1.
East Dereham
–
Dereham, also known as East Dereham, is a town and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. It is situated on the A47 road, some 15 miles west of the city of Norwich and 25 miles east of Kings Lynn. The civil parish has an area of 21.51 km2 and in the 2001 census had a population of 15,659 in 6,941 households, the population at the 2011 Census increasing to 18,609. For the purposes of government, Dereham falls within, and is the centre of administration for. The town should not be confused with the Norfolk village of West Dereham, since 1983 Dereham has been twinned with the town of Rüthen in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is also twinned with Caudebec-lès-Elbeuf, France, a Neolithic polished greenstone axe head was found near the town in 1986, with a Neolithic axe head, flint scraper and other tools and worked flints also found in local fields during the 1980s. There is evidence that the area was occupied during the Bronze Age, with burnt flints from a pot boiler site being found in 1976 and another burnt mound site located in 1987. In 2000, a bridle bit dating from the Iron Age was discovered. The town is believed to be on the Roman Road linking the Brampton with the major east-west Roman Road of the Fen Causeway, some pottery and furniture remains have been found in local fields. It is believed that Derehams name derives from a park that existed in the area. Edmund Bonner, later to become the infamous burning bishop, was the Rector for Dereham from 1534 to 1538, many of the towns ancient buildings were destroyed in the serious fires that took place in 1581 and 1659. Notable buildings that survived the fire include the Church of Saint Nicholas, Dereham was administered by the Abbots, then the Bishops of Ely, until the parish was taken from the church by Queen Elizabeth I. In the late 1700s Dereham churchs bell tower was used as a prison for French prisoners of war being transferred from Great Yarmouth to Norman Cross under the charge of the East Norfolk Militia. On 6 October 1799 a French officer, Jean de Narde, managed to escape from the tower and, being unable to escape from the yard due to guards being present. The Frenchman was spotted and shot when he refused to come down, Jean is buried in the church yard, and his grave is marked by a memorial stone erected in 1858, which includes the following statement, Once our foes but now our allies and brethren. In June 1859 a public meeting was held in the Corn Hall, Dereham, the Reverend Armstrong made a short speech urging people to join. About thirty men did, the eldest an elderly fat banker of 70 years, and they were kitted out in a grey uniform. The Corps met regularly for drill and exercise, when the Prince and Princess of Wales, and the Queen of Denmark arrived at the towns railway station, the Dereham Rifles attended to form a guard of honour
East Dereham
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The market place on High Street
East Dereham
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The maltings complex beside the
railway, closed in 2000 but proposed for reopening in 2015.
East Dereham
–
East Dereham Windmill
East Dereham
–
Cowper Church Sunday School, Dereham.
2.
Norfolk
–
Norfolk /ˈnɔːrfək/ is a county in East Anglia in England. It borders Lincolnshire to the west and north-west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea and, to the north-west, The Wash. With an area of 2,074 square miles and a population of 859,400, of the countys population, 40% live in four major built up areas, Norwich, Great Yarmouth, Kings Lynn and Thetford. The Broads is a network of rivers and lakes in the east of the county, the area is not a National Park although it is marketed as such. It has similar status to a park, and is protected by the Broads Authority. Norfolk was settled in times, with camps along the higher land in the west. A Brythonic tribe, the Iceni, inhabited the county from the 1st century BC to the end of the 1st century AD, the Iceni revolted against the Roman invasion in AD47, and again in 60 led by Boudica. The crushing of the second opened the county to the Romans. During the Roman era roads and ports were constructed throughout the county, situated on the east coast, Norfolk was vulnerable to invasions from Scandinavia and Northern Europe, and forts were built to defend against the Angles and Saxons. Norfolk, Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, the influence of the Early English settlers can be seen in the many place names ending in -ton and -ham. Endings such as -by and -thorpe are also common, indicating Danish place names, in the 9th century the region came under attack. In the centuries before the Norman Conquest the wetlands of the east of the county began to be converted to farmland, and settlements grew in these areas. Migration into East Anglia must have high, by the time of the Domesday Book survey it was one of the most densely populated parts of the British Isles. During the high and late Middle Ages the county developed arable agriculture, the economy was in decline by the time of the Black Death, which dramatically reduced the population in 1349. During the English Civil War Norfolk was largely Parliamentarian, the economy and agriculture of the region declined somewhat. During the Industrial Revolution Norfolk developed little industry except in Norwich which was an addition to the railway network. In the 20th century the county developed a role in aviation, during the Second World War agriculture rapidly intensified, and it has remained very intensive since, with the establishment of large fields for growing cereals and oilseed rape. Norfolks low-lying land and easily eroded cliffs, many of which are chalk and clay, make it vulnerable to the sea, the low-lying section of coast between Kelling and Lowestoft Ness in Suffolk is currently managed by the Environment Agency to protect the Broads from sea flooding
Norfolk
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Wells-next-the-Sea.
Norfolk
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Flag
Norfolk
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River Wensum, Norwich.
Norfolk
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Norwich Cathedral: Spire and south transept.
3.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
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Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
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Flag
England
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Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
4.
Springside (Poughkeepsie, New York)
–
Springside was the estate of Matthew Vassar in Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. It is located on Academy Street just off US9, detailed plans for a landscape and complex of farm buildings were drawn up by the influential Andrew Jackson Downing prior to his death. The landscaping was completed and remains Downings only surviving work, but only a few of the buildings were built and most have since been lost to fire. A cottage where Vassar resided, Downings only known surviving building, had to be dismantled and removed in the mid-1970s and its facade is on display in the New York State Museum. Downings landscape, in the English Landscape Garden style, has survived several serious efforts to redevelop the property in the last half-century due to opposition from local preservationists, springsides development took up much of the last two years of Downings life, and the latter years of Vassars. The unfinished estate was maintained and developed by other families for a century afterward. Their descendants were more amenable to selling the land for development in the years afterward, the Springside property was the Allen farm, first a family farm, then an ornamental farm of roughly 45 acres, twice its current size. It takes its name from a spring on the property and it was considered as a site for a cemetery by the then-village of Poughkeepsie in 1848. By 1851, Downing, in collaboration with his associate Calvert Vaux, the next year, the city of Poughkeepsie chose another site for the cemetery, ending that possibility. Downings death in a boiler explosion the following year did not halt development, as Vassar. At least two of Downings planned structures, a barn and a cottage, were built. However, the villa that was to be the main house of the estate. As Springside continued to grow and develop, Vassar regularly opened the lands to the public until he retired to it full-time in 1867 and it became a popular place to visit and inspired poetry and songs. One visitor, Russell Comstock, wrote, We took a stroll over the ground of M. Vassar, Esq. after Vassars death, the lands were divided among several other local families, who continued to work the landscape. Judge Homer Nelson, New Yorks Secretary of State, bought the southern half of the property and he lived elsewhere while a boardinghouse operated on the site. The northern half was purchased by local shoe manufacturer John Whitehouse and it passed to his son-in-law Eugene Howell upon his death, who kept up the landscape, at one point using it as a golf course, despite the failure of the shoe factory in 1891. Nelson, the founder of the Red Ball Line shipping company and he bequeathed it to his wife, and she in turn passed it on to their children. The two daughters and son kept the property in the family and lived in various of its buildings, gerald Nelson moved his family into the Hudson Knolls mansion, which Homer Nelsons widow had built anew in 1911 after the former boardinghouse had succumbed to a fire three years previously
Springside (Poughkeepsie, New York)
–
Springside
Springside (Poughkeepsie, New York)
–
Downing's original site plan.
Springside (Poughkeepsie, New York)
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Main house planned but never built
Springside (Poughkeepsie, New York)
–
The gardener's cottage, since dismantled and removed.
5.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
6.
Brewing
–
Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source in water and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a brewer, at home by a homebrewer. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, since the nineteenth century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies. The basic ingredients of beer are water and a starch source such as malted barley. Most beer is fermented with a brewers yeast and flavoured with hops, less widely used starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava. Secondary sources, such as maize, rice, or sugar, may also be used, sometimes to reduce cost, or to add a feature, the proportion of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill. Steps in the process include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering. There are three main methods, warm, cool and spontaneous. Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel, there are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and Yorkshire Square. Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt, descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform from ancient Mesopotamia. Ethnographic studies and archaeological records indicate that brewing alcohol was primary an activity engaged in by women, chemical tests of ancient pottery jars reveal that beer was produced as far back as about 7,000 years ago in what is today Iran. This discovery reveals one of the earliest known uses of fermentation and is the earliest evidence of brewing to date, in Mesopotamia, the oldest evidence of beer is believed to be a 6, 000-year-old Sumerian tablet depicting people drinking a beverage through reed straws from a communal bowl. A 3900-year-old Sumerian poem honouring Ninkasi, the goddess of brewing, contains the oldest surviving beer recipe. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 5,000 years ago, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. Ale produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. More than 133 billion litres are sold per year—producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion in 2006
Brewing
–
Malted barley before kilning or roasting
Brewing
–
A 16th-century brewery
Brewing
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Hop cone in a
Hallertau, Germany, hop yard
Brewing
–
A mash tun at the
Bass Museum in Burton-upon-Trent
7.
Merchant
–
A merchant is a person who trades in commodities produced by other people to earn a profit. A merchant historically was anyone involved in business as long as industry, commerce, the status of the merchant has varied during different periods of history and among different societies. There are two types of merchant, A wholesale merchant is a wholesaler who operates in the chain between produce and retail merchant, typically dealing in large quantities of goods, some wholesale merchants only organize the movement of goods rather than move the goods themselves. A retail merchant or retailer, sells merchandise to end-users or consumers, a shop-keeper is a retail merchant. Merchants have existed as long as business, industry, trade, a merchant class characterized many pre-modern societies. Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, Phonecia and these markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre. Surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers and these artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. In ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum, the nature of direct selling centred around transactional exchange, where the goods were on open display, allowing buyers to evaluate quality directly through visual inspection. Relationships between merchant and consumer were minimal, the Phoenicians plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit and their trading skills necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern day Crete through to Tangiers and onto Sardinia. The Phoenicians not only traded in goods, but were also instrumental in transporting the trappings of culture. The Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence, in around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a phonetic alphabet which was much easier to learn that the pictographic scripts used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos. The Romans defined merchants or traders in a narrow sense. Merchants were those who bought and sold goods while landowners who sold their own produce were not considered to be merchants, being a landowner was a respectable occupation. On the other hand, the trade of merchant was not considered respectable, although they may have lacked high social standing, merchants in ancient Rome often made handsome profits. Umbricius Scauras, for example, was a manufacturer and trader of fish sauce in Pompeii and his villa, situated in one of the wealthier districts of Pompeii, was very large and ornately decorated in a show of substantial personal wealth
Merchant
–
Merchants from Holland and the Middle East trading.
Merchant
–
A merchant making up the account by
Katsushika Hokusai.
Merchant
–
Portrait of the Merchant Georg Gisze by
Hans Holbein the Younger, 1532.
Merchant
–
Sir Thomas Gresham by
Anthonis Mor, c. 1560.
8.
Eponym
–
An eponym is a person, place, or thing for whom or for which something is named, or believed to be named. For example, Elizabeth I of England is the eponym of the Elizabethan era, recent usage, especially in the recorded-music industry, also allows eponymous to mean named after its central character or creator. In ancient Greece, the eponymous archon was the highest magistrate in classical Athens, Eponymous archons served a term of one year which took the name of that particular archon. Later historians provided yet another case of eponymy by referring to the period of Fifth-century Athens as The Age of Pericles after its most influential statesman Pericles. In Ptolemaic Egypt, the head priest of the Cult of Alexander, the Hebrew Bible explains the origins of peoples through individuals who bear their name. In most cases, the experiences and behavior of the ancestor is meant to indicate the characteristics of the people who take their name, in ancient Rome, one of the two formal ways of indicating a year was to cite the two annual consuls who served in that year. For example, the year we know as 59 BC would have described as the consulship of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus and Gaius Julius Caesar. Under the empire, the consuls would change as often as two months, but only the two consuls at the beginning of the year would lend their names to that year. During the Christian era, itself eponymous, many households used eponymous dating by regnal years. The Roman Catholic Church, however, eventually used the Anno Domini dating scheme based on the birth of Christ on both the public and royalty. Government administrations may become referred to eponymously, such as Kennedys Camelot, British monarchs have become eponymous throughout the English-speaking world for time periods, fashions, etc. Elizabethan, Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian are examples of these, trends Political trends or movements often become eponymous with a government leader. Examples include Jacksonian democracy, Stalinism, Maoism, Obamacare, in intellectual property law an eponym can refer to a generic trademark or brand name, a form of metonymy, such as aspirin, heroin and thermos in the United States. In geography, places and towns can also be given a name through a relationship to an important figure. Peloponnesus, for instance, was said to derive its name from the Greek hero Pelops, in historical times, new towns have often been named after their founders, discoverers, or notable individuals. In science and technology, discoveries and innovations are often named after the discoverer or a figure influential in their advance, examples are Avogadros number, the Diesel engine, meitnerium, Alzheimers disease, and the Apgar score. For a different view of the process see Stiglers law of eponymy, the term is also applied to music, usually with regard to record titles, where it is prevalent and leads to confusion. For example, Bad Companys first album was entitled Bad Company, titled a 1988 compilation album Eponymous
Eponym
–
The mythological Greek hero
Orion is the eponym of the
constellation Orion, shown here, and thus indirectly of the
Orion spacecraft.
9.
Vassar College
–
Vassar College is a private, coeducational, liberal arts college in the town of Poughkeepsie, New York, in the United States. Founded in 1861 by Matthew Vassar, it was the first degree-granting institution of education for women in the United States. It became coeducational in 1969, and now has a ratio at the national average. The college offers B. A. degrees in more than 50 majors, Vassar also offers many extracurricular organizations including student theater, a cappella groups, club sports, volunteer and service groups, and a circus troupe. Vassar Colleges varsity sports teams, known as the Brewers, play in the NCAAs Division III as members of the Liberty League. Vassar tied for the 12th best liberal arts college in the nation in the 2017 annual ranking of U. S. News & World Report, for the freshman class entering fall 2016, the college had an acceptance rate of 26. 9%. The total number of attending the college is around 2,450. The Vassar campus comprises over 1,000 acres and more than 100 buildings, a designated arboretum, the campus features more than 200 species of trees, a native plant preserve, and a 400-acre ecological preserve. Vassar was founded as a school under the name Vassar Female College in 1861. The college became coeducational in 1969, Vassar was the second of the Seven Sisters colleges, higher education schools that were formerly strictly for women, and historically sister institutions to the Ivy League. It was chartered by its namesake, brewer Matthew Vassar, in 1861 in the Hudson Valley, the first person appointed to the Vassar faculty was the astronomer Maria Mitchell, in 1865. However, immediately following World War II, Vassar accepted a small number of male students on the G. I. Because Vassars charter prohibited male matriculants, the graduates were given diplomas via the University of the State of New York and these were reissued under the Vassar title after the school formally became co-educational. In its early years, Vassar was associated with the elite of the Protestant establishment. E. Digby Baltzell writes that upper-class WASP families educated their children at such as Harvard, Princeton, Yale. A select and elite few of Vassars students were allowed entry into the secret society Delta Sigma Rho. Before becoming President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a Trustee, roughly 2,450 students attend Vassar, and 98% live on campus. About 60% come from high schools, and 40% come from private schools
Vassar College
–
Matthew Vassar
Vassar College
–
Vassar College
Vassar College
–
Main Building, built in 1861 by architect
James Renwick, Jr., had the most interior space of any building in the United States, until the
U.S. Capitol was completed in 1868.
Vassar College
–
The
Vassar College Observatory is one of two National Historic Landmarks on the college's campus, along with Main Building.
10.
Vassar, Michigan
–
Vassar is a city in Tuscola County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 2,697 at the 2010 census and 2,823 in 2000, the city is located on the western edge of Vassar Township but is politically independent. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.18 square miles. The Cass River flows through the city and it is considered to be part of the Thumb of Michigan, which in turn is a subregion of the Flint/Tri-Cities. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,697 people,1,001 households, the population density was 1,272.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,154 housing units at a density of 544.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 87. 4% White,8. 8% African American,0. 4% Native American,0. 1% Asian,1. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 0% of the population. 28. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.99. The median age in the city was 32.5 years. 31. 6% of residents were under the age of 18, 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 23% were from 25 to 44,24. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 8% male and 50. 2% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,823 people,991 households, and 676 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,266.2 per square mile, there were 1,062 housing units at an average density of 476.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 88. 42% White,8. 25% African American,0. 21% Native American,0. 21% Asian,1. 35% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 94% of the population. 28. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.14. In the city, the population was out with 34. 2% under the age of 18,8. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 4% from 25 to 44,18. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 106.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males, the median income for a household in the city was $38,087, and the median income for a family was $44,924. Males had an income of $32,045 versus $22,305 for females
Vassar, Michigan
–
Location of Vassar, Michigan
11.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
–
British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
–
Flag
New York (state)
–
1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
–
The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
12.
Farm
–
A farm is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops, it is the basic facility in food production. It includes ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations and estates, smallholdings and hobby farms, in modern times the term has been extended so as to include such industrial operations as wind farms and fish farms, both of which can operate on land or sea. Farming originated independently in different parts of the world, as hunter gatherer societies transitioned to food production rather than, food capture. It may have started about 12,000 years ago with the domestication of livestock in the Fertile Crescent in western Asia, modern farms in developed countries are highly mechanized. In Europe, traditional farms are giving way to larger production units. In Australia, some farms are large because the land is unable to support a high stocking density of livestock because of climatic conditions. In less developed countries, small farms are the norm, the word is from the medieval Latin noun firma, also the source of the French word ferme, meaning a fixed agreement, contract, from the classical Latin adjective firmus meaning strong, stout, firm. Farming has been innovated at multiple different points and places in human history and it was the worlds first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. Subsequent step-changes in human farming practices were provoked by the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century, farming spread from the Middle East to Europe and by 4,000 BC people that lived in the central part of Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. A farm may operate under a system or with a variety of cereal or arable crops. Specialist farms are often denoted as such, thus a dairy farm, fish farm, some farms may not use the word at all, hence vineyard, orchard, market garden or truck farm. Some farms may be denoted by their location, such as a hill farm. Many other terms are used to describe farms to denote their methods of production, as in collective, corporate, intensive, organic or vertical. There are many breeds of cattle that can be milked some of the best producing ones include Holstein, Norwegian Red, Kostroma, Brown Swiss, in most Western countries, a centralized dairy facility processes milk and dairy products, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies, dairy farms generally sell male calves for veal meat, as dairy breeds are not normally satisfactory for commercial beef production. Many dairy farms also grow their own feed, typically including corn, alfalfa and this is fed directly to the cows, or stored as silage for use during the winter season. Additional dietary supplements are added to the feed to milk production. Poultry farms are devoted to raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, a pig farm is one that specializes in raising pigs or hogs for bacon, ham and other pork products and may be free range, intensive, or both
Farm
–
Farmland in the USA. The round fields are due to the use of
center pivot irrigation
Farm
–
Typical plan of a mediaeval English manor, showing the use of field strips
Farm
–
A
farmer harvesting crops with mule-drawn wagon, 1920s,
Iowa, USA
Farm
–
A
milking machine in action
13.
Wappinger Creek
–
Wappinger Creek is a 41. 7-mile-long creek which runs from Thompson Pond to the Hudson River at New Hamburg in Dutchess County, New York, United States. It is the longest creek in Dutchess County, with the largest watershed in the county, the creek flows in a north–south direction on the eastern side of the Hudson River. The creeks source is Thompson Pond near Pine Plains, and it heads southwestward towards its mouth in the Hudson River near New Hamburg. Along the way, it goes through fluctuations in width and follows a path, in Wappingers Falls, it forms Wappinger Lake. The initial.25 mi of the runs through rocky, steep. However as it approaches the Hudson it enters the rivers tidal range, the creek is also home to numerous species, and is an important spawning area for anadromous fish, which thrive in the creek between April and June. Largemouth bass, bluegill, pumpkinseed, red-breasted sunfish, and brown bullhead, also, the creek is annually stocked with various species of trout for the purpose of recreational fishing. Wappinger Creek has four tributaries, the longest of which is Little Wappinger Creek which enters the creek from the east bank. The tributaries are listed below from the source to the mouth, with Hunns Lake Creek being the northern most, list of rivers in New York Mary Flagler Cary Arboretum, Wappinger Creek Trail Wappingers Creek water level
Wappinger Creek
–
Wappinger Creek at Red Oaks Mill at high flow
Wappinger Creek
–
A frozen waterfall along the creek
Wappinger Creek
–
View of the creek from the Best Western Inn and Suites at the Falls
14.
Apprenticeship
–
An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
Apprenticeship
–
The profession of
thatching is learned through apprenticeship in Germany
Apprenticeship
–
Carpentry is another profession learned through apprenticeship
Apprenticeship
–
A medieval baker with his apprentice. The Bodleian Library, Oxford.
Apprenticeship
–
A
master chimney sweep and apprentice in 2008
15.
New Hamburg, New York
–
New Hamburg is a small hamlet along the Hudson River in Dutchess County, New York, best known as home of a popular marina and a busy Metro-North Railroad Hudson Line station. It is located in the corner of the Town Of Poughkeepsie. Road records of 1770 show that there were shipping facilities in New Hamburg called “Hood Landing. ”The rivermen called the point of land in the angle between the Hudson and the mouth of Wappinger Creek High Point and the area which projected into the river a few miles south Low Point. Lime burning became an important industry, dr. Benjamin Elys map of 1797 shows a lime kiln in New Hamburg. By 1800 Ephraim DuBois had settled at High Point, in 1837 he sold his property, including a lime quarry and kiln, to Adolph Brower from New York. Browers customers were local pig iron producers and farmers and builders as far away as New Jersey and he tore down the DuBois house and built his own on the same site about 1844. New Hamburg Yacht Club is now situated approximately where the Old Lime Dock was. The riverfront near the kilns was a favorite local bathing area called the Sandy Bottom Shore. ”When the railroad was built in the late 1840s. In 1808 John Drake Jr. built a bridge across Wappingers Creek, in 1879 an iron swing-bridge was erected, and continued to be known as Drakes Bridge. By 1810 John Drake had relocated to the hamlet where he had docks, a store, in the early 1820s, lumber surpassed lime kilns as a business. Charles Millard, who owned a business based in Ulster County, moved to the Landing in 1824. Since most of the lumber and log shipments were made by water, Millards son, Walter and he and a partner, Uriah Mills, built the barge Lexington, which carried freight up and down the Hudson River and the steamer Splendid, which carried both freight and passengers. In 1848–1849 a cholera epidemic swept through the community of workers and was quite fatal. The river steamer Mary Powell used to stop at New Hamburg in the morning on her way to New York, around 1860 William Shay operated a rag business on the corner of Main Street and Point Street. He would travel up Wappingers Creek to the mills in Wappingers Falls, the hamlet suffered a devastating fire on May 3,1877, involving the loss of seven buildings. The trains exploded upon impact instantly throwing people, luggage,77 people were missing or unidentified. The number of confirmed deaths was 22, some bodies were taken to Poughkeepsie for identification, others still remain below the depths of the Wappinger Creek and Hudson River. The latitude of New Hamburg is 41. 588N and it is in the Eastern Standard time zone
New Hamburg, New York
–
Adolph Brower House, c. 1844
16.
Balmville, New York
–
Balmville is an affluent hamlet in Orange County, New York, United States. It is part of the Poughkeepsie–Newburgh–Middletown, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area as well as the larger New York–Newark–Bridgeport and it is located in the southeastern part of the Town of Newburgh. The population was 3,178 at the 2010 census, many wealthy, influential, and upper income families live in Balmville on roads such as River Road, Sloane Road, Commonwealth Avenue, Susan Drive, and Grand Avenue. Susan Drive is accredited for housing the former Delano Family Estate, the Delano family was the family of the mother of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and she in fact was born and raised at Algonac. Many homes in Balmville are incredibly expensive due to their views of the Hudson River. Balmville is also the site of the Powelton Club Country Club and it currently ranks as the highest income hamlet in the greater Newburgh area. Balmville is immediately north of, and adjoins, the city of Newburgh, Balmville was home to the Balmville Tree, New Yorks smallest state forest. The tree was one of three federally protected trees in the nation and it was called a miracle tree due to its age for its species. On August 5,2015, because of safety caused by the rapid deterioration of the tree, it was cut down. Balmville is located at 41°31′40″N 74°1′28″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.1 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,339 people,1,257 households, the population density was 1,572.3 per square mile. There were 1,288 housing units at a density of 606. 5/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 79. 66% White,9. 46% African American,0. 03% Native American,3. 05% Asian,0. 12% Pacific Islander,4. 88% from other races, and 2. 79% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10. 03% of the population,19. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the family size was 3.06. In the CDP, the population was out with 23. 0% under the age of 18,7. 2% from 18 to 24,27. 3% from 25 to 44,26. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 91.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $66,979, and the median income for a family was $72,925
Balmville, New York
–
The Balmville Tree
17.
Newburgh (city), New York
–
Newburgh /ˈnuːbərɡ/ is a city located in Orange County, New York, United States,60 miles north of New York City, and 90 miles south of Albany, on the Hudson River. Newburgh is a part of the New York metropolitan area, the Newburgh area was first settled in the early 18th century by the Germans and British. During the American Revolution, Newburgh served as the headquarters of the Continental Army, prior to its chartering in 1865, the city of Newburgh was part of the town of Newburgh, the town now borders the city to the north and west. East of the city is the Hudson River, the city of Beacon, New York across the river, the entire southern boundary of the city is with the town of New Windsor. Most of this boundary is formed by Quassaick Creek, in May 2016, the city requested help for its PFOS contaminated water supply under Superfund. At the time of European contact the area of Newburgh was occupied by the Waoranek, the area that became Newburgh was first explored by Europeans when Henry Hudson stopped by during his 1609 expedition up the river that now bears his name. Around 1683 provincial governor Thomas Dongan purchased the land from the Woaranek, the first settlement was made in the spring of 1709 by fifty-four Palatine refugees, sponsored by Queen Anne of Great Britain. The settlers named it the Palatine Parish by Quassic, in 1743 a ferry at the foot of First Street had been established between Newburgh and Fishkill Landing. In 1752 the land had been surveyed by Cadwallader Colden and named Newburgh after Newburgh in his native Scotland, shipyards were established and docks and warehouses lined the waterfront. Newburgh was the headquarters of the Continental Army from March,1782 until the part of 1783. While the army was camped at Newburgh, some of its senior officers began the Newburgh conspiracy to overthrow the government, General George Washington was able to persuade his officers to stay loyal to him. The army was disbanded here in 1783, Washington received the famous Newburgh letter from Lewis Nicola proposing that he become king here. It drew a rebuke from Washington. In honor of his refusal of that suggestion, Kings Highway, the year 1793 saw Newburghs first newspaper, The Newburgh Packet. The hamlet of Newburgh was incorporated as a village in 1800, at the time of its settlement it was in Ulster County and was that countys seat. When Rockland County was split from Orange County in 1798, Newburgh, Newburgh thus lost its status as the county seat to Goshen. The former Ulster County courthouse still stands as Newburghs old city courthouse building, by 1793 there were four sloop lines operating out of Newburgh. As new turnpikes opened trade extended into the interior, passenger coaches and farm wagons raveled as far west as Canandaigua
Newburgh (city), New York
–
Downtown Newburgh from
Beacon, across the Hudson River
Newburgh (city), New York
–
Woodcut of Newburgh skyline from Hudson in 1842, with
Dutch Reformed Church, then with its original dome and lantern.
Newburgh (city), New York
–
Christopher Columbus Statue on Newburgh's Waterfront
Newburgh (city), New York
–
View of Newburgh from the
Newburgh-Beacon Bridge
18.
War of 1812
–
Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
War of 1812
–
Clockwise from top: damage to the
US Capitol after the
Burning of Washington; the mortally wounded
Isaac Brock spurs on the
York Volunteers at the
battle of Queenston Heights;
USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere;
The death of Tecumseh in 1813 ends the Indian armed struggle in the American Midwest;
Andrew Jackson defeats the
British assault on New Orleans.
War of 1812
–
Press gang: oil painting by
Luke Clennell
War of 1812
–
James Madison, U.S. President, (1809–1817).
War of 1812
–
Lord Liverpool, British Prime Minister, (1812–1827).
19.
New Orleans
–
New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
New Orleans
–
From top left: A typical New Orleans mansion off
St. Charles Avenue, a streetcar passing by
Loyola University and
Tulane University, the skyline of the
Central Business District,
Jackson Square, and a view of Royal Street in the
French Quarter
New Orleans
–
The
Battle of New Orleans (1815)
New Orleans
–
Mississippi River
steamboats at New Orleans, 1853.
New Orleans
–
The starving people of New Orleans under Union occupation during the Civil War, 1862
20.
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
–
A close friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson, Lafayette was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France and he followed its martial tradition, and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American cause in its war was noble. There, he was made a general, however, the 19-year-old was initially not given troops to command. Wounded during the Battle of Brandywine, he managed to organize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island, in the middle of the war, he returned home to lobby for an increase in French support. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was given positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops in Virginia under his command blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American, Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointed to the Assembly of Notables, which was convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from the three orders of French society—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, after the storming of the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the French Revolution. In August 1792, the radical factions ordered his arrest, fleeing through the Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of the remainder of his life. During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette declined an offer to become the French dictator, instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on 20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States, he is sometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds. Lafayettes lineage was likely one of the oldest and most distinguished in Auvergne and, perhaps, males of the Lafayette family enjoyed a reputation for courage and chivalry and were noted for their contempt for danger. One of Lafayettes early ancestors, Gilbert de Lafayette III, a Marshal of France, had been a companion-at-arms of Joan of Arcs army during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, according to legend, another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during the Sixth Crusade. Lafayettes father likewise died on the battlefield, on 1 August 1759, Michel de Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while fighting a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden in Westphalia. Lafayette became marquis and Lord of Chavaniac, but the estate went to his mother, in 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned to Paris to live with his mother and great-grandfather at the comtes apartments in Luxembourg Palace
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
–
The birthplace of Lafayette in
Chavaniac,
Auvergne
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
–
Lafayette as a lieutenant general, in 1791. Portrait by
Joseph-Désiré Court
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
–
Lafayette's wife, Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles, French School 18th century
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
–
Statue of Lafayette in front of the Governor Palace in
Metz, where he decided to join the American cause
21.
Lansingburgh, New York
–
Lansingburgh was a village in the north end of Troy. It was first laid out in lots and incorporated in 1771 by Abraham Jacob Lansing, in 1900, Lansingburgh became part of the City of Troy. Demographically speaking Lansingburgh is fairly diverse, Lansingburgh has always been a predominately working class Irish Neighborhood since the late 1880s. In the 12182 zip code 71% of residents are Non-Hispanic White, 17% Non Hispanic Black or African American, 9% Hispanic or Latino and 3% other. Top Ancestries reported in the zip code 12182 are 22% Irish, 13% African American, 8% Italian, 7% French, 6% Puerto Rican, the Median Household Income for this zip is 31,321. 24% of the population is living below the poverty line, as of 2015, the Lansingburgh Central School District has a 87% graduation rate for the Senior High School. This is higher than most other urban school districts. 65% of students in the district are economically disadvantaged, the district is 67% Non-Hispanic White, 17% Black, 10% Hispanic, 5% Multi-Racial and 1% Asian. Lansingburgh has its own district as well as post office, but police, fire. Herman Melville lived in what is now known as the Herman Melville House from 1838 to 1847 and it currently serves as headquarters of the Lansingburgh Historical Society. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992, the Powers Home, built in 1846, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. The Lansingburgh Academy was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976, the Trinity Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The Lansingburgh Village Burial Ground was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002, the Haskell School was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The Jacob H. Patten House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016, chester A. Arthur, 21st President of the United States, born in Fairfield, Vermont, spent part of his youth in Lansingburgh. Catcher Fatty Briody was a 19th Century Major League Baseball player from Lansingburgh, moby-Dick author Herman Melville wrote his first two novels in Lansingburgh. He resided at what is now known as the Herman Melville House from 1838 to 1847, children’s author Mary Louise Peebles was born, raised and died in Lansingburgh. Lansingburgh Historical Society website Early history of Lansingburgh, NY Lansingburgh
Lansingburgh, New York
–
Lansingburgh is in the northern section of
Troy
22.
Troy, New York
–
Troy is a city in the U. S. State of New York and the seat of Rensselaer County. The city is located on the edge of Rensselaer County. Troy has close ties to the cities of Albany and Schenectady. The city is one of the three centers for the Albany Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 1,170,483. At the 2010 census, the population of Troy was 50,129, troja est, which means Ilium was, Troy is. Before European arrival, the area was settled by the Mahican Indian tribe, the Dutch began settling in the mid 17th century, the patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer called the area Pafraets Dael, after his mother. Control of New York passed to the English in 1664 and in 1707 Derick Van der Heyden purchased a farm near todays downtown area, in 1771, Abraham Lansing had his farm in todays Lansingburgh laid out into lots. Responding to Lansings success to the north, in 1787, Van der Heydens grandson Jacob had his extensive holdings surveyed and laid out into lots as well, in 1789, Troy got its current name after a vote of the people. In 1791, Troy was incorporated as a town and extended east across the county to the Vermont line, in 1796, Troy became a village and in 1816 it became a city. Lansingburgh, to the north, became part of Troy in 1900, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Mohican Indians had a number of settlements along the Hudson River near the confluence with the Mohawk River. The land comprising the Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill areas were owned by two Mohican groups, the land around the Poesten Kill was owned by Skiwias and was called Panhooseck. The area around the Wynants Kill, was known as Paanpack, was owned by Peyhaunet, the land between the creeks, which makes up most of downtown and South Troy, was owned by Annape. South of the Wynants Kill and into present-day North Greenbush, the land was owned by Pachquolapiet and these parcels of land were sold to the Dutch between 1630 and 1657 and each purchase was overseen and signed by Skiwias, the sachem at the time. In total, more than 75 individual Mohicans were involved in deed signings in the 17th century, the site of the city was a part of Rensselaerswyck, a patroonship created by Kiliaen van Rensselaer. Dirck Van der Heyden was one of the first settlers, in 1707, he purchased a farm of 65 acres which in 1787 was laid out as a village. One skeleton was female and Caucasian with an iron ring, the other was Native-American and male. The name Troy was adopted in 1789 before which it had known as Ashleys Ferry. The township included Brunswick and Grafton, Troy became a village in 1801 and was chartered as a city in 1816
Troy, New York
–
The Troy waterfront along the
Hudson River, 2009
Troy, New York
–
Illustration for Arrow Collar, 1907. J.C. Leyendecker.
Troy, New York
–
Troy's Union Depot ca.1900
Troy, New York
–
Troy, as viewed from across the
Hudson River looking east,
circa 1909
23.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
–
Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Emerson in 1857
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Engraved drawing, 1878
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Daguerreotype of
Lidian Jackson Emerson and son
Edward Waldo Emerson Unknown date
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1859
24.
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
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The Act was one of the most controversial elements of the 1850 compromise and heightened Northern fears of a slave power conspiracy. It required that all escaped slaves were, upon capture, to be returned to their masters, abolitionists nicknamed it the Bloodhound Law for the dogs that were used to track down runaway slaves. By 1843, several hundred slaves a year were escaping to the North. It sought to force the authorities in free states to return slaves to their masters. Many Northern states wanted to circumvent the Fugitive Slave Act, in some cases, juries refused to convict individuals who had been indicted under the Federal law. The Fugitive Slave Law dealt with slaves who escaped to free states without their masters consent. The U. S. Supreme Court ruled, in Prigg v. Pennsylvania, free and runaway blacks found Cass County a haven. Their good fortune attracted the attention of southern slaveholders, in 1847 and 1849, planters from Bourbon and Boone counties in northern Kentucky led raids into Cass County to recapture runaway slaves. The raids failed but the situation contributed to Southern demands in 1850 for passage of the strengthened Fugitive Slave Act, Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. Since there was no way to confirm the number of runaway slaves, law-enforcement officials everywhere were required to arrest people suspected of being a runaway slave on as little as a claimants sworn testimony of ownership. The suspected slave could not ask for a trial or testify on his or her own behalf. In addition, any person aiding a slave by providing food or shelter was subject to six months imprisonment. Officers who captured a fugitive slave were entitled to a bonus or promotion for their work, Slave owners needed only to supply an affidavit to a Federal marshal to capture an escaped slave. The Act adversely affected the prospects of slave escape, particularly in close to the North. In 1859 in Ableman v. Booth, the U. S. Supreme Court overruled the state court, in November 1850, the Vermont legislature passed the Habeas Corpus Law, requiring Vermont judicial and law enforcement officials to assist captured fugitive slaves. It also established a judicial process, parallel to the federal process. This law rendered the federal Fugitive Slave Act effectively unenforceable in Vermont and it was considered a nullification of federal law, a concept popular in the South among states that wanted to nullify other aspects of federal law, and was part of highly charged debates over slavery. Noted poet and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier had called for laws
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
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An April 24, 1851 poster warning the "colored people of Boston" about policemen acting as slave catchers.
25.
Underground Railroad
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The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the fugitives. Various other routes led to Mexico or overseas, an earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until shortly after the American Revolution. However, the now generally known as the Underground Railroad was formed in the late 1700s. One estimate suggests that by 1850,100,000 slaves had escaped via the Railroad, British North America, where slavery was prohibited, was a popular destination, as its long border gave many points of access. Most former slaves settled in Ontario, more than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U. S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, the resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War, because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived suspected slaves of the right to themselves in court. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a fee for a decision that confirmed a suspect as a slave than for one ruling that the suspect was free. Many Northerners who might have ignored slave issues in the South were confronted by local challenges that bound them to support slavery. This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, the escape network was not literally underground nor a railroad. It was figuratively underground in the sense of being an underground resistance and it was known as a railroad by way of the use of rail terminology in the code. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Conductors on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves. Without the presence and support of black residents, there would have been almost no chance for fugitive slaves to pass into freedom unmolested. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation. Conductors led or transported the fugitives from station to station, a conductor sometimes pretended to be a slave in order to enter a plantation
Underground Railroad
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Map of various Underground Railroad routes
Underground Railroad
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Harriet Tubman (photo H. B. Lindsley), c. 1870. A worker on the Underground Railroad, Tubman made 13 trips to the South, helping to free over 70 people.
Underground Railroad
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Quaker abolitionist
Levi Coffin and his wife Catherine helped more than 2,000 slaves escape to freedom.
Underground Railroad
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Eastman Johnson, A Ride for Liberty – The Fugitive Slaves, oil on paperboard, 22 × 26.25 inches, circa 1862,
Brooklyn Museum
26.
Andrew Jackson Downing
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Andrew Jackson Downing was an American landscape designer, horticulturalist, and writer, a prominent advocate of the Gothic Revival in the United States, and editor of The Horticulturist magazine. Downing is considered to be a founder of American landscape architecture, Downing was born in Newburgh, New York, United States, to Samuel Downing and Eunice Bridge. After finishing his schooling at 16, he worked in his fathers nursery in the Town of Newburgh and he began writing on botany and landscape gardening and then undertook to educate himself thoroughly in these subjects. He married Caroline DeWint in 1838 and his official writing career started when he began writing articles for various newspapers and horticultural journals in the 1830s. The book was read and consulted, doing much to spread the so-called Carpenter Gothic and Hudson River Bracketed architectural styles among Victorian builders. With his brother Charles, he wrote Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, in the early 1850s, Downing called the Jonathans Fine Winter apple the Imperial of Keepers, which led to it being renamed the York Imperial apple. This was followed by The Architecture of Country Houses, another influential pattern book, by the mid-1840s Downings reputation was impeccable and he was, in a way, a celebrity of his day. This afforded him a friendship with Luther Tucker— publisher and printer of Albany, the Horticulturist, and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste was first published under Downings editorship in the summer of 1846, he remained editor of this journal until his death in 1852. It was in this journal that Downing first argued for a New York Park and it was in this publication that Downing argued for state agricultural schools, which eventually gave rise. And it was here that Downing worked diligently to educate and influence his readers on refined tastes regarding architecture, landscape design, in 1850, as Downing traveled in Europe, an exhibition of continental landscape watercolors by Englishman Calvert Vaux captured his attention. He encouraged Vaux to emigrate to the United States, and opened what was to be a practice in Newburgh. Frederick Clarke Withers joined the firm during its second year, Downing and Vaux worked together for two years, and during those two years, he made Vaux a partner. Together they designed many significant projects, including the grounds in the White House, vauxs work on the Smithsonian inspired an article he wrote for The Horticulturist, in which he stated his view that it was time the government should recognize and support the arts. In 1846, the Smithsonian Institution was established, and soon a building to house the new institution was started on the Mall, james Renwicks Norman-style building stimulated a move to landscape the Mall in a manner consistent with the romantic character of the Smithsonians building. President Millard Fillmore commissioned Downing to create a plan that would redeem the Mall from its physical neglect, Downings plan was a radical departure from the geometric, classical design of Pierre Charles LEnfants. Instead of one Grand Avenue, Downing envisioned four individual parks, with connecting curvilinear walks, president Fillmore endorsed two-thirds of Downings plan in 1851, but Congress found it to be too expensive and released only enough funds to develop the area around the Smithsonian. In 1853, Congress eventually cut off all funds so that the plan was never entirely completed, in 1845, Downing was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. Peoples pride in their country is connected to pride in their home, if they can decorate and build their homes to symbolize the values they hope to embody, such as prosperity, education and patriotism, they will be happier people and better citizens
Andrew Jackson Downing
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Andrew Jackson Downing
Andrew Jackson Downing
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The
villa -style "Warren House" by
Calvert Vaux is often associated with Downing, because it exemplifies many of his design theories from Cottage Residences
Andrew Jackson Downing
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Design II, English or Rural Gothic style, Cottage Residences, 1842.
Andrew Jackson Downing
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Design VI, Italian style, Cottage Residences, 1842.
27.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
National Historic Landmark
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USS Constitution
National Historic Landmark
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Frank Lloyd Wright 's
Taliesin is a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
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The
American Legation in Tangiers, Morocco, was the first National Historic Landmark on foreign soil.
National Historic Landmark
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Navajo Nation Council Chamber, the seat of government for the
Navajo Nation,
Window Rock, Arizona.
28.
Main Building (Vassar College)
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Main Building is on the Vassar College campus in Poughkeepsie, New York. It was built by James Renwick, Jr. in the Second Empire style in 1861 and it is one of the earliest, largest, and most important examples of Second Empire architecture in the United States and is a National Historic Landmark. Currently, the first and second floors house campus administration while the three house student rooms. It was taken over by protesters in 1969 and again in 1990 and it was named a National Historic Landmark in 1986. The Vassar Observatory, the first building built on the Vassar campus, is also a National Historic Landmark
Main Building (Vassar College)
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Old Main, Vassar College
29.
New York Legislature
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New York State Legislature refers to the two houses that act as the state legislature of the U. S. state of New York. The New York Constitution does not designate an official term for the two houses together and it says only that legislative power is vested in the senate and assembly. The session laws are published in the official Laws of New York, the permanent laws of a general nature are codified in the Consolidated Laws of New York. The legislature is seated at the New York State Capitol in Albany, legislative elections are held in November of every even-numbered year. Both Assembly members and Senators serve two-year terms, the Assembly consists of 150 members, they are each chosen from a single-member district. The Senate, in accordance with the New York Constitution, varies in its number of members, Senate districts are currently between two and three times more populous than Assembly districts. As of 2009 the New York State Legislature has 2700 employees, the Assembly is headed by the Speaker, while the Senate is headed by the President, a post held ex officio by the State Lieutenant Governor. The Lieutenant Governor, as President of the Senate, has only a casting vote. More often, the Senate is presided over by the Temporary President or by a senator of the Majority Leaders choosing, the Assembly Speaker and Senate Majority Leader control the assignment of committees and leadership positions, along with control of the agenda in their chambers. The two are considered powerful statewide leaders and along with the Governor of New York control most of the agenda of state business in New York. The New York State Legislature currently have split party control with a Democratic majority in the Assembly, following the 2010 elections, Republicans gained two seats in the Senate to regain control after two years in the minority. Republicans also gained nine seats in the Assembly, fracturing the veto-proof supermajority, to begin the 2009 session, Democrats had a 32-30 seat majority in the State Senate and, in the Assembly, Democrats have a 109-41 seat supermajority. However, the Republicans were able to control of the Senate during a leadership coup. The Democratic Senators regained control of Senate leadership on July 8,2009, until 2009, the State Senate had been in Republican hands for decades. Economic troubles and population loss in upstate New York are also a factor, in the past, Democrats would occasionally switch parties when they ran for the Senate so they could sit with the majority. The Assembly has been dominated by Democrats for about 30 years, between 2002 and 2005, the Republican conference dropped from 53 seats to 45. Republicans even lost some districts that historically have been reliably Republican, the Republican conference was increased by nine seats beginning with the 2011 session. The Legislature is empowered to make law, subject to the power to veto a bill
New York Legislature
New York Legislature
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New York State Legislature
New York Legislature
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Title page of volume 1 of the
Consolidated Laws of New York
30.
Board of Trustees
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A board of directors is a body of elected or appointed members who jointly oversee the activities of a corporation or organization, which can include a non-profit organization or a government agency. A board of directors activities are determined by the powers, duties and responsibilities conferred on it by an authority outside itself and these matters are typically detailed in regulations or in the organizations constitution and bylaws. These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet. In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and might be subordinate to, the full membership. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders, the board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors are often done by the board itself, in a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself. Other names include Board of directors and advisors, board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees and it may also be called the executive board and is often simply referred to as the board. For companies with publicly trading stock, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous, typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman, who holds whatever title is specified in the bylaws or articles of association. However, in organizations, the members elect the president of the organization. The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board, several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization. An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, inside directors represent the interests of the entitys stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on. Executive directors often have an area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources. An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, a typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way, outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a eye on the inside directors. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate insider dealing between insider directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization, outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective, director - a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities
Board of Trustees
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A meeting of a board of directors of the
Leipzig–Dresden Railway Company in 1852
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1891). "article name needed". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
