had recently captured the cities of Tuxpan and Carmen. He next decided to move against the city of San Juan Bautista, Perry had received reports in April that the Mexican commander in Tabasco, Col. Domingo Echagaray, had strengthened the citys defenses and built obstructions in the Tabasco River. At 4,15 PM, near Santa Teresa,12 miles below San Juan Bautista, at dusk, a lone Mexican shot one of Perrys men on the Vesuviuss forecastle. On 16 June, while investigating the obstructions, one of Perrys lieutenants, William May, was wounded and they quickly took Acachapan, when Col. Claro Hidalgos 600 men fled, abandoning their uneaten breakfasts. In the meantime Lieutenant David D. Porter, on board the Spitfire, managed to remove the piles obstructing the river, at one point just as Perry was approaching the Mexican defenses, Porter opened fire on them mistaking the Americans for the Mexicans. The mistake was quickly remedied, and Porter kept on moving upriver, two ships, Scorpion and Spitfire, ran past the fort and began shelling it from the rear. Porter led 68 men ashore, seized the fort, and raised the American flag, the steamers continued on to capture the town, raising the US flag over the governors house by 11,50 AM. Perry and the force arrived at 3,30 PM. The last Mexican port on the Gulf coast had been captured, colonel Echagaray withdrew further upstream to Tamulte with 111 soldiers and 115 civilians, but guerrilla bands lingered behind. In the aftermath of the U. S, first Battle of Tabasco Battles of the Mexican-American War Nevin, David, ed. The Old West, The Mexican War, casualties of Naval Actions in the War with Mexico. A Continent Divided, The U. S. -Mexico War, the Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, The University of Texas Arlington
30.
Convention of Kanagawa
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On March 31,1854, the Convention of Kanagawa or Kanagawa Treaty was the first treaty between the United States of America and the Tokugawa Shogunate. Signed under threat of force, it meant the end of Japan’s 220-year-old policy of national seclusion, by opening the ports of Shimoda. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan, the treaty also precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other western powers. Since the beginning of the century, the Tokugawa shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a government monopoly. This policy had two main objectives, the second objective was fear that foreign trade and the wealth developed would lead to the rise of a daimyō powerful enough to overthrow the ruling Tokugawa clan. Japanese leadership at the time were watching the events take place in China with regards to the Opium Wars being inflicted on them. By the early century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade, but was sent away. The Americans were also driven by concepts of Manifest Destiny and the desire to impose the benefits of civilization on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. For the Japanese standpoint, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the disparity between western military technology and the Japanese feudal armies created growing concern. The Japanese had been keeping abreast of events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry’s voyage. There was considerable debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan’s economic. Perry arrived with four warships at Uraga, at the mouth of Edo Bay on July 8,1853, despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry’s letter created great controversy within the highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of the daimyō for their opinions. The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer, as of the 61 known responses,19 were in favor of accepting the American demands, and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder,14 gave vague responses expressing concern of war,7 suggested making temporary concessions
31.
United States Naval Academy
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The United States Naval Academy is a four-year coeducational federal service academy in Annapolis, Maryland, United States. The entire campus is a National Historic Landmark and home to historic sites, buildings. It replaced Philadelphia Naval Asylum, in Philadelphia, that served as the first United States Naval Academy from 1838 to 1845 when the Naval Academy formed in Annapolis. Candidates for admission generally must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a Member of Congress, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as midshipmen. Tuition for midshipmen is fully funded by the Navy in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,200 plebes enter the Academy each summer for the rigorous Plebe Summer, but only about 1,000 midshipmen graduate. The United States Naval Academy has some of the highest paid graduates in the according to starting salary. Midshipmen are required to adhere to the academys Honor Concept, the United States Naval Academys campus is located in Annapolis, Maryland, at the confluence of the Severn River and the Chesapeake Bay. In its 2016 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as the No.1 public liberal arts college and tied for the 9th best overall liberal arts college in the U. S. In the category of High School Counselor Rankings of National Liberal Arts Colleges, Military Academy and the U. S. Air Force Academy, and is tied for the No.5 spot for Best Undergraduate Engineering program at schools where doctorates not offered. In 2016, Forbes ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as No.24 overall in its report Americas Top Colleges, nominations may be made by members of and delegates to Congress, the President or Vice-President, the Secretary of the Navy or certain other sources. Candidates must also pass a fitness test and a thorough medical exam as part of the application process. In the 21st century, there have been about 1,200 students in each new class of plebes, the U. S. government pays for tuition, room, and board. Midshipmen receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015, from this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses. Midshipmen only receive a portion of their pay in cash while the rest is released during firstie year. Midshipmen fourth-class to midshipmen second-class receive monthly stipends of $100, $200, $300, Midshipmen first-class receive the difference between pay and outstanding expenses. Students at the academy are addressed as Midshipman, an official military rank. The same term comprises both males and females, upon graduation, most naval academy midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps and serve a minimum of five years after their commissioning. If they are selected to serve as a pilot, they will serve 8–11 years minimum from their date of winging, Foreign midshipmen are commissioned into the armed forces of their native countries
32.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
33.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
34.
County Down
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County Down is one of six counties that form Northern Ireland, situated in the northeast of the island of Ireland. Adjoined to the southeast shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of 2,448 km² and has a population of about 531,665 and it is also one of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland and is within the province of Ulster. The county was archaically called Downshire and it borders County Antrim to the north, the Irish Sea to the east and south, County Armagh to the west, and County Louth across Carlingford Lough to the southwest. In the east of the county is Strangford Lough and the Ards Peninsula, the largest town is Bangor, on the northeast coast. Three other large towns and cities are on its border, Newry lies on the border with County Armagh, while Lisburn. Down contains both the southernmost point of Northern Ireland and the easternmost point of Ireland and it is currently one of only two counties of Ireland to have a majority of the population from a Protestant background, according to the 2001 census. The other is County Antrim to the north, during the Williamite War in Ireland the county was a centre of Protestant rebellion against the rule of the Catholic James II. After forming a force the Protestants were defeated by the Irish Army at the Break of Dromore and forced to retreat. Later the same year Marshal Schombergs large Williamite expedition arrived in Belfast Lough, after laying siege to Carrickfergus Schomberg marched south to Dundalk Camp, clearing County Down and much of the rest of East Ulster of Jacobite troops. Down contains two significant peninsulas, Ards Peninsula and Lecale peninsula, the county has a coastline along Belfast Lough to the north and Carlingford Lough to the south. Strangford Lough lies between the Ards Peninsula and the mainland, down also contains part of the shore of Lough Neagh. Smaller loughs include Lough Island Reavy, the River Lagan forms most of the border with County Antrim. The River Bann also flows through the areas of the county. Other rivers include the Clanrye and Quoile, there are several islands off the Down coast, Mew Island, Light House Island and the Copeland Islands, all of which lie to the north of the Ards Peninsula. Gunn Island lies off the Lecale coast, in addition there are a large number of small islands in Strangford Lough. County Down is where, in the words of the song by Percy French, The mountains of Mourne sweep down to the sea. Slieve Donard, at 849 m, is the highest peak in the Mournes, in Northern Ireland, another important peak is Slieve Croob, at 534 m, the source of the River Lagan. An area of County Down is known as the Brontë Homeland, after Patrick Brontë, father of Anne, Charlotte, Emily, Patrick Brontë was born in this region
35.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
36.
William Wallace
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Sir William Wallace was a Scottish knight who became one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence. Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297 and he was appointed Guardian of Scotland and served until his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in July 1298. Since his death, Wallace has obtained an iconic status far beyond his homeland and he is the protagonist of Blind Harrys 15th-century epic poem The Wallace and the subject of literary works by Sir Walter Scott and Jane Porter, and of the Academy Award-winning film Braveheart. William Wallace was a member of the nobility, but little is definitely known of his family history or even his parentage. This Alan Wallace may be the same as the one listed in the 1296 Ragman Rolls as a tenant in Ayrshire. However, Williams seal has given rise to a claim of Ellerslie in Ayrshire. There is no evidence linking him with either location, although both areas had connections with the wider Wallace family. Records show early members of the family as holding estates at Riccarton, Tarbolton, and Auchincruive in Kyle and they were vassals of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland as their lands fell within his territory. Wallaces brothers Malcolm and John are known from other sources, when Wallace was growing up, King Alexander III ruled Scotland. His reign had seen a period of peace and economic stability, on 19 March 1286, however, Alexander died after falling from his horse. The heir to the throne was Alexanders granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway, as she was still a child and in Norway, the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians. Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney on 26 September 1290, the lack of a clear heir led to a period known as the Great Cause, with several families laying claim to the throne. With Scotland threatening to descend into civil war, King Edward I of England was invited in by the Scottish nobility to arbitrate, before the process could begin, he insisted that all of the contenders recognise him as Lord Paramount of Scotland. In early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed, Edward proceeded to reverse the rulings of the Scottish Lords and even summoned King John Balliol to stand before the English court as a common plaintiff. John was a king, known as Toom Tabard or Empty Coat. John renounced his homage in March 1296 and by the end of the month Edward stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed, in April, the Scots were defeated at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian and by July, Edward had forced John to abdicate. Edward then instructed his officers to receive homage from some 1,800 Scottish nobles. Some historians, such as Andrew Fisher, believe Wallace must have had some military experience in order to lead a successful military campaign in 1297
37.
Wars of Scottish Independence
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The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The First War began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, the Second War began with the English-supported invasion by Edward Balliol and the Disinherited in 1332, and ended in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. The wars were part of a crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most defining times in its history. At the end of wars, Scotland retained its status as an independent state. The wars were important for reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in medieval warfare. King Alexander III of Scotland died in 1286, leaving his three-year-old granddaughter Margaret as his heir. In 1290, the Guardians of Scotland signed the Treaty of Birgham agreeing to the marriage of the Maid of Norway and Edward of Caernarvon, the son of Edward I, who was Margarets great-uncle. However, Margaret, travelling to her new kingdom, died shortly after landing on the Orkney Islands around 26 September 1290, with her death, there were 13 rivals for succession. The two leading competitors for the Scottish crown were Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale and John Balliol, Edward agreed to meet the guardians at Norham in 1291. Before the process got underway Edward insisted that he be recognised as Lord Paramount of Scotland, when they refused, he gave the claimants three weeks to agree to his terms, knowing that by then his armies would have arrived and the Scots would have no choice. Edwards ploy worked, and the claimants to the crown were forced to acknowledge Edward as their Lord Paramount and accept his arbitration. Their decision was influenced in part by the fact that most of the claimants had large estates in England and, therefore, however, many involved were churchmen such as Bishop Wishart for whom such mitigation cannot be claimed. Two days later, in Upsettlington, the Guardians of the Realm, all Scots were also required to pay homage to Edward I, either in person or at one of the designated centres by 27 July 1291. There were thirteen meetings from May to August 1291 at Berwick, on 3 August, Edward asked Balliol and Bruce to choose 40 arbiters each, while he chose 24, to decide the case. On 12 August, he signed a writ that required the collection of all documents that concern the competitors rights or his own title to the superiority of Scotland. Balliol was named king by a majority on 17 November 1292, on 26 December, at Newcastle upon Tyne, King John swore homage to Edward I for the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward soon made it clear that he regarded the country as a vassal state, Balliol, undermined by members of the Bruce faction, struggled to resist, and the Scots resented Edwards demands. In 1294, Edward summoned John Balliol to appear before him, on his return to Scotland, John held a meeting with his council and after a few days of heated debate, plans were made to defy the orders of Edward I
38.
Thomas Prence
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Thomas Prence was an English born colonist who arrived in Plymouth in November 1621 on the ship Fortune. In 1644 he moved to Eastham, which he helped found, for many years he was prominent in Plymouth colony affairs and was colony governor for about twenty years covering three terms. Thomas Prence was probably born in the area of Lechlade, a town in the county of Gloucestershire, in about 1600 to Thomas Prince, the Prince family moved to the London parish of All Hallows Barking, near Tower Hill, where Thomas father was a carriage maker. Prences ancestors spelled the family name Prince, but, after his emigration, Prence lived in Ratcliff, at that time a hamlet in the parish of Stepney, which is where he was probably living when he decided to emigrate to the New World. Thomas Prence came to Plymouth Colony on the ship Fortune in November 1621 as a single man, in the 1623 division of land, Thomas Prence is named as holder of one akre of land. By 1626, however, it was clear that the colony was unlikely to yield significant profits, and the Merchant Adventurers sought to divest themselves of their obligations. Prence was one of eight leaders of the colony who agreed to all of the colonys debts to the merchants. In a 1633 tax assessment Prences wealth was such that he was one of a few men required to pay more than £1. The Undertakers established a number of trading posts around New England, where they traded with the natives for furs, the business was risky for a variety of reasons, there was competition from Dutch and French traders, and their first shipment to England was taken by French privateers. The groups agent, Isaac Allerton, also casually mixed personal business with the groups, as a result, debts to English merchants continued to mount until the late 1630s, when Allerton deserted them and the Undertakers sought to dissolve their agreement with the London merchants. An agreement was reached in 1641 to pay the London merchants £1,200 over a several-year period, in order to rid themselves of the problem, the Undertakers in 1645 pledged some of their landholdings as security. A few years later they were forced to some land to satisfy the pledge. The economy of the changed after major migration to the new Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1630. The Puritans arriving at Boston and other new communities to the north created demand for Plymouths agricultural output, because the land at Plymouth was not particularly good, its colonists began to disperse to other places where land was better. Prence was part of migration, joining his father-in-law William Brewster in moving to nearby Duxbury in 1632. In 1644 the Prence family was one of seven to found a new settlement at Eastham on Cape Cod, the area of the Outer Cape had been reserved to the Undertakers, and Prence became one of the largest landowners in the area. His holdings included land in what is now Brewster, Harwich, Wellfleet, the land there was fertile, and the town prospered under his guidance. Prence lived there until 1663, when he moved back to Plymouth, in 1634 Prence was elected governor, and for the rest of his life he played a role in the colonys governance, serving as either governor or on the council of assistants
39.
Eastham, Massachusetts
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Eastham /ˈiːsthæm/ is a town in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States, Barnstable County being coextensive with Cape Cod. The population was 4,956 at the 2010 census, for geographic and demographic information about the village of North Eastham, please see North Eastham, Massachusetts. The area would not be settled by Europeans, however, until 1644, the original lands included what are now the towns of Truro, Wellfleet, Eastham, Orleans and a small portion of Chatham. Eastham town was incorporated in 1651. Fishing and especially farming were early industries in the town, and writers and it was in Eastham that Henry Beston wrote The Outermost House. The town is discussed at length in Henry David Thoreaus Cape Cod as the somewhat rugged site of one of New Englands largest summer camp-meeting evangelistic gatherings in the mid-19th century. The gatherings were at times attended by at least one hundred and fifty ministers, today, Eastham is mostly known as the Gate to the Cape Cod National Seashore, which was founded in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy to protect Cape Cods coast from erosion and overpopulation. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 25.7 square miles, of which 14.0 square miles is land and 11.7 square miles. It is bordered by Cape Cod Bay and the Atlantic Ocean on its western and eastern sides, Eastham is also bordered by the towns of Wellfleet and Orleans on its northern and southern sides, respectively. Approximately one-third of the town is located within the Cape Cod National Seashore, there are several freshwater ponds near the center of town, the largest being called Great Pond, which has two public beaches. Powerboats with 50 and under horsepower motors are allowed on Great Pond and Herring Pond, along the Atlantic coast, portions of the CCNS include several islands, divided by channels which lead from Nauset Bay and Salt Pond Bay to the ocean. The town also shares Town Cove with neighboring Orleans, several creeks and the Herring River run inland from the bay side. U. S. Route 6 passes from south to north through the town, the Cape Cod Rail Trail, as well as several other bicycle routes, pass through the town. Eastham is also served by a regional bus service, The Flex. As of the census of 2010, there were 4,956 people,2,396 households, the population density was 389.8 people per square mile. There were 5,535 housing units at a density of 395.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 31% White,1. 49% African American,0. 15% Native American,0. 31% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,0. 29% from other races, and 1. 41% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 83% of the population,25. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
40.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
41.
Mayflower
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The Mayflower was the ship that transported the first English Separatists, known today as the Pilgrims, from Plymouth, England to the New World in 1620. There were 102 passengers, and the crew is estimated to have been about 30 and this voyage has become an iconic story in some of the earliest annals of American history, with its story of death and of survival in the harsh New England winter environment. The culmination of the voyage in the signing of the Mayflower Compact was an event which established a form of democracy. There was a ship named Mayflower that made the London to Plymouth. This was the cause of the voyage from England to America taking more than two months. The Mayflowers return trip to London in April–May 1621 took less than half that time, by 1620, the Mayflower was aging, nearing the end of the usual working life of an English merchant ship in that era, some 15 years. No dimensions of her hull can be stated exactly, since this was years before such measurements were standardized. She probably measured about 100 feet in length from the end at the beak of her prow to the tip of her stern superstructure aft. She was about 25 feet at her widest point, with the bottom of her keel about 12 feet below the waterline, although William Bradford was not a mariner, he estimated that Mayflower had a cargo capacity of 180 tons. What is known on the basis of surviving records from that time is that she could certainly accommodate 180 casks of wine in her cargo hold, the casks were great barrels that each held hundreds of gallons of claret wine. This was a ship that traditionally was heavily armed while on trading routes around Europe, due to the possibility of encountering pirates, and with its armament, the ship and crew could easily be conscripted by the English monarch at any time in case of conflict with other nations. The general layout of the ship was as follows, Three masts, mizzen, main, and fore, Three primary levels, main deck, gun deck, and cargo hold. Aft on the deck in the stern was the cabin for Master Christopher Jones. Forward of that was the room, which housed a whipstaff for sailing control, not a wheel. Also here was the compass and probably also berths for the ships officers. Forward of the room was the capstan, a vertical axle used to pull in ropes or cables. Far forward on the deck, just aft of the bow, was the forecastle space where the ships cook prepared meals for the crew. The poop deck was above the cabin of Master Jones, on the ships highest level above the stern on the aft castle, the poop house was on this deck, which may have been for passengers use either for sleeping or cargo
United States
United States Navy
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