1.
Miles City, Montana
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Miles City is a city in and the county seat of Custer County, Montana, United States. The population was 8,410 at the 2010 census, after the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, the U. S. Army created forts in eastern Montana, including one where the north-flowing Tongue River flowed into the east-flowing Yellowstone River. The first fort was known as the Tongue River Cantonment or the Tongue River Barracks and was founded on August 27,1876, a second, permanent fort was constructed on higher ground two miles to the west of the mouth of the Tongue and this became Fort Keogh. Moving two miles due east of the Tongue River Cantonment, these early merchants founded the first Miles City, although fondly referred to as Milestown, the first post office and first official plat both called the town Miles City. When the old cantonment moved two miles west, the town literally picked up and followed, moving to the current site, the last occupants of Old Miles City stayed on until 1900 but the new community was the one that grew. e. The system was far less efficient and in shape than they thought. The city council put the question to the voters who instructed the city to sell the utility. By this time, the people with the Montana Power Company became aware of this and were locked in an epic battle with Minnesota Northern over the franchise. A franchise election was held to determine who would serve Miles City on June 28,1927, Minnesota Northern won by a scant 16 votes. The publicly owned Miles City Municipal Airport is located less than two miles from town, notably, it was the site of an early scheduled airline crash, involving Northwest Airlines Flight 1, which caught fire and crashed shortly after takeoff in January,1939. Miles City is located at 46°24′30″N 105°50′24″W, at an altitude of 2369 feet, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.34 square miles, all land. Miles City experiences a climate with long, cold, dry winters and hot. The city holds the record for the highest mean sea level pressure in the contiguous United States with a reading of 31.42 inHg on December 24,1983. Guinness World Records reports that the largest natural snowflake ever measured,15 inches in diameter, was recorded at Fort Keogh on 28 January 1887, however, there is no corroborating evidence to support this claim. As of the census of 2010, there were 8,410 people,3,677 households, the population density was 2,518.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 4,000 housing units at a density of 1,197.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95. 3% White,0. 3% African American,1. 7% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 6% from other races, and 1. 6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 4% of the population,37. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 15% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
2.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Microbiologist
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The term microbiologist comes from the Greek mīkros meaning small βίος, and bios, meaning life -λογία, combined with -logia meaning one who studies. A microbiologist is a biological scientist who studies microscopic life forms, microbiologists investigate the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. They contribute much to the field by trying to understand and learn about the interaction between these microbes and the environment and also among themselves and other organisms, most microbiologists are qualified to work in offices and/or research facilities, such as a laboratory as well as in the academia. There, they conduct experiments that help them analyze microbes and their importance, a microbiologists work is often repeated or improved in order to establish accurate research. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, industrial or medical aspects of microbiology including, virology, immunology, bioinformatics, many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance the understanding of cell reproduction and human disease. Some microbiologists have contributed to knowledge of pathogens and disease-causing microbes, while others, study their interaction with the environment and their use as potential environmental pollution cleaners. Microbiology is a subset of science that often overlaps with other subjects surrounding biology. Nonetheless, the spectrum of fields, a microbiologists can work on is immense, there were 16,900 microbiologists employed in the United States in 2008, this number was projected to increase by over 12 percent in the next decade
5.
Vaccine
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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic, the administration of vaccines is called vaccination. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist, sometimes, protection fails because the hosts immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from factors such as diabetes, steroid use. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people, the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors, the disease itself the strain of vaccine whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed. Idiosyncratic response to vaccination, some individuals are non-responders to certain vaccines, assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition. If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated victims, in 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States,552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year, in early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious, other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur. This effect is called herd immunity, polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries. However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times, vaccination given during childhood is generally safe
6.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
7.
Prince Mahidol Award
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The Prince Mahidol Award is a Thai Royal Family annual award for outstanding achievements in medicine and public health worldwide. In addition to the award, the Fund also promotes the memory of Prince Mahidol. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn is chairman of the Foundation Committee, any individual or group of individuals may be nominated by a national governmental agency, or by an individual. Nominations are transmitted to the secretary-general of the Prince Mahidol Award Foundation, the nomination forms are forwarded to the Scientific Advisory Committee for initial screening. The Foundation’s Board of Trustees makes final approval, source, Awardees List of prizes, medals and awards List of prizes named after people Official website of the Prince Mahidol Award Foundation
8.
Vaccinology
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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic, the administration of vaccines is called vaccination. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist, sometimes, protection fails because the hosts immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from factors such as diabetes, steroid use. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people, the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors, the disease itself the strain of vaccine whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed. Idiosyncratic response to vaccination, some individuals are non-responders to certain vaccines, assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition. If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated victims, in 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States,552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year, in early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious, other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur. This effect is called herd immunity, polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries. However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times, vaccination given during childhood is generally safe
9.
Vaccination schedule
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A vaccination schedule is a series of vaccinations, including the timing of all doses, which may be either recommended or compulsory, depending on the country of residence. This topic can cause much controversy over whether or not it could impact health after dosage at an early age. A vaccine is a preparation used to produce active immunity to a disease. Many vaccines require multiple doses for maximum effectiveness, either to produce sufficient initial immune response or to boost response that fades over time, for example, tetanus vaccine boosters are often recommended every 10 years. Over the past two decades, the vaccination schedule has grown rapidly and become more complicated as many new vaccines have been developed. Some vaccines are recommended only in areas where a disease is common. In developing countries, vaccine recommendations also take account the level of health care access. In 1900, the vaccine was the only one administered to children. By the early 1950s, children routinely received three vaccines, for protection against diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus and smallpox, and as many as five shots by two years of age, since the mid-1980s, many vaccines have been added to the schedule. As of 2009, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention now recommends vaccination against at least fourteen diseases. By two years of age, U. S. children receive as many as 24 vaccine injections, the World Health Organization monitors vaccination schedules across the world, noting what vaccines are included in each countrys program, the coverage rates achieved and various auditing measures. The table below shows the types of vaccines given in example countries, the WHO publishes on its website current vaccination schedules for all WHO member states. Examples include rabies vaccine, anthrax vaccine, cholera vaccine and smallpox vaccine, ^ At risk groups or certain populations only. ^ Incidence and deaths noted are for cervical cancer, nearly 100% of cervical cancer is caused by HPV. The Immunise Australia Program implements the National Immunization Program Schedule, all vaccines available under the Australian immunization schedule are free of charge under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. In Canada, publicly-funded immunization schedules may vary from province or territory, hepatitis B vaccine is given at birth to babies whose mothers are hepatitis B positive. The five scheduled childhood tetanus vaccinations are thought to generally confer lifelong immunity, thus and those adults at risk of contaminated cuts may have booster tetanus vaccination every ten years. Pneumococcal vaccinations are recommended for those over 65 and for people without a functional spleen, the most up-to-date schedules are available from CDCs National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases
10.
Robert Gallo
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Robert Charles Gallo is an American biomedical researcher. In November 2011, Gallo was named the first Homer & Martha Gudelsky Distinguished Professor in Medicine, Gallo is also a co-founder of biotechnology company Profectus BioSciences, Inc. and co-founder and scientific director of the Global Virus Network. Gallo was born in Waterbury, Connecticut to a family of Italian immigrants. He earned a BS degree in Biology in 1959 from Providence College, Gallo states that his choice of profession was influenced by the early death of his sister from leukemia, a disease to which he initially dedicated much of his research. In 1976, Doris Morgan, a first year post-doctoral fellow in Gallos lab, was asked by Gallo to examine culture fluid of activated lymphocytes for the production of growth factors. Soon she was successful in growing T lymphocytes, Gallo, Morgan and Frank Ruscetti, another researcher in Gallos lab, coauthored a paper in Science describing their method. The Gallo group identified this as T-cell growth factor, the name was changed in 1978 to IL-2 by the Interlaken cytokine nomenclature committee. Although earlier reports had described soluble molecules with biologic effects, the effects, one such example was the report by Julius Gordon in 1965, which described blastogenic transformation of lymphocytes in extracellular media. However, cell growth was not demonstrated and the cell type was not identified, making the identity of the factor involved unclear. The discovery of IL-2 allowed T cells, previously thought to be dead end cells, to be significantly in culture for the first time. Gallo’s lab later purified and biochemically characterized IL-2, at the same time, a similar HTLV-associated leukemia was identified by the Gallo group in the Caribbean. In 1982, Gallo received the prestigious Lasker Award, For his pioneering studies that led to the discovery of the first human RNA tumor virus, Dr. Gallo is among a unique few to win the Lasker twice. In 1986, he was awarded the Lasker, For determining that the now known as HIV-1 is the cause of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Gallo has won numerous subsequent awards and prizes and he has published close to 1,300 papers. Gallo was awarded his second Lasker Award in 1986 for determining that the now known as HIV-1 is the cause of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. He is the recipient of two Lasker Awards. In 1986, Gallo, Dharam Ablashi, and Syed Zaki Salahuddin discovered human herpesvirus 6, later found to cause Roseola infantum, an infantile disease. In 1995, Gallo with his colleagues Paolo Lusso and Fiorenza Cocchi published their discovery that chemokines and this discovery was heralded by Science magazine as one of the top scientific breakthroughs of the year
11.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms
12.
Chicken
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The chicken is a type of domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the red junglefowl. It is one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, humans keep chickens primarily as a source of food, consuming both their meat and their eggs. From India, the chicken was imported to Lydia in western Asia Minor. In the UK and Ireland adult male chickens over the age of one year are known as cocks, whereas in America, Australia. Males less than a year old are cockerels, females over a year old are known as hens and younger females as pullets although in the egg-laying industry, a pullet becomes a hen when she begins to lay eggs at 16 to 20 weeks of age. In Australia and New Zealand, there is a generic term chook /ˈtʃʊk/ to describe all ages, the young are called chicks and the meat is called chicken. Chicken originally referred to domestic fowl. The species as a whole was then called domestic fowl, or just fowl. This use of chicken survives in the phrase Hen and Chickens, sometimes used as a British public house or theatre name, the word chicken is sometimes erroneously construed to mean females exclusively, despite the term hen for females being in wide circulation. In the Deep South of the United States chickens are also referred to by the slang term yardbird, in the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes or young mice. Chickens may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed, the worlds oldest chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 according to Guinness World Records. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the males legs. Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, a muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chickens face, giving the appearance of a beard. Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although birds are generally capable of flying for short distances. Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger, Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have an approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing an order, with dominant individuals having priority for food access
13.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
14.
On the Origin of Species
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On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwins book introduced the theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream, the book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley, during the eclipse of Darwinism from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size, resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time. Individuals in a population significantly from one another. Much of this variation is heritable and this slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species. In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle, Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious, in Gods benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffon suggested that some species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism. Charles Darwins grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s and this process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel, Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, in Britain, William Paleys Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial design by the Creator acting through natural laws
15.
Montana State University
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Montana State University is a land-grant university located in Bozeman, Montana, United States. It is the states largest university and primary campus in the Montana State University System, MSU offers baccalaureate degrees in 51 fields, masters degrees in 41 fields, and doctoral degrees in 18 fields through its nine colleges. More than 16,400 students attend MSU, and the university faculty numbers, the universitys main campus in Bozeman is home to KUSM television, KGLT radio, and the Museum of the Rockies. MSU provides outreach services to citizens and communities statewide through its eight Agricultural Experiment Stations and 60 county, Montana became a state on November 8,1889. Several cities competed intensely to be the capital, the city of Bozeman among them. In time, the city of Helena was named the state capital, as a consolation, the state legislature agreed to put the states land-grant college in Bozeman. Gallatin County rancher and businessman Nelson Story, Sr. had agreed to donate about 160 acres for the site of the state capital and this land, as well as additional property and monetary contributions, was now turned over to the state for the new college. MSU was founded in 1893 as the Agricultural College of the State of Montana and it opened on February 16 with five male and three female students. The first classes were held in rooms in the county high school, the first students were from Bozeman Academy, and were forced to transfer to the college. Only two faculty existed on opening day, Luther Foster, a horticulturalist from South Dakota who was also Acting President, and Homer G. Phelps, within weeks, they were joined by S. M. Augustus M. Ryon, a mine owner, was named the first president of the college on April 17,1893. Ryon immediately clashed with the board of trustees and faculty, where the trustees wanted the college to focus on agriculture, Ryon pointed out that few of its students intended to go back to farming. While the rapidly expanding faculty wanted to establish an education program to assist unprepared undergraduates. The college grew quickly under Reid, who provided 10 years of stability, the student body grew so fast that the high school building was completely taken over by the college. A vacant store on Main Street was rented to provide classroom space. Both the Agricultural Experiment Station and the Main Building were constructed in 1896, both structures were occupied in 1898. The university football team was established in 1897, and the college graduated its first four students that same year, the curriculum expanded into civil and electrical engineering in 1898. Reid resigned for health reasons in 1905, and was succeeded by Dr. James M. Hamilton, determined to make the college into a school of technology, he rapidly expanded the curriculum areas such as biology, chemistry, engineering, geology, and physics
16.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
17.
Chlamydia trachomatis
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Chlamydia trachomatis, commonly known as chlamydia, is one of four bacterial species in the genus Chlamydia. Chlamydia is a genus of bacteria that are obligate intracellular parasites. C. trachomatis is a Gram-negative bacterium and it is ovoid in shape and nonmotile. The bacteria are nonspore-forming, but the elementary bodies act like spores when released into the host, the inclusion bodies of C. trachomatis were first described in 1907 by Stanislaus von Prowazek and Ludwig Halberstädter during research on trachoma. C. trachomatis agent was first cultured in the sacs of eggs by Professor Tang Fei-fan. Disorders caused by C. trachomatis include chlamydia, trachoma, lymphogranuloma venereum, nongonococcal urethritis, cervicitis, salpingitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, C. trachomatis strains have an extrachromosomal plasmid. Chlamydia species can exchange DNA between the different strains, thus the evolution of new strains is common, Chlamydia species are readily identified and distinguished from other Chlamydia species using DNA-based tests. Most strains of C. trachomatis are recognized by antibodies to epitopes in the VS4 region of MOMP. However, these mAbs may also cross-react with two other Chlamydia species, C. suis and C. muridarum, clinical signs and symptoms of C. trachomatis infection and gonorrhea infection are indistinguishable. Both are common causes of urethritis, most people infected with C. trachomatis are asymptomatic. However, the bacteria can present in one of three ways, genitourinary, pulmonary, and ocular, genitourinary cases can include genital discharge, vaginal bleeding or pruritus, and dysuria. Three times as many women as men are diagnosed with genitourinary C. trachomatis infections, Women aged 15–19 have the highest prevalence, followed by women aged 20–24, although the rate of increase of diagnosis is greater for men than for women. Risk factors for genitourinary infections include unprotected sex with partners, lack of condom use. Pulmonary infections can occur in infants born to women with active chlamydia infections, ocular infections take the form of conjunctivitis or trachoma, both in adults and children. Treatment depends on the site, age of the patient. Having a C. trachomatis and one or more other sexually transmitted infections at the time is possible. Treatment is often done with both partners simultaneously to prevent reinfection, C. trachomatis may be treated with several antibiotic medications, including azithromycin, erythromycin, or ofloxacin. Azythromycin and doxycycline have equal efficacy to treat C. trachomatis with 97 and 98 percent success respectively, treatment with doxycycline generic 2x1 100mg for 7 days has equal success with expensive delayed-released doxycycline 1x 200mg for 7 days
18.
Bristol-Myers Squibb
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Bristol-Myers Squibb, often referred to as BMS, is an American pharmaceutical company, headquartered in New York City. Its mission is to discover, develop and deliver innovative medicines that help patients prevail over serious diseases, the Squibb corporation was founded in 1858 by Edward Robinson Squibb in Brooklyn, New York. Mentions of the Materia Medica, Squibb products, and Edward Squibbs opinion on the utility, in 1887, Hamilton College graduates William McLaren Bristol and John Ripley Myers purchased the Clinton Pharmaceutical company of Clinton, New York. In 1898, they decided to rename it Bristol, Myers, following Myers death in 1899, Bristol changed the name to the Bristol-Myers Corporation. The first nationally recognized product was Sal Hepatica, a mineral salt in 1903. Its second national success was Ipana toothpaste, from 1901 through the 1960s, Bristol-Myers and Squibb were merged to form Bristol-Myers Squibb in 1989. The company was involved in a scandal in 2002 that resulted in a significant restatement of revenues from 1999 to 2001. The restatement was the result of a booking of sales related to channel stuffing as the practice of offering excess inventory to customers to create higher sales numbers. The company has settled with the United States Department of Justice and Securities and Exchange Commission. As part of a Deferred Prosecution Agreement, the company was placed under the oversight of an appointed by the U. S. Attorney in New Jersey. The investigation centered on the distribution of Plavix and charges of collusion, on September 12,2006, the monitor, former Federal Judge Frederick B. Lacey, urged the company to remove then CEO Peter Dolan over the Plavix dispute, later that day, BMS announced that Dolan would indeed step down. The Deferred Prosecution Agreement expired in June 2007 and the Department of Justice did not take any legal action against the company for matters covered by the DPA. Under CEO Jim Cornelius, who was CEO following Dolan until May 2010, all involved in the channel-stuffing. As another cost-cutting measure Bristol-Myers also reduced subsidies for health-care to retirees, in August, BMS acquired the biotechnology firm Medarex as part of the companys String of Pearls strategy of alliances, partnerships and acquisitions. In November, Bristol-Myers Squibb announced that it was splitting off Mead Johnson Nutrition by offering BMY shareholders the opportunity to exchange their stock for shares in Mead Johnson, according to Bristol-Myers Squibb, this move was expected to further sharpen the companys focus on biopharmaceuticals. BMS is a Fortune 500 Company, newsweeks 2009 Green Ranking recognized Bristol-Myers Squibb as 8th among 500 of the largest United States corporations. Also, BMS was included in the 2009 Dow Jones Sustainability North America Index of leading sustainability-driven companies, in October 2010, the company acquired ZymoGenetics, securing an existing product as well as pipeline assets in hepatitis C, cancer and other therapeutic areas
19.
Pacific Ocean theater of World War II
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The Pacific Ocean theater, during World War II, was a major theater of the war between the Allies and Japan. It officially came into existence on March 30,1942, when US Admiral Chester Nimitz was appointed Supreme Allied Commander Pacific Ocean Areas. In the other theatre in the Pacific region, known as the South West Pacific theatre. Both Nimitz and MacArthur were overseen by the US Joint Chiefs, most Japanese forces in the theater were part of the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, which was responsible for all Japanese warships, naval aircraft, and marine infantry units. The Rengō Kantai was led by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, until he was killed in an attack by U. S. fighter planes in April 1943, Yamamoto was succeeded by Admiral Mineichi Koga and Admiral Soemu Toyoda. The General Staff of the Imperial Japanese Army was responsible for Imperial Japanese Army ground and air units in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific. The IJN and IJA did not formally use joint/combined staff at the level, and their command structures/geographical areas of operations overlapped each other. In the Pacific Ocean theater, Japanese forces fought primarily against the United States Navy, US Marine Corps, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, Canada and other Allied nations also contributed forces. Pacific Crucible, War at Sea in the Pacific, 1941–1942, the Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II. In the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army, a History of Us, War, Peace and all that Jazz. Kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World, the Campaigns of the Pacific War
20.
Army Medical School
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Founded by U. S. Army Brigadier General George Miller Sternberg, MD in 1893, the Army Medical School was by some reckonings the worlds first school of public health and preventive medicine. The AMS ultimately became the Army Medical Center, then the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Sternberg created the AMS by issuing General Order 51 on June 24,1893. The School was housed, along with the Army Medical Library in the building of the Army Medical Museum and Library at 7th Street and South B Street, SW, Washington, D. C. In 1910, the AMS relocated to 721 13th Street, NW, the historic edifice known as Building #40 was constructed at 14th and Dahlia Streets beginning in 1922 and reached completion in 1932. This facility consists of four Pavilions, The North or Vedder Pavilion, The South or Craig Pavilion, The East or Sternberg Pavilion, The West or Siler Pavilion. In 1947, the MDPSS became the Army Medical Department Research and Graduate School, in September 1951, General Order Number 8 combined the WRGH & AMC into the present-day Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Three years later, the elements of this facility became the present-day Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. The Evolution of Public Health Education in the U. S. Army, 1893-1966, Army Medical Department Journal, PB 8-06-2, April-June 2006, pp 7-17
21.
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
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This article is about the U. S. Army medical research institute. The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research is the largest biomedical research facility administered by the U. S. Department of Defense. At Forest Glen, the WRAIR has shared a laboratory and administrative facility — the Sen Daniel K. Inouye Building, today, the WRAIR fosters and performs biomedical research for the DoD and the US Army. It has recently developed two modern Centers of Excellence in the fields of military psychiatry/neuroscience and infectious disease research, basic and applied medical research supporting U. S. military operations is the focus of WRAIR leaders and scientists. Despite the focus on the military, however, the institute has also addressed and solved a variety of non-military medical problems prevalent in the United States. Advanced courses in subsequent years build upon prior experience, science & Engineering Apprentice Program A cooperative education program for high school students looking at a possible career in science and engineering. The program offers hands-on experience and mentoring in Army research and development activities in an actual Army laboratory, science & Engineering Apprentice Program-College Qualified Leaders Paid internships for undergraduates seeking experience in Army research. The PBF mission is research, development, production, and testing of vaccines for human use, the PBF at the Forest Glen Annex is a multi-use facility designed and operated for production of vaccines in compliance with the current Good Manufacturing regulations. Compliance with cGMP ensures that products prepared in the facility will be safe, potent, since inception, the PBF has specialized in developing vaccines for Department of Defense mission-related disease threats. The PBF follows all regulations that apply to biological products and has expertise in the development. Projects for public and private partners are accomplished through inter-agency and cooperative agreements, vaccines are produced that will protect Soldiers against diseases that they might encounter in areas of deployment. These include vaccines to prevent dengue fever, malaria, meningitis, cholera, shigellosis, hepatitis A, the PBF places compliance, cleanliness, and safety as top priorities in the production process of a vaccine. Once the vaccine is tested for safety, potency, and identity, several of the PBFs experimental vaccines have progressed on to advanced clinical testing. The organization name was changed to the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research in 1953. Hubel, Neuropsychiatry Division Edward Perl, Neuropsychiatry Division James S. S
22.
Mutation
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In biology, a mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other genetic elements. Mutations may also result from insertion or deletion of segments of DNA due to mobile genetic elements, mutations may or may not produce discernible changes in the observable characteristics of an organism. Mutations play a part in normal and abnormal biological processes including, evolution, cancer, and the development of the immune system. The genomes of RNA viruses are based on RNA rather than DNA, the RNA viral genome can be double stranded or single stranded. In some of these viruses replication occurs quickly and there are no mechanisms to check the genome for accuracy and this error-prone process often results in mutations. Mutation can result in different types of change in sequences. Mutations in genes can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, mutations can also occur in nongenic regions. Mutations can involve the duplication of large sections of DNA, usually through genetic recombination and these duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years. Most genes belong to larger families of shared ancestry, known as homology. Here, protein domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties. For example, the eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light. Another advantage of duplicating a gene is that this increases engineering redundancy, other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA. Changes in chromosome number may involve even larger mutations, where segments of the DNA within chromosomes break and then rearrange. For example, in the Homininae, two fused to produce human chromosome 2, this fusion did not occur in the lineage of the other apes. Sequences of DNA that can move about the genome, such as transposons, make up a fraction of the genetic material of plants and animals. For example, more than a million copies of the Alu sequence are present in the genome. Another effect of these mobile DNA sequences is that when they move within a genome, they can mutate or delete existing genes, nonlethal mutations accumulate within the gene pool and increase the amount of genetic variation. The abundance of some changes within the gene pool can be reduced by natural selection, while other more favorable mutations may accumulate
23.
Genetic drift
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Genetic drift is the change in the frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling of organisms. The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, a populations allele frequency is the fraction of the copies of one gene that share a particular form. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation, when there are few copies of an allele, the effect of genetic drift is larger, and when there are many copies the effect is smaller. In the early 20th century, vigorous debates occurred over the importance of natural selection versus neutral processes. The process of genetic drift can be illustrated using 20 marbles in a jar to represent 20 organisms in a population, consider this jar of marbles as the starting population. Half of the marbles in the jar are red and half blue, in each new generation the organisms reproduce at random. To represent this reproduction, randomly select a marble from the original jar, repeat this process until there are 20 new marbles in the second jar. The second jar then contains a second generation of offspring, consisting of 20 marbles of various colours, unless the second jar contains exactly 10 red marbles and 10 blue marbles, a random shift occurred in the allele frequencies. Repeat this process a number of times, randomly reproducing each generation of marbles to form the next, the numbers of red and blue marbles picked each generation fluctuates, sometimes more red and sometimes more blue. This fluctuation is analogous to genetic drift – a change in the allele frequency resulting from a random variation in the distribution of alleles from one generation to the next. It is even possible that in any one generation no marbles of a particular colour are chosen, in this example, if no red marbles are selected, the jar representing the new generation contains only blue offspring. If this happens, the red allele has been lost permanently in the population, while the remaining blue allele has become fixed, in small populations, fixation can occur in just a few generations. The mechanisms of genetic drift can be illustrated with a simplified example, consider a very large colony of bacteria isolated in a drop of solution. The bacteria are genetically identical except for a gene with two alleles labeled A and B. A and B are neutral alleles meaning that they do not affect the ability to survive and reproduce, all bacteria in this colony are equally likely to survive. Suppose that half the bacteria have allele A and the other half have allele B, thus A and B each have allele frequency 1/2. The drop of solution then shrinks until it has enough food to sustain four bacteria. All other bacteria die without reproducing, among the four who survive, there are sixteen possible combinations for the A and B alleles
24.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour, literally means Little Hong Kong)—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
25.
Pandemic
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A pandemic is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region, for instance multiple continents, or even worldwide. A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic. Further, flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu, throughout history, there have been a number of pandemics, such as smallpox and tuberculosis. One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death, killing over 75 million people in 1350, the most recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic as well as the 1918 and 2009 H1N1 pandemics. A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale which crosses international boundaries, the World Health Organization has a six-stage classification that describes the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic. A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people, for instance, cancer is responsible for many deaths but is not considered a pandemic because the disease is not infectious or contagious. Then you might ask yourself, What is a global outbreak, global outbreak means that we see both spread of the agent … and then we see disease activities in addition to the spread of the virus. The 2009 revision, including definitions of a pandemic and the leading to its declaration, were finalized in February 2009. The pandemic H1N12009 virus was neither on the horizon at that time nor mentioned in the document, all versions of this document refer to influenza. The phases are defined by the spread of the disease, virulence and mortality are not mentioned in the current WHO definition, HIV originated in Africa, and spread to the United States via Haiti between 1966 and 1972. AIDS is currently a pandemic, with rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence rate among pregnant women in South Africa was 29. 1%, infection rates are rising again in Asia and the Americas. The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025, there have been a number of significant pandemics recorded in human history, generally zoonoses which came about with domestication of animals, such as influenza and tuberculosis. There have been a number of particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention above the mere destruction of cities, possibly typhoid fever killed a quarter of the Athenian troops, and a quarter of the population over four years. This disease fatally weakened the dominance of Athens, but the sheer virulence of the disease prevented its wider spread, the exact cause of the plague was unknown for many years. In January 2006, researchers from the University of Athens analyzed teeth recovered from a mass grave underneath the city, possibly smallpox brought to the Italian peninsula by soldiers returning from the Near East, it killed a quarter of those infected, and up to five million in all. At the height of an outbreak, the Plague of Cyprian. Plague of Justinian, from 541 to 750, was the first recorded outbreak of the bubonic plague and it started in Egypt, and reached Constantinople the following spring, killing 10,000 a day at its height, and perhaps 40% of the citys inhabitants
26.
Merck & Co.
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Merck Sharp & Dohme outside the United States and Canada, is an American pharmaceutical company and one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. The company was established in 1891 as the United States subsidiary of the German company Merck, Merck & Co. was nationalized by the US government during World War I and subsequently established as an independent American company in 1917. While it operates as Merck & Co. in North America, Merck & Co. is the worlds seventh largest pharmaceutical company by market capitalization and revenue. Its headquarters is located in Kenilworth, New Jersey, Merck & Co. publishes The Merck Manuals, a series of medical reference books for physicians, nurses, and technicians. These include the Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, the worlds best-selling medical reference, the Merck Index, a compendium of chemical compounds, was formerly published by Merck & Co. before being acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2012. Merck & Co. traces its origins to its original German parent company Merck, in the 19th century, the Merck company in Darmstadt evolved from a pharmacy to a major pharmaceutical company which pioneered the commercial manufacture of morphine. In 1891, family member George Merck emigrated to the United States, Merck & Co. was nationalized by the US government in 1917 and re-established as an independent American company. Until the end of World War II, the company was led by George W. Merck, Merck & Co. hold the trademark rights to the Merck name in North America, while its former parent company retains the rights in the rest of the world. In 1929, H. K. Mulford Company merged with Sharpe and Dohme and this company brought to the future Merck & Co, Inc vaccine technology, including immunization of cavalry horses in World War I and delivery of a diphtheria antitoxin in 1925. In 1953, Merck & Co. merged with Philadelphia-based Sharp & Dohme, Inc. founded by Alpheus Phineas Sharp and Carl Friedrich Louis Dohme in 1845, becoming the largest US drugmaker. The merger combined Merck & Co. s strength in scientific research and chemical manufacturing with Sharp & Dohmes sales and distribution system, the combined company kept the trade name Merck in the United States and Canada, and as Merck Sharp & Dohme outside North America. In 1965 Merck & Co. acquired Charles E. Frosst Ltd. of Montreal, Canada and created Merck-Frosst Canada, Inc. as its Canadian subsidiary, Merck & Co. closed this facility in July 2010, and the company was renamed Merck Canada in 2011. The company was incorporated in New Jersey in 1970 and it has an operating subsidiary, KBI Inc. which was originally formed as a joint venture with AstraZeneca. In November 1993, Merck & Co. completed a $6 billion purchase of Medco Containment Services Inc. one of the largest mail-order pharmacy and managed-care drug companies. Merck & Co. spun Medco off ten years later, and on August 20,2003, in November 2009, Merck & Co. announced that it would merge with competitor Schering-Plough in a US$41 billion deal. The maneuver was an attempt to preserve Schering-Ploughs rights to market Remicade, the merger was completed on 2009-11-04. As of 2015, Merck Sharp & Dohme remains a subsidiary of the Merck & Co. parent, as of December 2013, the US company had approximately 76,000 employees in 120 countries with 31 factories worldwide. It is one of the seven largest pharmaceutical companies
27.
Whitehouse Station, New Jersey
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Whitehouse Station is an unincorporated community and census-designated place located within Readington Township, in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, United States. At the 2010 United States Census, the CDPs population was 2,089, Whitehouse Station takes its name from Whitehouse and Abraham Van Hornes 18th century tavern. New Jersey Transit offers service on the Raritan Valley Line at White House Station, Whitehouse Station was home to the global headquarters of pharmaceutical giant Merck, which was housed in the modernist Merck Headquarters Building. Merck is in the process of moving out of the campus, according to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 1.346 square miles, including 1.303 square miles of land and 0.043 square miles of water. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,089 people,963 households, the population density was 1,602.7 per square mile. There were 989 housing units at a density of 758.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 91. 53% White,2. 82% Black or African American,0. 05% Native American,3. 06% Asian,0. 00% Pacific Islander,1. 15% from other races, and 1. 39% from two or more races. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 27% of the population,37. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the family size was 2.87. In the CDP, the population was out with 19. 6% under the age of 18,4. 3% from 18 to 24,23. 1% from 25 to 44,31. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46.6 years, for every 100 females there were 82.6 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 77.3 males, at the 2000 United States Census there were 1,951 people,878 households and 531 families residing in the CDP. There were 905 housing units at a density of 270. 9/km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96. 05% White,0. 87% African American,0. 97% Asian,0. 56% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 56% of the population. 34. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.86. Age distribution was 19. 9% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,33. 5% from 25 to 44,26. 4% from 45 to 64, the median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 87.4 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.7 males. The median household income was $75,111, and the family income was $92,793
28.
Cell biology
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Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell and focuses mainly on the idea of the cell as the basic unit of life. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences, it is also essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and developmental biology. The study of the cell is done on a level, however, most of the processes within the cell are made up of a mixture of small organic molecules, inorganic ions, hormones. Approximately 75-85% of the volume is due to water making it an indispensable solvent as a result of its polarity. These molecules within the cell, which operate as substrates, provide an environment for the cell to carry out metabolic reactions. The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms, and are then classified into two categories, eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Cell biology focuses more on the study of cells, and their signalling pathways. This environment of the cell is made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which allows for the exchange of the above-mentioned molecules and ions. The hydrophilic regions of the cell are mainly on the inside and outside of the cell, the cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins which accounts for its hydrophobicity as a result of being non-polar substances. Therefore, in order for these molecules to participate in reactions, within the cell and they accomplish this process of gaining access to the cell via, osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration gradients, and membrane channels. Inside of the cell are extensive internal sub-cellular membrane-bounded compartments called organelles, cytoplasm - contents of the main fluid-filled space inside cells, chemical reactions also happen in this jelly-like substance. Nuclear Architecture is important for dictating nuclear function, vacuole - contain cell sap or other storage material. Vesicle - small membrane-bounded spheres inside cells which transport substances, the growth process of the cell does not refer to the size of the cell, but instead the density of the number of cells present in the organism at a given time. Cell growth pertains to the increase in the number of cells present in an organism as it grows and develops, Cells are the foundation of all organisms, they are the fundamental unit of life. The growth and development of the cell are essential for the maintenance of the host, for this process the cell goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell division, regeneration, specialization, and cell death. The cell cycle is divided into four phases, G1, S, G2. The G phases – which is the growth phase - makes up approximately 95% of the cycle
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