1.
Rochefort-sur-Mer
–
Rochefort is a commune in southwestern France, a port on the Charente estuary. It is a sub-prefecture of the Charente-Maritime department, in December 1665, Rochefort was chosen by Jean-Baptiste Colbert as a place of refuge, defense and supply for the French Navy. The Arsenal de Rochefort served as a base and dockyard until it closed in 1926. In September 1757, Rochefort was the target of an ambitious British raid during the Seven Years War, another infrastructure of early Rochefort from 1766 was its bagne, a high-security penal colony involving hard labor. Bagnes were then common fixtures in military harbors and naval bases, such as Toulon or Brest, Rochefort is a notable example of 17th-century ville nouvelle or new town, which means its design and building resulted from a political decree. The reason for building Rochefort was to an extent that royal power could hardly depend on rebellious Protestant La Rochelle. Well into the 20th century, Rochefort remained primarily a garrison town, the tourist industry, which had long existed due to the towns spa, gained emphasis in the 1990s. Charles Rigault de Genouilly, French admiral, conqueror of Vietnam and his house has been turned into a museum Jean-Joseph Sanfourche was a French artist and sculptor. Amédée William Merlaud-Ponty, Governor General of French West Africa, pauline Réage, pseudonym of Anne Desclos, author Maurice Merleau-Ponty, philosopher Pierre Salviac, is a French journalist, former commentator of rugby-match and since then polemicist. Loïc Le Marrec French volleyball coach He has a total of 140 teams in France
Rochefort-sur-Mer
–
Rochefort
Rochefort-sur-Mer
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Rochefort (centre-right) seen from Spot Satellite
Rochefort-sur-Mer
–
Rochefort arsenal, in 1690
2.
Charente-Maritime
–
Charente-Maritime is a department on the southwestern coast of France named after the Charente River. Previously a part of Saintonge and Aunis, Charente-Inférieure was one of the 83 original departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790, on 4 September 1941, it was renamed Charente-Maritime. When first created, the commune of Saintes was assigned as the prefecture of the department and this changed in 1810 when Napoléon passed an imperial decree which moved the prefecture to La Rochelle. During World War II, the department was invaded by the German army, to provide defence against a possible beach landing, the Organisation Todt constructed a number of sea defences in the area. Defences such as pillboxes are particularly noticeable on the beaches of the presquîle dArvert, at the end of the war there were only two pockets of German resistance, La Rochelle, in the north and Royan in the south. Despite being almost completely destroyed during an RAF bombing raid on 5 January 1945, La Rochelle was finally captured on 9 May 1945. Charente-Maritime is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine administrative region and it has a land area of 6864 km² and 628,733 inhabitants as of 2012. The department includes the islands of Île de Ré, Île dAix, Ile dOléron, the department forms the northern part of the Aquitaine Basin. It is separated from the Massif Armoricain by the Marais Poitevin to the north-west, the highest point in the department is in the woods of Chantemerlière, near the commune of Contré in the north-east, and rises to 173 m. Charente-Maritime is surrounded by the departments of Gironde, Charente, Deux-Sèvres, Dordogne, average extreme temperatures vary from 38 °C in summer to−5 °C in winter. The economy of Charente-Maritime is based on three sectors, tourism, maritime industry, and manufacturing. Cognac and pineau are two of the agricultural products with maize, corn and sunflowers being the others. During the summer months, families flock from all over Europe to bask in the sun, Charente-Maritime is the headquarters of the major oyster producer Marennes-Oléron. Oysters cultivated here are shipped across Europe, Rochefort is a shipbuilding site and has been a major French naval base since 1665. La Rochelle is a seat of major French industry, just outside the city is a factory for the French engineering giant Alstom, where the TGV, the cars for the Paris and other metros are manufactured. It is a venue for tourism, with its picturesque medieval harbour. The inhabitants of the department are called Charentais-Maritimes, the President of the General Council is Dominique Bussereau of the Union for a Popular Movement. Popular destinations include, La Rochelle, Royan, Saintes, St Jean dAngely, Rochefort, Île dAix, Île de Ré, the department is served by the TGV at Surgères and La Rochelle
Charente-Maritime
–
Prefecture building of the Charente-Maritime department, in La Rochelle
Charente-Maritime
–
Sunset in Meschers-sur-Gironde in the Charente Maritime [1]
Charente-Maritime
–
La Rochelle
Charente-Maritime
–
Oyster farms in the
Oléron island
3.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
4.
University of Paris
–
The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
University of Paris
University of Paris
University of Paris
–
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
5.
20th-century philosophy
–
20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide, in addition, philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read. Analytic philosophy is a term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was radically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettiers 1963 paper Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. This paper provided counter-examples to the formulation of knowledge going back to Plato. Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. V. O and it repudiates the notion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism, representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objectivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological implications and this approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the details of the use of everyday, ordinary language. The later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophys most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle, second generation figures include Stanley Cavell and John Searle. Continental philosophy, in usage, refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. Existentialism is generally considered a philosophical and cultural movement that holds that the point of philosophical thinking must be the individual. Common themes are the primacy of experience, Angst, the absurd, while György Lukácss History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korschs Marxism and Philosophy, first published in 1923, are often seen as the works that inaugurated this current. Maurice Merleau-Ponty coined the phrase Western Marxism much later, phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a philosophical movement founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserls conception, is concerned with the systematic reflection on, and study of, the structures of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis, which sees the world as objects, sets of objects. Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to prominence in the 1960s and 70s
20th-century philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
6.
Western philosophy
–
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy
Western philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
7.
Structuralism
–
It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface there are constant laws of abstract culture. Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, in the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism, the structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, as an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, in the 1970s, structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and ahistoricism. The term structuralism is a term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or moment. The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague, in brief, de Saussures structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue and parole and he argued that the sign was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a signifier, the perceived sound/visual image. Because different languages have different words to describe the objects or concepts. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs, as he wrote, in language, there are only differences without positive terms. Blending Freud and de Saussure, the French structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, in this foreword Althusser states the following, Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the structuralist ideology. Despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to structuralism, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the structuralist terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. Our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion and we believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the structuralist ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas that she says are common to the forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole, second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change, fourth, structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning
Structuralism
–
Sub-fields
Structuralism
–
Sociology
8.
Post-structuralism
–
Existential phenomenology is a significant influence, Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called post-phenomenologists. Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, Structuralism rejected the phenomenological idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge. In phenomenology, this foundation is experience itself, in structuralism, knowledge is founded on the structures that make possible, concepts. By contrast, post-structuralism argues that founding knowledge either on experience or systematic structures is impossible. This impossibility was not meant as a failure or loss, a major theory associated with Structuralism was binary opposition. This theory proposed that there are theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, the only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the assumptions and knowledge systems that produce multiplicity, the illusion of singular meaning. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results, post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that history and culture condition the study of underlying structures. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object, it is necessary to both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object. Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive and this terminology relates to Ferdinand de Saussures distinction between the views of historical and descriptive reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts, by studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucaults Madness and Civilization is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness, the uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Foucault, some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that The spread of poststructuralist literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly, similarly, physicist Alan Sokal in 1997 criticized the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now hegemonic in some sectors of the American academy. Has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale, one can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky. Post-structuralism emerged in France during the 1960s as a movement critiquing structuralism, merquior a love–hate relationship with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s. In a 1966 lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life, Derrida interpreted this event as a decentering of the former intellectual cosmos
Post-structuralism
–
Sub-fields
Post-structuralism
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
9.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
–
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
–
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
–
Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
–
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
10.
Embodied cognition
–
Embodied cognition is the theory that many features of cognition, whether human or otherwise, are shaped by aspects of the entire body of the organism. The features of cognition include high level mental constructs and performance on cognitive tasks. The embodied mind thesis challenges other theories, such as cognitivism, computationalism and it is closely related to the extended mind thesis, situated cognition and enactivism. In philosophy, embodied cognition holds that an agents cognition is strongly influenced by aspects of a body beyond the brain itself. In their proposal for an approach to cognition Varela et al. — Eleanor Rosch, Evan Thompson. For example, according to Michael Dawson, the relationship is tangled, the Extended mind thesis, in contrast with the Embodiment thesis, limits cognitive processing neither to the brain nor even to the body, but extends it outward into the agents world. Situated cognition emphasizes that this extension is not just a matter of including resources outside the head, in his Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven. Philosopher Immanuel Kant advocated a view of the problem and the subject–object problem with parallels to the embodied view. They have emerged. through natural selection. by a process of maturation and/or learning. in philosophy of mind, the idea that cognition is embodied is sympathetic with other views of cognition such as situated cognition or externalism. This is a move towards a total re-localization of mental processes out of the neural domain. Embodied cognition is a topic of research in social and cognitive psychology, covering such as social interaction. Embodied cognition reflects the argument that the motor system influences our cognition, George Lakoff and his collaborators have written a series of books promoting and expanding the thesis based on discoveries in cognitive science, such as conceptual metaphor and image schema. The insights of these robotics researchers have in turn inspired philosophers like Andy Clark, biology has also inspired Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch and Evan Thompson to develop a closely related version of the idea, which they call enactivism. This was extended into the domain by the talking heads approach of Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, Rubin. More detail is provided in the sections that follow, one embodied cognition study shows that action intention can affect processing in visual search, with more orientation errors for pointing than for grasping. Participants either pointed to or grasped target objects of 2 colors and 2 orientations, There were randomized numbers of distractors as well, which differed from the target in color, orientation, or both. A tone sounded to inform participants which target orientation to find, participants kept their eyes on a fixation point until it turned from red to the target color. The screen then lit up and the participants searched for the target, There were 2 blocks for pointing and 2 for grasping, with the order counterbalanced
Embodied cognition
–
Graph of the visual search task results showing that participants made less object orientation errors when grasping than pointing.
11.
Metaphysics
–
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fundamental nature of reality. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two questions, Ultimately, what is there. Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, a central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to one another. Another branch is metaphysical cosmology, which seeks to understand the origin, there are two broad conceptions about what world is studied by metaphysics. The strong, classical view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist independently of any observer, the weaker, more modern view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject becomes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis. Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these worlds and what can be inferred about each one, some philosophers and scientists, such as the logical positivists, reject the entire subject of metaphysics as meaningless, while others disagree and think that it is legitimate. Ontology deals with the determination whether categories of being are fundamental and it is the inquiry into being in so much as it is being, or into beings insofar as they exist—and not insofar as particular facts may be obtained about them or particular properties belong to them. Most ontologies assume or assert the existence of categories including objects, properties, space, immediate questions arising from this include the nature of objects. Only properties can be observed directly, so what does it mean for an object to exist, how can we be sure that such objects exist at all. The word is has two uses in English, separated out in ontology. It can denote existence as in there is an elephant in the room, some philosophers also include sub-classing as a third form of is-ness or being, as in the elephant is a mammal. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Other controversial categories of objects and properties which may be argued to exist or not include aesthetic and moral properties, stances about the status of such things may form the foundation for other branches of philosophy such as aesthetics, ethics and political philosophy. Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue, metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself. Other issues of identity arise in the context of time, what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time, how do we account for this. Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity, and how does the reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions
Metaphysics
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
12.
Perception
–
Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. Perception can be split into two processes, firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level information. Secondly, processing which is connected with a persons concepts and expectations, Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of psychology in the 19th Century, psychologys understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process, Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the information is typically incomplete. Human and animal brains are structured in a way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brains surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other, for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, by means of light, sound or another physical process, the object stimulates the bodys sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the energy into neural activity—a process called transduction. This raw pattern of activity is called the proximal stimulus. These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and processed, the resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept. An example would be a shoe, the shoe itself is the distal stimulus
Perception
–
The
Necker cube and
Rubin vase can be perceived in more than one way.
13.
Gestalt psychology
–
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire, the central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined, the Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to provide a vision of psychology. Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together and this principle maintains that when the human mind forms a percept or gestalt, the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. Koffka did not like the translation and he firmly corrected students who replaced other with greater. This is not a principle of addition he said, the whole has an independent existence. In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli, contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism, Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements. The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels, the idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory and this gestalt or whole form approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen, images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance, the figure in front and these laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, in any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology and his work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. There are clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the field, foremost in Europe. The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research, principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity
Gestalt psychology
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Reification
Gestalt psychology
–
Invariance
Gestalt psychology
–
Psychology
Gestalt psychology
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Composition showing the Gestalt Principles, graphic design (Gestalt Educational Program, 2011).
14.
Epistemology
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer
Epistemology
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
15.
Philosophy of art
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
Philosophy of art
–
Bronze sculpture, thought to be either
Poseidon or
Zeus,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Philosophy of art
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
Philosophy of art
–
Cubist painting by
Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick (1910)
Philosophy of art
–
William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745
16.
Henri Bergson
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Henri-Louis Bergson was a French philosopher, influential especially in the first half of the 20th century and after WWII in continental philosophy. Bergson is known for his arguments that processes of immediate experience and intuition are more significant than abstract rationalism. He was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas, in 1930 France awarded him its highest honour, the Grand-Croix de la Legion dhonneur. Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the Palais Garnier in 1859 and his father, the pianist Michał Bergson, was of a Polish Jewish background. His great-grandmother, Temerl Bergson, was a well-known patroness and benefactor of Polish Jewry and his mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an English and Irish Jewish background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family of Polish descent, Henri Bergsons great-great-grandfather, Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg, called Zbytkower, was a prominent banker and a protégé of Stanisław August Poniatowski, King of Poland from 1764 to 1795. Henri Bergsons family lived in London for a few years after his birth, before he was nine, his parents settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized French citizen. Henri Bergson married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust, Henri and Louise Bergson had a daughter, Jeanne, born deaf in 1896. Bergsons sister, Mina Bergson, married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, a founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and he then replaced Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920. The public attended his open courses in large numbers, Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes in Paris from 1868 to 1878. He had previously received a Jewish religious education, between 14 and 16, however, he lost his faith. While at the lycée Bergson won a prize for his work and another, in 1877 when he was eighteen. His solution was published the year in Annales de Mathématiques. It was his first published work, after some hesitation as to whether his career should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of the humanities, he decided in favour of the latter, to the dismay of his teachers. When he was nineteen, he entered the École Normale Supérieure, during this period, he read Herbert Spencer. He obtained there the degree of licence ès lettres, and this was followed by that of agrégation de philosophie in 1881 from the University of Paris, the same year he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in Angers, the ancient capital of Anjou. Two years later he settled at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand, while teaching and lecturing in this part of his country, Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation Time and Free Will, which was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle, the work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan
Henri Bergson
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Bergson in 1927
Henri Bergson
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Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience (Dissertation, 1889)
17.
Eugen Fink
–
Eugen Fink was a German philosopher. Fink was born in 1905 as the son of a government official in Germany and he spent his first school years with an uncle who was a Catholic priest. Fink attended a school in Konstanz where he succeeded with his extraordinary memory. After his graduation exam in 1925, he studied philosophy, history, German language and economics, initially at Münster and Berlin, as Husserls assistant, he was a representative of phenomenological idealism and later a follower of Martin Heidegger. He approached the problem of Being as a manifestation of the movement with Man being a participant in this movement. Fink called the philosophical problems pre-questions, that lead to the true philosophy by the way of an ontological practice. Seminar mit Martin Heidegger, Frankfurt/Main 1970 Erziehungswissenschaft und Lebenslehre, Freiburg 1970 Natur, Freiheit, Welt, Philosophie der Erziehung, Vol.7 Spiel als Weltsymbol, Vol.13 Epilegomena zu I. Play as Symbol of the World, translated with an introduction by Ian Alexander Moore and Christopher Turner. The Idea of a Transcendental Theory of Method with textual notations by Edmund Husserl, translated with an introduction by Ronald Bruzina, Bloomington, Indiana University Press,1995 Nietzsches Philosophy translated by Goetz Richter London, New York, Continuum,2003 Heraclitus Seminar. Northwestern University Press,1993 Cairns, Dorion, Conversations with Husserl, the Hague, Martinus Nijhoff,1976 Oasis of Happiness, Thoughts toward an Ontology of Play. Translated by Ian Alexander Moore and Christopher Turner, purlieu, A Philosophical Journal 1, no. Eugen Fink in the German National Library catalogue Eugen-Fink-Archiv Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology
Eugen Fink
–
Eugen Fink, aged 23, 1929
18.
Martin Heidegger
–
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is acknowledged to be one of the most original. His first and best known book, Being and Time, though unfinished, is one of the philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, for Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think cannot be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. Heideggers later work includes criticisms of technologys instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as enframing, treating all of Nature as a reserve on call for human purposes. Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Germany, the son of Johanna, raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being proficient at skiing. In the two following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent. He served as a soldier during the year of World War I, working behind a desk. During the 1930s, critics of Heideggers espousal of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the unheroic nature of his service in WWI, in 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp, Heideggers students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy, the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther and he also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler. In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit, when Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburgs election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers and his students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers Party on 1 May
Martin Heidegger
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Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger
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The Mesnerhaus in
Meßkirch, where Heidegger grew up
Martin Heidegger
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Heidegger's stone-and-tile chalet clustered among others at Todtnauberg
Martin Heidegger
–
Heidegger's grave in Meßkirch
19.
Edmund Husserl
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Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality, in his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserls thought profoundly influenced the landscape of twentieth-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond. Husserl studied mathematics under Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy under Franz Brentano, following an illness, he died at Freiburg in 1938. Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz, a town in the Margraviate of Moravia, which was then in the Austrian Empire, and he was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His childhood was spent in Proßnitz, where he attended the elementary school, then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olomouc. At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, at Leipzig he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker, in Berlin he found a mentor in Thomas Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia. There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsens philosophy lectures, in 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger. At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung, evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, he asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserls father Adolf had died in 1884, at times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral renewal. Following his PhD in mathematics, he returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass, yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill, Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy, Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. There, under Stumpfs supervision, he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl in 1887, in 1887 he married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923, Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War. Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of law, teaching in the USA. Following his marriage Husserl began his teaching career in philosophy
Edmund Husserl
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Husserl c. 1910s
Edmund Husserl
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Edmund Husserl c. 1900
Edmund Husserl
–
The
Kiepenheuer Institute for Solar Physics in Freiburg, Husserl's home 1916 -1937
Edmund Husserl
–
Husserl's gravestone at
Freiburg Günterstal
20.
Karl Marx
–
Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
Karl Marx
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Marx in 1875
Karl Marx
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Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the
Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.
Karl Marx
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Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Karl Marx
–
Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.
21.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Nietzsche in Basel, c. 1875
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Nietzsche in 1861
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Schopenhauer 's philosophy strongly influenced Nietzsche's earliest philosophical thought.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
Mid-October 1871. From left:
Erwin Rohde, Karl von Gersdorff, Nietzsche.
22.
Jean-Paul Sartre
–
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre
–
Sartre in 1950
Jean-Paul Sartre
–
French journalists visit General George C. Marshall at his office in the Pentagon building, 1945
Jean-Paul Sartre
–
Jean-Paul Sartre (middle) and
Simone de Beauvoir (left) meeting with
Che Guevara (right) in Cuba, 1960
Jean-Paul Sartre
–
Sketch of Sartre for the New York Times by
Reginald Gray, 1965
23.
Ferdinand de Saussure
–
Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure was a Swiss linguist and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for significant developments in both linguistics and semiology in the 20th century. He is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics, one of his translators, Roy Harris, summarized Saussures contribution to linguistics and the study of the whole range of human sciences. It is particularly marked in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, sociology and anthropology, although they have undergone extension and critique over time, the dimensions of organization introduced by Saussure continue to inform contemporary approaches to the phenomenon of language. Prague school linguist Jan Mukařovský writes that Saussures discovery of the structure of the linguistic sign differentiated the sign both from mere acoustic things. And from mental processes, and that in this development new roads were opened not only for linguistics. He was born in Geneva in 1857 and his father was Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure, a chemist, entomologist, and taxonomist. Saussure showed signs of talent and intellectual ability as early as the age of fourteen. In the fall of 1970, he began attending the Institution Martine, there he lived with the family of fellow classmate, Elie David. Saussure was not pleased, as he complained, I entered the Collège de Genève, after a year of studying Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit and taking a variety of courses at the University of Geneva, he commenced graduate work at the University of Leipzig in 1876. Two years later, at 21, Saussure published a book entitled Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes and he returned to Leipzig to defend his doctoral dissertation De lemploi du génitif absolu en Sanscrit, and was awarded his doctorate in February 1880. Soon, he relocated to the University of Paris, where he lectured on Sanskrit, Gothic and Old High German and he taught at the École pratique des hautes études for eleven years during which he was named Chevalier de la Légion dHonneur. When offered a professorship in Geneva in 1892, he returned to Switzerland, Saussure lectured on Sanskrit and Indo-European at the University of Geneva for the remainder of his life. It was not until 1907 that Saussure began teaching the Course of General Linguistics and he died in 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château, Vaud, Switzerland. His brother was the Esperantist René de Saussure, and his son was the psychoanalyst Raymond de Saussure, Saussure attempted, at various times in the 1880s and 1890s, to write a book on general linguistic matters. Saussure also had a impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century. His two currents of thought emerged independently of other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussures thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics, in Europe, the most important work in that period of influence was done by the Prague school
Ferdinand de Saussure
–
Ferdinand de Saussure
24.
David Abram
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In recent years his work has come to be associated with a broad movement loosely termed New Materialism, due to Abrams espousal of a radically transformed sense of matter and materiality. In 1976, he working as house magician at Alices Restaurant in the Berkshires of Massachusetts. In the late 1980s, Abram turned his attention to exploring the influence of language upon the human senses. Abram received a doctorate for this work from the State University of New York at Stony Brook, Abrams writing is informed by his work with indigenous peoples, as well as by the American nature-writing tradition that stems from Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, and Mary Austin. His philosophical work is informed by the European tradition of phenomenology — in particular, by the work of the French phenomenologist, in recent writings, Abram sometimes refers to the more-than-human world as the breathing commonwealth, or the commonwealth of breath. Already translated into numerous languages, the first French translation of the text was completed by the eminent Belgian philosopher-of-science, Isabelle Stengers, since 1996, Abram has lectured and taught at universities throughout the world, while nonetheless maintaining his independence from the institutional world of academe. He was named by the Utne Reader as one of a hundred visionaries currently transforming the world and his ideas have often been debated within the pages of various peer-reviewed academic journals, including Environmental Ethics, Environmental Values, and the Journal of Environmental Philosophy. In 2001, the New England Aquarium and the Orion Society sponsored a public debate between Abram and distinguished biologist E. O. Wilson, at the old Town Hall in Boston, on science. In the summer of 2005, Abram delivered an address for the United Nations World Environment Week in San Francisco. According to their website, the Alliance is a consortium of individuals and we employ the arts, often in tandem with the natural sciences, to provoke deeply felt shifts in the human experience of nature. A review in Orion described the book thus, n intricately textured, Abram weaves a spell that brings the world alive. In 2014 Abram held the international Arne Næss Chair of Global Justice and Ecology at the University of Oslo, in that same year he became a Fellow of Schumacher College, where he teaches regularly. He also teaches an intensive each summer on Cortes Island. The father of two children, Abram lives with his family in the foothills of the southern Rockies. 2014 Arne Næss Chair of Global Justice and Environment, Oslo, elected a Fellow of Schumacher College,2014. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award, finalist Lannan Literary Award for Nonfiction,1996
David Abram
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David Abram
25.
Judith Butler
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Judith Butler is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has influenced political philosophy, ethics and the fields of third-wave feminist, queer and literary theory. Since 1993, she has taught at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is now Maxine Elliot Professor in the Department of Comparative Literature and she is also the Hannah Arendt Chair at the European Graduate School. This theory has had a influence on feminist and queer scholarship. Her works are implemented in film studies courses emphasizing gender studies. Butler has actively supported lesbian and gay rights movements and has spoken out on many political issues. Judith Butler was born in Cleveland, Ohio, to a family of Hungarian and Russian Jewish descent, most of her maternal grandmothers family perished in the Holocaust. As a child and teenager, she attended both Hebrew school and special classes on Jewish ethics, where she received her first training in philosophy, could German Idealism be held accountable for Nazism. And how was one to understand existential theology, including the work of Martin Buber, Butler attended Bennington College and then Yale University where she studied philosophy, receiving her B. A. in 1978 and her Ph. D. in 1984. She spent one year at Heidelberg University as a Fulbright-Scholar. She taught at Wesleyan University, George Washington University, and Johns Hopkins University before joining University of California, Berkeley, in 2002 she held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam. In this essay, Judith Butler proposes her theory of gender performativity and she begins by basing her theory of gender performativity on a feminist phenomenological point of view. She suggests that both phenomenology and feminism ground their theories in lived experience and this combination of theories is essential for founding Butlers view of theatrical or performative genders in society. Butler argues that it is valid to perceive gender as a performance in which an individual agent acts. The performative element of her theory suggests a social audience, for Butler, the script of gender performance is effortlessly transmitted generation to generation in the form of socially established meanings, She states, gender is not a radical choice. Imposed or inscribed upon the individual, given the social nature of human beings, most actions are witnessed, reproduced, and internalized and thus take on a performative or theatric quality. Currently, the actions appropriate for men and women have been transmitted to produce an atmosphere that both maintains and legitimizes a seemingly natural gender binary. Butler argues that the performance of gender itself creates gender, additionally, she compares the performativity of gender to the performance of the theater. She brings many similarities, including the idea of each individual functioning as an actor of their gender, however she also brings into light a critical difference between gender performance in reality and theater performances
Judith Butler
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Butler in March 2012.
Judith Butler
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Butler receives the
Theodor W. Adorno Award in 2012
26.
Cornelius Castoriadis
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Cornelius Castoriadis was a Greek-French philosopher, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst, author of The Imaginary Institution of Society, and co-founder of the Socialisme ou Barbarie group. His writings on autonomy and social institutions have been influential in academic and activist circles. Cornelius Castoriadis was born on March 11,1922 in Constantinople and his family had to move in July 1922 to Athens due to the Greek–Turkish population exchange. He developed an interest in politics after he came into contact with Marxist thought, at the same time he began studying traditional philosophy after purchasing a copy of the book History of Philosophy by the historian of philosophy Nikolaos Louvaris. Sometime between 1932 and 1935, Maximiani Portas was the French tutor of Castoriadis, during the same period, he attended the 8th Gymnasium of Athens in Kato Patisia, from which he graduated in 1937. His first active involvement in politics occurred during the Metaxas Regime, when he joined the Athenian Communist Youth, in 1941 he joined the Communist Party of Greece, only to leave one year later in order to become an active Trotskyist. The latter action resulted in his persecution by both the Germans and the Communist Party, in 1944 he wrote his first essays on social science and Max Weber, which he published in a magazine named Archive of Sociology and Ethics. During the December 1944 violent clashes between the communist-led ELAS and the Papandreou government, aided by British troops, Castoriadis heavily criticized the actions of the KKE, kyrou, Kostas Papaïoannou, and Virgile Solomonidis. Once in Paris, Castoriadis joined the Trotskyist Parti Communiste Internationaliste and he and Claude Lefort constituted a Chaulieu–Montal Tendency in the French PCI in 1946. Castoriadis had links with the group around C. L. R. James until 1958, also strongly influenced by Castoriadis and Socialisme ou Barbarie were the British group and journal Solidarity and Maurice Brinton. He submitted a proposal for a dissertation on mathematical logic to Poirier. The working title of his thesis was Introduction à la logique axiomatique, at the same time, he worked as an economist at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development until 1970, which was also the year when he obtained French citizenship. Consequently, his writings prior to date were published pseudonymously, as Pierre Chaulieu, Paul Cardan. In his 1949 essay The Relations of Production in Russia, Castoriadis developed a critique of the supposed socialist character of the government of the Soviet Union and his work in the OECD substantially helped his analyses. In the latter years of Socialisme ou Barbarie, Castoriadis came to reject the Marxist theories of economics and of history, especially in an essay on Modern Capitalism and Revolution. When Jacques Lacans disputes with the International Psychoanalytical Association led to a split, in 1968 Castoriadis married Piera Aulagnier, a French psychoanalyst who had undergone psychoanalytic treatment under Jacques Lacan from 1955 until 1961. Castoriadis began to practice analysis in 1973, in 1967, Castoriadis submitted a proposal for a doctoral dissertation on the philosophy of history to Paul Ricœur. Otherness emerges in part from the activity of the psyche itself, for Castoriadis, self-examination, as in the ancient Greek tradition, could draw upon the resources of modern psychoanalysis
Cornelius Castoriadis
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Cornelius Castoriadis
Cornelius Castoriadis
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The journal Socialisme ou Barbarie.
27.
Hubert Dreyfus
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Hubert Lederer Dreyfus is an American philosopher and professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. His main interests include phenomenology, existentialism and the philosophy of psychology and literature, as well as the philosophical implications of artificial intelligence. Dreyfus is known for his exegesis of Martin Heidegger, which critics labeled Dreydegger, Dreyfus was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001 and is a recipient of the Harbison Prize for Outstanding Teaching at UC Berkeley. He is featured in Tao Ruspolis film Being in the World and he is considered a leading interpreter of the work of Edmund Husserl, Michel Foucault, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, but especially of Martin Heidegger. His philosophical work has influenced Richard Rorty, Charles Taylor, John Searle, Dreyfus not only questioned the results they had so far obtained, but he also criticized their basic presupposition, and argued that the AI research program was doomed to failure. In 1965, he spent time at the Rand Corporation, while work on artificial intelligence was in progress there. His younger brother, Stuart Dreyfus, earned a Ph. D. in applied mathematics and is a professor of engineering and operations research at the University of California. Dreyfus critique of artificial intelligence concerns what he considers to be the four primary assumptions of AI research, the first two assumptions are what he calls the biological and psychological assumptions. The biological assumption is that the brain is analogous to computer hardware, the psychological assumption is that the mind works by performing discrete computations on discrete representations or symbols. Dreyfus claims that the plausibility of the psychological assumption rests on two others, the epistemological and ontological assumptions, the epistemological assumption is that all activity can be formalised in the form of predictive rules or laws. The ontological assumption is that reality consists entirely of a set of mutually independent, therefore, a truly scientific psychology is possible, which will detail the internal rules of the human mind, in the same way the laws of physics detail the external laws of the physical world. But it is this key assumption that Dreyfus denies, according to Dreyfus, a context-free psychology is a contradiction in terms. Dreyfuss arguments against this position are taken from the phenomenological and hermeneutical tradition, Heidegger argued that, contrary to the cognitivist views on which AI is based, our being is in fact highly context-bound, which is why the two context-free assumptions are false. Dreyfus doesnt deny that we can choose to see human activity as being law-governed, but it is a huge leap from that to state that because we want to or can see things in this way that it is therefore an objective fact that they are the case. In fact, Dreyfus argues that they are not the case, therefore, the current efforts of workers in the field are doomed to failure. Daniel Crevier writes, time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfuss comments, had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier. These webcasts have attracted the attention of many, including non-academics, to Dreyfus, what Computers Cant Do, The Limits of Artificial Intelligence. What Computers Cant Do, The Limits of Artificial Intelligence, Michel Foucault, Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics
Hubert Dreyfus
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Dreyfus 2011
28.
James M. Edie
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James M. Edie was an American philosopher. Edie was born in Grand Forks, North Dakota and he studied at Saint John’s University in Minnesota and at the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm in Rome before obtaining his doctorate in philosophy from the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium. Over his career, Edie became an important figure in the publicizing and he first taught philosophy for two years at Hobart and William Smith Colleges in Geneva, New York. In 1961 Edie relocated to Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, Edie was fluent in at least six languages. James Edie died of cancer at his home in Sarasota, Florida, I studied, under my professors, a good deal of Husserl and his contemporaries but especially the Logical Investigations. It became clear to me, then, that the principal foci of my interests were in questions of epistemology. It is said that ones self-presentation is rendered more palatable if one mentions some weaknesses, I once told a colleague, who was pressing me, if I ever write on ethical theory, it will be posthumously. — Self-presentation, James M. Edie, Analecta Husserliana, Vol. XXVI, with William Earle and John Wild. Edited by James M. Edie, James P. Scanlan, an invitation to phenomenology, studies in the philosophy of experience. Edited with an introduction by James M. Edie, Phenomenology in America, studies in the philosophy of experience. Edited with an introduction by James M. Edie, New essays in phenomenology, studies in the philosophy of experience. Edited with an introduction by James M. Edie, patterns of the life-world, essays in honor of John Wild. James M. Edie, Francis H. Parker, Calvin O. Schrag, speaking and meaning, the phenomenology of language. Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology, a critical commentary, merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of language, structuralism and dialectics. Pittsburgh, PA / Washington, DC, Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology / University Press of America, what is phenomenology. and other essays. Translated by James M. Edie, Charles Courtney, and Paul Brockelman, translated by John Wild and James M. Edie. The primacy of perception, and other essays on psychology, the philosophy of art, history. Edited and partly translated by James M. Edie, American philosophy List of American philosophers Analecta Husserliana, The Yearbook of Phenomenological Research, Volume XXVI - American Phenomenology, Origins and Developments
James M. Edie
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James M. Edie
29.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
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In the early 1950s, Foucault came under the influence of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who remained a core influence on his work throughout his life.
Michel Foucault
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Foucault adored the work of Raymond Roussel and authored a literary study of it.
30.
Graham Harman
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Graham Harman is Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at SCI-Arc in Los Angeles. His work on the metaphysics of objects led to the development of object-oriented ontology and he is a central figure in the speculative realism trend in contemporary philosophy. Harman was born in Iowa City and raised in Mount Vernon, while pursuing a Ph. D. at DePaul University, Harman worked as an online sports reporter, an experience which he credits for developing his writing style and productivity. After finishing his degree in 1999 he joined the Department of Philosophy at the American University in Cairo, Harman starts the development of his work with Martin Heideggers concept of tool-analysis from Being and Time. Harmans object-oriented approach considers the life of objects to be ground for a metaphysics that works to overcome anthropocentrism and correlationism. According to Harman, everything is an object, whether it be a mailbox, a shadow, spacetime, a fictional character, or the Commonwealth of Nations. However, drawing on phenomenology, he does distinguish between two categories of objects, real objects and sensual objects, which sets his philosophy apart from the ontology of Bruno Latour. Real objects are incommensurable with our knowledge, untranslatable into any relational access of any sort, objects can only be known indirectly. And this is not just the fate of humans — it’s the fate of everything, banana-being is a genuine reality in the world, a reality never exhausted by any relation to it by humans or other entities. Because of this inexhaustibility, claims Harman, there is a problem regarding how two objects can ever interact. His solution to this problem is to introduce the notion of vicarious causation, instead they perceive insofar as they relate. Harman rejects scientism on account of its anthropocentrism, For them, raindrops know nothing and lizards know very little, original English text published as The Quadruple Object
Graham Harman
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Graham Harman
31.
Don Ihde
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Don Ihde is an American philosopher of science and technology, and a postphenomenologist. In 1979 he wrote what is identified as the first North American work on philosophy of technology, Technics. Ihde is Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, in 2013 Ihde received the Golden Eurydice Award. Ihde is the author of original books and the editor of many others. Ihde lectures and gives seminars internationally and some of his books, Ihdes Bodies in Technology spells out the original exploration of the ways cyberspace affects the human experience. The book is useful to the scholars who are exploring the role of bodies in the VR technologies. The book is the study of embodiment in cyberspace, a book also related to human–computer interaction. Don Ihde entirely rejects Cartesian dualism and Ihde further does not believe we human beings can exist in disembodied form, even to have an out of body experience is to have an implicit here-body from which we experience an object-body over there. Ihde believes in having I am my body, but its outlines are ambiguous and my experience can reach through other spatialitities. Ihde argues that movies like the Matrix trilogy play upon fantasy in a technological context, Ihde points out to an important fact that we have to experience the embodiment where we live, rather than to plugin to a technofantasies world. Ihde is the Director of the Technoscience Research Group in the Philosophy Department, Ihde directs the graduate and post-graduate Technoscience research seminar, which reads only living authors such as Donna Haraway, Bruno Latour, Ian Hacking, Andrew Pickering, Sandra Harding. Ihde has on occasion invited other authors to the seminar for a roast, past roastees have included Peter Galison, Hubert Dreyfus, Albert Borgmann, Andrew Feenberg, and Harry Collins. The seminar on technoscience has resulted in a number of related to its activities. In a paper Was Heidegger prescient concerning Technoscience, Ihde re-examines Martin Heideggers philosophy of science with a reappraisal of what was innovative, and what remained archaic. On the issues of Hermeneutics from the Phenomenological Perspective Ihde examines what might he called a material hermeneutics, Ihde examines what he calls a style of interpretation based in material practices relating to imaging technologies which have given rise to the visual hermeneutics in technoscience studies. Veszprém,1993, it was at that meeting that Ihde first proposed the notion of Expanding hermeneutics, such a hermeneutics in natural science can best be illustrated by its imaging practices. One could also say that a visual hermeneutics is a perceptual hermeneutics with a perception which while including texts and this local history gives but a small glimpse of the directions Ihde tried to outline in Expanding Hermeneutics. I developed a sensitivity to the ways in which our instruments, Don Ihde has argued on numerous occasions that if the philosopher is to play a more important role it must not be only in or limited to the Hemingway role
Don Ihde
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Don Ihde
32.
Nikolas Kompridis
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Nikolas Kompridis is a Canadian philosopher and political theorist. His major published work addresses the direction and orientation of Frankfurt School critical theory, the legacy of romanticism. He is currently a Research Professor and Director of the Institute for Social Justice at the Australian Catholic University, following his time with Habermas he wrote a book responding to what he saw as serious shortcomings and inconsistencies in his mentors work. While drawing on many of Habermas own insights, Kompridis proposes an approach to social criticism. In a largely favourable review of the book, Fred R. Dallmayr writes, This is an important and timely book, both in philosophical and in practical-political terms. In November,2011, the journal Philosophy and Social Criticism published a number of responses to the book from other critical theorists, along with a reply from Kompridis. Kompridis has written that he sees critical theory, and critique in general, as romantic in its self-understanding. The topics addressed in the include, Beginning anew, Self-determination and expression, Art and irony, The living force of things. Anyone who thinks such change is not only necessary but also possible, the Aesthetic Turn in Political Thought is a collection of essays, edited by Kompridis, which explores the connections between aesthetics and democratic politics. The book takes as its starting point a statement by Jacques Rancière, a musician by training, Kompridis has frequently married an interest in aesthetics with other philosophical concerns. In 2011, Kompridis guest-edited and contributed to an issue of the journal Ethics. In 2008, Kompridis spoke at a conference on The Post/Human Condition held in Auckland and this approach is intended to complement and build upon the work of other philosophers, including Harry Frankfurt, Charles Taylor and Maurice Merlau-Ponty. Critique and Disclosure, Critical Theory between Past and Future, cambridge, MIT Press,337 pp. Philosophical Romanticism 2006. The Aesthetic Turn in Political Thought 2014, new York, London, Bloomsbury,320 pp. The Right to the Human Condition, Arendt, Normativity, pacific Centre for Technology and Culture. Secularism, Public Reason and the Limits of Translation, conversation with composer Martin Bresnick, with performances by pianist Lisa Moore. “Secular Criticism as Poetics and Politics”, three lectures by Stathis Gourgouris, including responses by Kompridis. Special issue of Ethics and Global Politics, Vol 4, No 4, edited & with contributions by Kompridis
Nikolas Kompridis
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Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future (MIT Press, 2006)
Nikolas Kompridis
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Nikolas Kompridis in
Auckland (2008)
33.
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Lacan
34.
Edward Schillebeeckx
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Edward Cornelis Florentius Alfonsus Schillebeeckx was a Belgian Roman Catholic theologian born in Antwerp. He taught at the Catholic University in Nijmegen and he was a member of the Dominican Order. His books on theology have been translated into many languages, and he was born in Antwerp, the sixth of 14 children. After being educated by the Jesuits at Turnhout, Schillebeeckx entered the Dominican Order in 1934 and he studied theology and philosophy at the Catholic University of Leuven. In 1941 he was ordained to the priesthood, in 1943 he finalized his studies in Turnhout, and moved to Ghent, where he studied at the Dominican house, and was strongly influenced by Dominicus De Petters courses in phenomenology. After three years of studying philosophy at Ghent, Schillebeeckx heeded the call up of the Belgian Armed Forces in 1938, leaving the army again in August 1939. But, one and a half months after that, he was summoned to return, due to the start of World War II, Schillebeeckx then entered the Dominican study house at Leuven, where he stayed until 1945. During these years, he studied at the Sorbonne. In 1952 he defended and published his thesis at Le Saulchoir. Then, in 1958 the Catholic University of Nijmegen in the Netherlands made him a professor of dogmatic theology and his inaugural lecture Op zoek naar de levende God introduced Dutch theologians to the Nouvelle Théologie founded by Chenu, Congar, Hans Urs von Balthasar and others. During the Second Vatican Council, Schillebeeckx was one of the most active theologians and he drafted various council interventions for Dutch bishops such as Cardinal Bernard Jan Alfrink, and gave conferences on theological ressourcement for many episcopal conferences present in Rome. This was the first of three instances in which Schillebeeckx had to defend his positions against accusations from the Roman authorities. As a result, Schillebeeckx drafted his mostly negative comments on the prepared by the Preparatory Theological Commission anonymously. This, according to Schillebeeckx and many others at Vatican II, was to be balanced by a stress on the role of the episcopal college. In this way his influence was far greater than that of a formal peritus, in the postconciliar period Schillebeeckx attention shifted somewhat from Thomism to biblical exegesis. g. By supporting a proposal to disconnect sacramental priesthood and the obligation to celibacy, precisely on this matter, Schillebeeckx played an influential role during the National Pastoral Council held at Noordwijkerhout from 1968 to 1970. Schillebeeckx, well known in the Netherlands and Belgium through his interventions in the media, was by then known as the leading Dutch-speaking contemporary theologian. The empty tomb was, in his opinion, an hypothesis, since “an eschatological, bodily resurrection, theologically speaking, has nothing to do, however, with a corpse. ”That was merely a crude
Edward Schillebeeckx
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Edward Schillebeeckx in 1979
35.
Francisco Varela
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Varela was born in 1946 in Santiago in Chile, the son of Corina María Elena García Tapia and Raúl Andrés Varela Rodríguez. D. in biology at Harvard University. His thesis, defended in 1970 and supervised by Torsten Wiesel, was titled Insect Retinas, after the 1973 military coup led by Augusto Pinochet, Varela and his family spent 7 years in exile in the United States before he returned to Chile to become a professor of biology. In 1986, he settled in France, where he at first taught cognitive science and epistemology at the École Polytechnique, from 1988 until his death, he led a research group at the CNRS. In 1987, Varela, along with R. Varela died in 2001 in Paris of Hepatitis C after having written an account of his 1998 liver transplant, Varela had four children, including the actress, environmental spokesperson, and model Leonor Varela. Varela trained as a biologist, fundamentally influenced by his teacher and fellow Chilean, both biologists had strong philosophical orientations. He wrote and edited a number of books and numerous articles in biology, neurology, cognitive science, mathematics. He founded, with others, the Integral Institute, a dedicated to the cross-fertilization of ideas. Varela supported embodied philosophy, viewing human cognition and consciousness in terms of the structures in which they arise. These comprise the body and the world with which it interacts. He introduced into neuroscience the concepts of neurophenomenology and this combined the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, with first person science. The outcome entails that observers examine their own conscious experience using scientifically verifiable methods, autopoiesis Cartesian anxiety Molecular Cellular Cognition Phenomenology Neurophenomenology Neurodynamics Varela wrote numerous books and articles,1980. Autopoiesis and Cognition, The Realization of the Living, the Tree of Knowledge, The Biological Roots of Human Understanding. The Embodied Mind, Cognitive Science and Human Experience, towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems, The First European Conference on Artificial Life. Gentle Bridges, Dialogues Between the Cognitive Sciences and the Buddhist Tradition, thinking About Biology, An Introduction to Theoretical Biology. Ethical Know-How, Action, Wisdom and Cognition, the View from Within, First-Person Methodologies in the Study of Consciousness. Naturalizing Phenomenology, Contemporary Issues in Phenomenology and Cognitive Science, Life after Kant, Natural purposes and the autopoietic foundations of biological individuality. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences I, 97–125,2002, sarat Maharaj & Francisco Varela in conversation, Ahamkara. In, Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis, intellectual Birdhouse, Artistic Practice as Research
Francisco Varela
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Varela in
Dharamsala India, 1994
36.
Philosopher
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A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek φιλόσοφος meaning lover of wisdom, the coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Typically, these brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers. The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC, thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition. While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato, in his Symposium, he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom, if he attains wisdom, therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed and these disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition, as the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world. Philosophy is a discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe. The second is the change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life, philosophy was then the servant to theology. The third is the sociological need with the development of the university, the modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty, therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life. In the fourth century, the word began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake the distractions of life for a life of philosophy. Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus, many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, with the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent
Philosopher
–
The School of Athens, by
Raphael, depicting the central figures of
Plato and
Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers exchanging their knowledge.
37.
Descriptive psychology
–
Not to be confused with Franz Brentanos concept of descriptive psychology and Wilhelm Diltheys concept of descriptive psychology. Descriptive psychology is primarily a conceptual framework for the science of psychology, created in its original form by Peter G. Descriptive Psychology is the intellectual discipline that makes explicit the implicit structure of the behavioral sciences. It concerns conceptual, pre-empirical and theory-neutral formulations identifying the range of a subject matter. The concern with full inclusion, with clarifying the full set of possibilities, is a hallmark of Descriptive Psychology, the pre-empirical work is accomplished by identifying and interrelating the essential concepts, the vital distinctions, that characterize all possible instances of a subject matter. The empirical project, on the hand, involves finding the specific possibilities. Descriptive Psychology separates the conceptual and empirical from the theoretical, Descriptive Psychology explicates the Person Concept as the fundamental structure of the behavioral sciences. The Person Concept is a single, coherent concept which involves the interrelated concepts of Individual Person, Behavior, Language, Descriptive Psychology establishes rules of construction, composition and relationship that articulate how these concepts are interconnected. The original impulse for the creation of DP was dissatisfaction with mainstream approaches to the science of psychology. Later authors noted that lack of a conceptual scaffolding was responsible for the fragmentation of psychology, i. e. for its lack of any unifying. A parallel example from another science may be helpful in understanding the nature of DP, isaac Newton, before he could integrate a large number of empirical findings in his famous theory, had to attend to a number of pre-empirical matters. He had to some existing mathematics and to create a whole new branch of mathematics. How could one observe or claim, for example, that a force was proportional to the distance between two objects if one did not first have the concept of force. Newtons conceptual system was designed to permit the description of any fact or possible fact about the motions of large objects. In the same way, DP was created by Ossorio as a set of systematically related distinctions designed to enable one to any fact or possible fact about persons. As conceptual distinctions, its concepts are not true, false, verifiable, or falsifiable and they provide a means for describing, distinguishing and categorizing any fact or possible fact concerning persons and their behavior. Finally, DP is not a theory to be tested, but, like English grammar or arithmetic, a system to be used—here, in the conduct of psychological science and application. Criticism of the system would take the form, not of empirical disconfirmation, DP comprises a vast network of concepts, and it will not be possible here to convey more than the general sense or flavor of the total enterprise. This will be attempted by presenting the basics of its treatment of two concepts, those of behavior and of person, arguably the two most important concepts in DP
Descriptive psychology
–
A pigeon pecking a dish
Descriptive psychology
–
Vietnamese Minister of Defense Gen.
Phạm Văn Trà
Descriptive psychology
–
Boys Town founder
Edward J. Flanagan
Descriptive psychology
–
Romeo and Juliet
38.
Cognitive science
–
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition, Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning, the fundamental concept of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures. The cognitive sciences began as a movement in the 1950s often referred to as the cognitive revolution. A central tenet of science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number, one approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time. Then, the accuracy of the response could be measured, another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works, thus, an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. ”This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior, Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function - what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots, the term cognitive in cognitive science is used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms. The earliest entries for the word cognitive in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining to the action or process of knowing, the first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato, Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature. Among philosophers, classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, however, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition
Cognitive science
–
Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Cognitive science
–
Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including
linguistics,
neuroscience,
artificial Intelligence,
philosophy,
anthropology, and
psychology.
39.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
40.
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach
Simone de Beauvoir
–
De Beauvoir in 1968
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at the Balzac Memorial
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Dunes cottage where Algren and de Beauvoir summered in
Miller Beach, Indiana
Simone de Beauvoir
–
Antonio Núñez Jiménez, de Beauvoir,
Sartre and
Che Guevara in Cuba, 1960
41.
Simone Weil
–
Simone Weil was a French philosopher, mystic, and political activist. After her graduation from formal education, Weil became a teacher, taking a path that was unusual among twentieth-century left-leaning intellectuals, she became more religious and inclined towards mysticism as her life progressed. Weil wrote throughout her life, though most of her writings did not attract attention until after her death. In the 1950s and 1960s, her work became famous on continental Europe and her thought has continued to be the subject of extensive scholarship across a wide range of fields. A meta study from the University of Calgary found that between 1995 and 2012 over 2,500 new scholarly works had been published about her, Albert Camus described her as the only great spirit of our times. Weil was born in her parents apartment in Paris on 3 February 1909 and her mother was Saolomea Weil and her father Bernard was a medical doctor. Both were Alsatian Jews who had moved to Paris after the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany, Weil was a healthy baby for her first six months, until she had a severe attack of appendicitis—thereafter she struggled with poor health throughout her life. She was the second of her parents two children, her brother was mathematician André Weil, with whom she would always enjoy a close relationship. Their parents were agnostic and fairly affluent, raising their children in an attentive and supportive atmosphere, Weil suffered some distress due to her fathers having to leave home for several years due to being drafted in World War I. According to several Weil scholars, such as Eva Fogelman and Robert Coles, despite the fact that Weil was generally highly affectionate, she almost always avoided any form of physical contact, even with female friends. From her late years, Weil would generally disguise her fragile beauty by adopting a masculine appearance, hardly ever using makeup. Weil was a student, proficient in Ancient Greek by age 12. She later learned Sanskrit after reading the Bhagavad Gita, like the Renaissance thinker Pico della Mirandola, her interests in other religions were universal and she attempted to understand each religious tradition as an expression of transcendent wisdom. As a teenager, Weil studied at the Lycée Henri IV under the tutelage of her admired teacher Émile Chartier and her first attempt at the entrance examination for the École Normale Supérieure in June 1927 ended in failure, due to her low marks in history. In 1928 she was successful in gaining admission and she finished first in the exam for the certificate of General Philosophy and Logic, Simone de Beauvoir finished second. During these years, Weil attracted much attention with her radical opinions and she was called the Red virgin, and even The Martian by her admired mentor. At the École Normale Supérieure, she studied philosophy, earning her DES in 1931 with a thesis under the title Science et perfection dans Descartes and she received her agrégation that same year. Weil taught philosophy at a school for girls in Le Puy
Simone Weil
–
Simone Weil, 1921
Simone Weil
–
Leon Trotsky. Weil arranged for Trotsky to stay at her parents' apartment in December 1933 while he was in Paris for secret meetings. She had argued against Trotsky both in print and in person, suggesting that élite communist bureaucrats could be just as oppressive as the worst capitalists. Weil was one of the rare few who appeared to hold her own with the red army founder in a face-to-face debate.
Simone Weil
–
The
Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Assisi where Simone had one of three spiritual "encounters that really counted," leading to her conversion to Christianity.
42.
Jean Hyppolite
–
Jean Hyppolite was a French philosopher known for championing the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and other German philosophers, and educating some of Frances most prominent post-war thinkers. Studies on Marx and Hegel is one of his major books and he was a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure at roughly the same time as Jean-Paul Sartre. After graduation he embarked on a study of Hegel, teaching himself German in order to read Phenomenology of Spirit in the original. In 1939 he came out with his own translation and his commentary would later form the basis of the book Genesis, after the Second World War, Hyppolite became a professor at the University of Strasbourg, before moving to the Sorbonne in 1949. In 1952, Hyppolite published Logique et existence, a work that may have had an effect on what was to become known as post-structuralism. This book tries to correlate Hegels Phenomenology to his Logics, in doing so, it raises the questions of language, being, and difference that were to become the hallmarks of new French philosophy at the end of the 20th century. One excellent hint at the importance and centrality of this book is found in Gilles Deleuzes review of it, the translators of the English language edition of the text were thoughtful enough to bundle Deleuzes review at the rear of the volume. In 1954, he became the director of the ENS and in 1955 produced a study of Karl Marxs earlier, more Hegelian period, in 1963 he was elected to the Collège de France and given a chair in The History of Philosophical Thought. While philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre were known for producing new works influenced by German philosophy, Hyppolite is remembered as an expositor, teacher and he influenced a number of thinkers, including Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze, as well as Jacques Derrida, Gérard Granel and Étienne Balibar. Genesis and Structure of Hegels Phenomenology of Spirit Logic and Existence Studies on Marx and Hegel Alexandre Kojève Jean Wahl
Jean Hyppolite
–
Bust of Jean Hyppolite by Jean-Marie Meslin
43.
Le Monde
–
Le Monde is a French daily afternoon newspaper founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry and continuously published in Paris since its first edition on 19 December 1944. It is one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world and it is one of two French newspapers of record along with Le Figaro, and the main publication of La Vie-Le Monde Group. It reported a circulation of 323,039 copies per issue in 2009. It has had its own website since 19 December 1995, and is often the only French newspaper easily obtainable in non-French-speaking countries and it should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique, of which Le Monde has 51% ownership, but which is editorially independent. In the 1990s and 2000s, La Vie-Le Monde Group expanded under editor Jean-Marie Colombani with a number of acquisitions. However, its profitability was not sufficient to cover the debt loads it took on to fund this expansion. In June 2010, investors Matthieu Pigasse, Pierre Bergé, in contrast to other world newspapers such as The New York Times, Le Monde was traditionally focused on offering analysis and opinion, as opposed to being a newspaper of record. Hence, it was considered important for the paper to offer maximum coverage of the news than to offer thoughtful interpretation of current events. For instance, on the 10th anniversary of the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, the newspaper directly implicated François Mitterrand, in recent years, however, the paper has established a greater distinction between fact and opinion. Beuve-Méry reportedly demanded total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project, in 1981 it backed the election of socialist François Mitterrand on the grounds that alternation of the political party in government would be beneficial to the state. The paper endorsed centre-right candidate Édouard Balladur in the 1995 presidential election and Ségolène Royal, according to the Mitrokhin Archive investigators, Le Monde was the KGBs key outlet for spreading anti-American and pro-Soviet disinformation to the French media. The archive identified two senior Le Monde journalists and several contributors who were used in the operations, michel Legris, a former journalist with the paper, wrote Le Monde tel quil est in 1976. According to him, the journal minimized the atrocities committed by the Cambodian Khmer Rouge and it also accused the paper of dangerously damaging the authority of the French state by having revealed various political scandals. This book remains controversial, but attracted attention and media coverage in France. Following a lawsuit, the authors and the publisher agreed in 2004 not to proceed to any reprinting, Le Monde has been found guilty of defamation for saying that Spanish football club FC Barcelona was connected to a doctor involved in steroid use. The Spanish court fined the newspaper nearly $450,000, in April 2016, a Le Monde reporter was denied visa to visit Algeria as part of the French Prime Minister press convoy to Algeria. Le Monde had previously published names of Algerian officials directly involved with the Panama papers corruption scandal, Le Monde is published around midday, and the date on the masthead is the following days. For instance, the issue released at midday on 15 March shows 16 March on the masthead and it is available on newsstands in France on the day of release, and received by mail subscribers on the masthead date
Le Monde
–
First issue on 19 December 1944
44.
Chartres
–
Chartres is a commune and capital of the Eure-et-Loir department in France. It is located 96 km southwest of Paris and this city is well known for its cathedral. Chartres was in Gaul one of the towns of the Carnutes. In the Gallo-Roman period, it was called Autricum, name derived from the river Autura, the city was burned by the Normans in 858, and unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. During the Middle Ages, it was the most important town of the Beauce. It gave its name to a county which was held by the counts of Blois, and the counts of Champagne, and afterwards by the House of Châtillon, a member of which sold it to the Crown in 1286. In 1417, during the Hundred Years War, Chartres fell into the hands of the English, in 1528, it was raised to the rank of a duchy by Francis I. In 1568, during the Wars of Religion, Chartres was unsuccessfully besieged by the Huguenot leader and it was finally taken by the royal troops of Henry IV on 19 April 1591. In 1674, Louis XIV raised Chartres from a duchy to a peerage in favor of his nephew. The title of Duke of Chartres was hereditary in the House of Orléans, in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War, Chartres was seized by the Germans on 2 October 1870, and continued during the rest of the war to be an important centre of operations. With his driver, Griffith proceeded to the cathedral and, after searching it all the way up its bell tower, the order to destroy the cathedral was withdrawn. Colonel Griffith was killed in later on that day in the town of Lèves,3.5 kilometres north of Chartres. For his heroic action both at Chartres and Lèves, Colonel Griffith received, posthumously, several decorations awarded by the President of the United States, 5th Infantry and 7th Armored Divisions belonging to the XX Corps of the U. S. Third Army commanded by General George S. Patton, Chartres is built on a hill on the left bank of the Eure River. Its renowned medieval cathedral is at the top of the hill, to the southeast stretches the fertile plain of Beauce, the granary of France, of which the town is the commercial centre. Chartres is best known for its cathedral, the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Chartres and its historical and cultural importance has been recognized by its inclusion on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. It was built on the site of the former Chartres cathedral of Romanesque architecture, begun in 1205, the construction of Notre-Dame de Chartres was completed 66 years later. The stained glass windows of the cathedral were financed by guilds of merchants and craftsmen and it is not known how the famous and unique blue, bleu de Chartres, of the glass was created, and it has been impossible to replicate it
Chartres
–
Chartres
Chartres
–
Cathedral of Chartres.
Chartres
–
The famous "Chartres blue".
Chartres
–
South elevation, lithography 1864
45.
Phenomenology of Perception
–
Phenomenology of Perception is a 1945 book by French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty, in which Merleau-Ponty expounds his thesis of the primacy of perception. The work established Merleau-Ponty as the pre-eminent philosopher of the body, the relationship between Phenomenology of Perception and Merleau-Pontys late, unfinished work has received much scholarly discussion. An English translation by Colin Smith was published in 1962, another English translation, Merleau-Ponty begins by attempting to define phenomenology, which according to him has not yet received a proper definition. Following the work of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty attempts to reveal the structure of perception. He writes that while the notion of sensation. seems immediate and obvious, Merleau-Ponty asserts that because traditional analyses have accepted it, they have missed the phenomenon of perception. He writes that, The alleged self-evidence of sensation is not based on any testimony of consciousness, Merleau-Pontys central thesis is that of the primacy of perception. He critiques of the Cartesian stance of cogito ergo sum and expounds a different conception of consciousness, the body is central to Merleau-Pontys account of perception. In his view, the ability to reflect comes from a ground that serves as the foundation for reflecting on actions. The body stands between this fundamental distinction between subject and object, ambiguously existing as both, Merleau-Ponty devotes a chapter to The Body in its Sexual Being, in which he suggests that the body can symbolize existence because it brings it into being and actualizes it. Phenomenology of Perception was an influential work, madison writes that the book was immediately and widely recognized as a major statement of French existentialism, and is best known for Merleau-Pontys central thesis of the primacy of perception. A. J. Ayer criticizes what he characterizes as Merleau-Pontys arguments against the sense datum theory of perception, finding them inconclusive, Ayer compares Merleau-Pontys views on sexual relations to those of Sartre in Being and Nothingness. Helmut R. Wagner describes Phenomenology of Perception as an important contribution to phenomenology, roger Scruton, writing in Sexual Desire, describes Merleau-Pontys chapter on The Body in its Sexual Being as surprisingly unhelpful. In a 1999 interview with the critic Louis Menand in The New Yorker, excerpts can be found at Google Books, Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The complete book is available at Archive. org
Phenomenology of Perception
–
Cover of the French edition
46.
Marxism
–
It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
Marxism
–
Karl Marx
Marxism
–
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist
V. Gordon Childe
47.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communism
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communism
Communism
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communism
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
48.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
49.
Consciousness
–
Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
Consciousness
–
Schema of the neural processes underlying consciousness, from
Christof Koch
Consciousness
–
Representation of consciousness from the seventeenth century
Consciousness
–
A Buddhist monk meditating
Quotations related to Maurice Merleau-Ponty at Wikiquote
