1.
Provinces of France
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The Kingdom of France was organized into provinces until March 4,1790, when the establishment of the department system superseded provinces. The provinces of France were roughly equivalent to the counties of England. In some cases, several regions or departments share names with the historic provinces. The list below shows the provinces of France at the time of their dissolution during the French Revolution. Capital cities are shown in parentheses, bold indicates a city that was also the seat of a judicial and quasi-legislative body called either a parlement or a conseil souverain. In some cases, this body met in a different city than the capital, comtat Venaissin, a Papal fief 36. Imperial Free City of Mulhouse 37, montbéliard, a fief of Württemberg Partial display of historical provincial arms, Ancien Régime in France Gallery of French coats of arms Coat of arms Heraldry
2.
Savoy
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Savoy is a cultural region in Western Europe. It comprises roughly the territory of the Western Alps between Lake Geneva in the north and Dauphiné in the south, the historical land of Savoy emerged as the feudal territory of the House of Savoy during the 11th to 14th centuries. The historical territory is shared between the countries of France, Italy, and Switzerland. Installed by Rudolph III, King of Burgundy, officially in 1003 and it ruled the County of Savoy to 1416 and then the Duchy of Savoy from 1416 to 1860. The territory of Savoy was annexed to France in 1792 under the French First Republic, victor Emmanuels dynasty, the House of Savoy, retained its Italian lands of Piedmont and Liguria and became the ruling dynasty of Italy. In modern France, Savoy is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, following its annexation to France in 1860, the territory of Savoy was divided administratively into two separate departments, Savoie and Haute-Savoie. The traditional capital remains Chambéry, on the rivers Leysse and Albane, hosting the castle of the House of Savoy, the capital of the Duchy remained at the traditional Savoyard capital of Chambéry until 1563, when it was moved to Turin. The region was occupied by the Allobroges, a Celtic people that in 121 BC were subdued by the Roman Empire, the name Savoy stems from the Late Latin Sapaudia, referring to a fir forest. It is first recorded in Ammianus Marcellinus, to describe the part of Maxima Sequanorum. According to the Gallic Chronicle of 452, it was separated from the rest of Burgundian territories in 443 and this latter territory comprised what would become known as Savoy and Provence. From the 10th to 14th century, parts of what would ultimately become Savoy remained within the Kingdom of Arles. Beginning in the 11th century, the rise to power of the House of Savoy is reflected in the increasing territory of their County of Savoy between 1003 and 1416. The County of Savoy was detached de jure from the Kingdom of Arles by Emperor Charles IV in 1361, on February 19,1416, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, made the County of Savoy an independent duchy, with Amadeus VIII as the first duke. Straddling the Alps, Savoy lay within two competing spheres of influence, a French sphere and a North Italian one, at the time of the Renaissance, Savoy showed only modest development. Its towns were few and small, Savoy derived its subsistence from agriculture. The geographic location of Savoy was also of military importance, during the interminable wars between France and Spain over the control of northern Italy, Savoy was important to France because it provided access to Italy. Savoy was important to Spain because it served as a buffer between France and the Spanish held lands in Italy, in 1563 Emmanuel Philibert moved the capital from Chambéry to Turin, which was less vulnerable to French interference. Vaud was annexed by Bern in 1536, and Savoy officially ceded Vaud to Bern in the Treaty of Lausanne of 30 October 1564
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne
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Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department and it lies in the Maurienne, the valley of the River Arc. It was also an Episcopal See of Savoy during the Ancien Régime and its original name was simply Maurienne, or Moriana in Italian and Latin. Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located at the confluence of the Arc, a river which has shaped the Maurienne Valley, the neighbouring communes of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne are Saint-Julien-Mont-Denis, Jarrier, Hermillon, Villargondran, Albiez-le-Jeune, Albiez-Montrond, Saint-Pancrace and Pontamafrey-Montpascal. The climate is the type because of the presence of the Alpine Massif. Route nationale 6 A43 autoroute Col de la Croix de Fer Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is located on the route of the future new Lyon-Turin rail link, homes, businesses, the SNCF railway station and the rescue centre are fully affected by this project. Responsible for the studies, the Lyon Turin Railway company foresees the installation of a new station in the Sous-le-Bourg quarter, serving the historic line. Geological and topographical investigations are underway and this project promises to be even more complex than that of the Channel Tunnel. The town of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne is equipped with a network of public transport run by the Communauté de communes Cœur de Maurienne, a heliport is available for the helicopter of the gendarmerie whose base is located in Modane. La Bastille, les Chaudannes and les Clapeys are the three main quarters, the total number of dwellings in the commune is 4,240. Among such housing,87. 9% are principal residences,5. 4% are secondary homes and 6. 7% are vacant dwellings. These accommodations have a share of 17. 5% as individual houses,79. 3% as apartments, the number of residents who own their homes is 37. 9%. This is lower than the average which adds up to nearly 55. 3%. The number of tenants is 56. 7% throughout the housing which is higher than the average of 39. 8%. It may be noted also that 5. 4% of the inhabitants of the commune are people who are housed for free while at the level of the whole of the France the percentage is 4. 9%. Still on all of the municipality housing,3. 5% are studios,11. 5% are two-room housing,28. 4% have three,34. 5% of dwellings have four rooms, and 22. 1% of dwellings have five rooms or more. Locality named after John the Baptist, the precursor, who was born in Ain-Karim, son of Zechariah and Saint Elizabeth, cousin of Jesus, Latin name, Mauriana Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne has been the capital of the Maurienne Valley since the 6th century. The oldest possessions of the Counts of Savoy were the counties of Maurienne, Savoy proper, the Duchy of Savoy, which had been a French-speaking province under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, was invaded by Revolutionary France, but restored to Piedmont in 1815
5.
Grande Casse
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The Grande Casse is the highest mountain of the Vanoise Massif in the Graian Alps in the region of Savoie, France. It is located in the heart of the Vanoise National Park, near the village of Pralognan-la-Vanoise and it has a steep 600 m high north face. The other sides of the mountain are gentle, mostly consisting of broken rocks. A high ridge connects it to the peak of Grande Motte. The ridge connecting the Grande Casse and the Grande Motte is the watershed between the Tarentaise Valley in the north and Maurienne valley to the south, despite its height it has a relatively easy normal route to the summit. Climbers usually start from the Les Grands Couloirs glacier and ascend the southwest side of the mountain, the north face is an extreme skiing destination. The first ascent was made by William Mathews along with guides Michel Croz, the north face was climbed on 6 August 1933 by the Italians Aldo Bonacossa and L. Binaghi. The Refuge Félix Faure, used for the route, is located at the Col de la Vanoise. This is an overview of the most common routes to the summit, Normal route, Les Grands couloirs, commonly climbed by skiers and climbers
6.
Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
7.
Glacial period
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A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago, the Holocene epoch is the current interglacial. A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state, within the Quaternary glaciation, there have been a number of glacials and interglacials. The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, occurring in the Pleistocene epoch, the glacial advance reached its maximum extent about 18,000 BP. In Europe, the ice sheet reached northern Germany, since orbital variations are predictable, computer models that relate orbital variations to climate can predict future climate possibilities. Work by Berger and Loutre suggests that the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years
8.
Arc (Savoie)
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The Arc is a 128-kilometre-long river in the Savoie département of south-eastern France. It is a tributary of the Isère River, which it joins at Chamousset. Its source is near the border with Italy, in the Graian Alps, the valley of the Arc, the Maurienne, is an important transport artery between France and Italy. List of rivers of France Géoportail, the Arc at the Sandre database
9.
Communes of France
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The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them
10.
Col de l'Iseran
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Col de lIseran is a mountain pass in France, the highest paved pass in the Alps. A part of the Graian Alps, it is situated in the department of Savoie, near the border with Italy, the pass is part of the Route des Grandes Alpes. It connects the valley of the Isère and the valley of the Arc River between Val-dIsère in the north and Bonneval-sur-Arc in the south, the north side of the pass road is well built with a number of galleries and tunnels, with a maximum grade of 12 percent. On the northern side are the ski resorts of Tignes. The pass is accessible by road during the summer months. In the winter it falls within the Espace Killy ski area and is accessed by a series of pistes. The Col is also accessible by mountain paths and is the highest point both of the Alpine GR5, a long-distance trail from Lake Geneva to Nice, and of the similar Grande Traversée des Alpes. The steep descent to the south, notable for its waterfalls, from the north the road goes up and down and through tunnels past the lake of Tignes. Starting from Bourg-Saint-Maurice, the climb to Col de lIseran is 48 km, over this distance, the road ascends 1,955 m, at an average grade of 4. 1%. The last 15 km starts at Val-dIsère and climbs 895 m at a consistent average of 6%, from the south, the climb starts at Lanslebourg-Mont Cenis and is 32.9 km in length, ascending 1,371 m at an average grade of 4. 2%. The final 13.4 km starts at Bonneval-sur-Arc and rises 977 m at a gradient of 7. 3%. On both sides of the Col de lIseran mountain pass cycling milestones mark the distance to the summit, the current altitude, the Col dIseran was first used in the Tour de France bicycle race in 1938. The first rider over the summit was Felicien Vervaecke but on the descent he was passed by Gino Bartali, Bartali had taken the leaders yellow jersey from Vervaecke the previous day and retained it to the finish in Paris. The first mountain time trial was introduced to the Tour in 1939 and it went over the Col dIseran from Bonneval-sur-Arc to Bourg-Saint-Maurice and was won by Sylvere Maes by four minutes. The pass has been used five times on the Tour de France since 1947 and it was scheduled to be used in 1996 but was left out at the last minute due to bad weather. As a result of snow on both the Col de lIseran and the Col du Galibier the scheduled 190 km stage from Val-dIsère to Sestriere in Italy was truncated to a 46 km sprint from Le-Monetier-les-Bains. Bjarne Riis claimed the sprint, resulting in him taking the jersey which he retained to the finish in Paris. Col de lIseran was most recently crossed in 2007 in stage 9, profile from Bonneval sur Arc - Elevation profile, Photos, Map, Route description Col de lIseran on Google Maps
11.
Cottian Alps
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The Cottian Alps, are a mountain range in the southwestern part of the Alps. They form the border between France and Italy, the Fréjus Road Tunnel and Fréjus Rail Tunnel between Modane and Susa are important transportation arteries between France and Italy. The name Cottian comes from Marcus Julius Cottius, a king of the tribes inhabiting that region in the 1st century BC. These tribes had opposed but later made peace with Julius Caesar. Cottius was succeeded by his son, also named Marcus Julius Cottius, on his death, Nero annexed his kingdom as the province of Alpes Cottiae. The Dauphins also held, in addition to the slopes of the range. The Alpine territory of Dauphiné, known as Escartons, used to have a limited autonomy, after the treaty annexing Nice and Savoy to France, signed in Turin in March 1860, the north-western slopes of the range became part of the French republic. Administratively the range is divided between the Italian provinces of Cuneo and Turin and the French departments of Savoie, Hautes-Alpes, and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. The Cottian Alps are drained by the rivers Durance and Arc and their tributaries on the French side, and by the Dora Riparia and other tributaries of the Po on the Italian side
12.
Graian Alps
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The Graian Alps are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. The name Graie comes from the Graioceli Celtic tribe, which dwelled in the surrounding the Mont Cenis pass. Other sources claim that the name comes from the Celtic Graig meaning rock/stone, literally the Rocky Mountains The Graian Alps are located in France, Italy, the French side of the Graian Alps is drained by the river Isère and its tributary Arc, and by the Arve. The Italian side is drained by the rivers Dora Baltea, Orco and Stura di Lanzo, the Graian Alps can also be divided into the following four groups, the Mont Blanc group the Central group the Western or French group, and the Eastern or Italian group. The main peaks of the Graian Alps are, The main passes of the Graian Alps are shown in the table below. The group in which the pass is located is indicated with MB for Mont Blanc group, C for Central group, E for Eastern group, and W for Western group. The western group contains the Vanoise National Park, established in 1972 and covering 1250 km², the group contains the Gran Paradiso National Park. Also on the Italian side is located the Parco Regionale del Monte Avic, ascents in Gran Paradiso group - Czech and English Graian Alps on Summitpost - English
13.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
14.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
15.
A43 autoroute
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The A43 autoroute, also known as lautoroute de la Maurienne, is a motorway in France. Travelling through the French Alps, the road connects the city of Lyon with the Tunnel du Fréjus, near Modane, the autoroute opened in phases as it was constructed between the years 1973 and 1998. 1974, Opening of the section between Bourgoin-Jallieu and Chambéry,1990, Widening of the road to 2x3 lanes between Saint-Quentin-Fallavier and junction with the A48. 1991, Opening of the LEpine Tunnel,1991, Opening of section between Montmélian to Aiton. The section previously numbered A41 between Chambéry and Montmélian was re-numbered the A43,1996, Opening of section between Aiton to Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. 1998, Opening of section between Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne to Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne,2000, Opening of section between Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne to Freney, and the incorporation of the N566 approach to the Fréjus Tunnel. Lyon-Avenue Jean Mermoz Autoroute commences in Lyon City Centre,30 Towns served, Le Freney-Modane 31 Towns served, Valfréjus Péage Toll booths for the Tunnel du Fréjus Road enters tunnel re-emerging as the Autostrada A32 in Italy towards Turin
16.
Modane
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Modane is a commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France. The commune is in the Maurienne Valley, and it belongs to the Vanoise National Park. It was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia until the Treaty of Turin in 1860, the commune of Modane is located in the Alps in the department of Savoie between the Vanoise massif to the north and between the Massif du Mont-Cenis and the Massif des Cerces to the south. Crossed by the Arc river, it extends to the doors of the Haute-Maurienne, the issue of the attachment or not of Modane in the Maurienne Valley or Haute-Maurienne differs depending on the disciplines of economics, geography or geology. However, for the majority of analysts, Modane is a commune attached to the middle part of this valley. With an area of 7,104 acres, the commune extends along a north-south axis on both sides of the valley, to the north, Modane is bounded by the Roc des Saints Pères, and the Aiguille de Péclet and the Dôme de Polset. The Modane territory extends in a particular form, indeed, a relatively short east-west width on the north side of the valley, is much larger on the south side. From north to south, the municipality extends however over a length of around 15 kilometres and these peaks, however, leave easy passages, particularly frequented during summer by hiking tourists, either to the Tarentaise Valley or to Italy. In addition, some ski resorts located within walking distance of the town, among which are Aussois, La Norma. The commune of Modane is bordered by nine communes in France. To the west, Modane mainly borders Saint-André and Fourneaux, but also to the south-west, Freney, Orelle, to the north, in the Vanoise National Park, the bordering communes are Saint-Martin-de-Belleville to the north-west, with Les Allues and Pralognan-la-Vanoise to the north-east. To the east lies Villarodin-Bourget, with Avrieux to the south-east, the commune is at the French end of the Fréjus Road Tunnel, one of the major transalpine road crossings along with the Mont Blanc Tunnel, linking France and Italy. Out of the tunnel, the A43 autoroute begins and which leads to Chambéry and Lyon, in addition, the D1006, an important route coming from Chambéry, also passes through Modane before continuing up to the Col du Mont-Cenis and the Italian border. The road is also the axis of the commune, which it crosses through the full length of the centre. However, it has several names including, from west to east, Avenue de la Liberté, Rue de la République, Avenue Jean Jaurès. There is therefore an electrical disconnection and signaling changes upstream, the railway line serving Modane is the Maurienne line, or its official name the ligne de Culoz à Modane. It marks the territory of the commune of Modane looping 180° between its exit from the station and its entry into the Fréjus tunnel, Rue de Chavière, A survivor street of the misfortunes of the city where you can still notice some houses with half-engaged spiral staircases. The Le Paquier quarter, The last historic quarter of the composed of traditional houses grouped around the parish church
17.
Bardonecchia
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Bardonecchia is an Italian town and comune located in the Metropolitan City of Turin, in the Piedmont region, in the western part of Susa Valley. It grew out of a village with the works for the railway Frejus tunnel. The town hosted the events of the 2006 Winter Olympics. The town, which is located about 90 km from Turin at the intersection of four valleys, is surrounded by mountains, the historic center is set back and elevated, while the new part of town was built around the train station. Bardonecchia is at one end of both the Fréjus Road Tunnel and the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, part of a TGV Paris to Milan connection. The municipality of Bardonecchia contains the frazioni Les Arnauds, Melezet, Millaures, Le Gleise, Beaulard, Grange Horres, La Rho, Bardonecchia borders the following municipalities, Avrieux, Bramans, Exilles, Modane, Névache, Oulx. Bardonecchia is the westernmost comune in Italy, sportroccia - first international rock climbing competition 2006 Winter Olympics official report. Official site of the town Unofficial site Photos Weather Bardonecchia This article contains information from the French, Italian, and German Wikipedias
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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Col du Mont-Cenis
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Mont Cenis is a massif and pass in Savoie, which forms the limit between the Cottian and Graian Alps. The pass connects Val-Cenis in France in the northwest with Susa in Italy in the southeast, in the Middle Ages, pilgrims passing through Moncenisio and Susa Valley came to Turin along a road called Via Francigena, with final destination Rome. It was one of the most used Alpine pass in from the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century. The pass was part of the border between the two countries from the annexion of Savoy to the third French Empire in 1861 until 1947 Treaty of Paris, the treaty allowed Savoy to retrieve its historical and political boundaries. A road over the pass was built between 1803 and 1810 by Napoleon, the Mont Cenis Pass Railway was opened alongside the road in 1868, but was dismantled in 1871, on the opening of the Fréjus Rail Tunnel. It was the first ever railway based on the Fell mountain railway system and was worked by English engine-drivers, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel acquired the alternative, and geographically incorrect, name of Mont Cenis Tunnel because the traffic which formerly used the Mont Cenis Pass was transferred to it. This tunnel is really 27.4 km 17 miles west of the pass, from Chambéry the line runs up the Isère valley, but soon bears through that of the Arc or the Maurienne past Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne to Modane. The tunnel is 13 km in length, and leads to Bardonecchia, some way below which, thence the valley of the Dora Riparia is followed to Turin. The carriage road mounts the Arc valley for 25.7 km /16 mi from Modane to Lanslebourg, whence it is 12.9 km /8 mi to the hospice, the descent lies through the Cenis valley to Susa where the road joins the railway. To the southwest of the Mont Cenis is the Little Mont Cenis which leads from the plateau of the main pass to the Etache valley on the French slope. This pass was crossed in 1689 by the Vaudois, and is believed by some authors to have been Hannibals Pass, the term Mont Cenis could derive from mont des cendres. According to tradition, following a forest fire, a quantity of ashes accumulated on the ground. The path of ashes was found during the work of the route. Being a pass in the Alps, the Mont Cenis was used in several incidents in history. One example is the descent of Constantine I to Italy, to fight against Maxentius and it was the principal route for crossing the Alps between France and Italy until the 19th century. It was also used as the passage by which Charlemagne crossed with his army to invade Lombardy in 773. When the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont ceded Savoy to France, in 1860, the Mont Cenis became a frontier pass and it was therefore highly fortified as a protection against an invasion of the Val di Susa route towards Turin. In 1874-1880 the Italian Regio Esercito built three forts, Fort Cassa, Fort Varisello and Fort Roncia, supported by several batteries and fortifications
20.
Col du Galibier
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Col du Galibier is a mountain pass in the southern region of the French Dauphiné Alps near Grenoble. It is the ninth highest paved road in the Alps and the sixth highest mountain pass and it is often the highest point of the Tour de France. It connects Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne and Briançon via the col du Télégraphe and the Col du Lautaret, the pass is closed during the winter. It is located between the massif dArvan-Villards and the massif des Cerces, taking its name from the chain of mountains known as the Galibier. Before 1976, the tunnel was the point of passage at the top. The tunnel was closed for restoration until 2002, and a new road was constructed over the summit, the re-opened tunnel is a single lane controlled by traffic lights, which are among the highest such installations in Europe. In 1876 first passable road could be opened between Maurienne and Briançonnais respectively Oisans, in the north passroad begins in Valloire, this place is only reachable via Col du Télégraphe which is before Galibier and connects Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne with Valloire. In the south the road beginns at a level of 2,057 m Col du Lautaret, highest point of this road was at an altitude of 2,658 m,16 meters higher than nowadays. Road between Col du Lautaret is 24,5 kilometers long,16 kilometers is the part,8,5 kilometers is the south part. Road over Galibier was first a road and later asphalted. In the area of the summit it was hard to travel and this was the reason why in 1890 a crest tunnel was built, which was opened in 1891. The tube is four meters broad, a track which can be passed only alternately. The new tunnel is at an altitude of 2556 meters, this is the reason why the highest ponit is now 102 meters lower, new build tunnel shortens the distance to 23 kilometers. 15 kilometers is the part,7,5 Kilometer is the south part and 0,5 kilometers is the crest tunnel. From the north, starting at Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne, the climb is 34.8 kilometres long, gaining 2,120 metres in height, the actual climb to the summit starts at Valloire and is 18.1 kilometres long at an average of 6. 9%. The maximum gradient is 10. 1% at the summit, from the south, the climb starts from the Col du Lautaret and is 8.5 kilometres long at an average gradient of 6. 9% with a maximum of 12. 1% at the summit. On both sides of the Col du Galibier mountain pass cycling milestone are placed every kilometre and they indicate the distance to the summit, the current height, and the average slope in the following kilometre. Such signposting for cyclists has become common in most major mountain passes in the French Pyrenees and Alps
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Col du Lautaret
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Col du Lautaret is a high mountain pass in the department of Hautes-Alpes in France. It marks the boundary between the valleys of the Romanche and the Guisane, a tributary of the Durance which has its source at the col, the valleys are linked by national route 91. The Lautaret is one of the lowest points on the line which separates the north and south geographic areas of the French Alps. The Col has long used as a communication route between Grenoble and Briançon, and indeed for reaching Italy across the Alps. The Col is open all year round and provides views of La Meije to the south-west. It is also known for its botanical garden. The route to the side of the Col du Galibier leaves from the Lautaret. The eastern approach commences at Briançon, from there is 27.7 km to the summit, gaining 853 m in altitude, at an average gradient of 3. 1%. The Tour de France first crossed over the Col du Lautaret in 1911, since 1947, the passages which have been categorized have been, Col du Lautaret on Google Maps
22.
Grenoble
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Grenoble is a city in southeastern France, at the foot of the French Alps where the river Drac joins the Isère. Located in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, Grenoble is the capital of the department of Isère, the city advertises itself as the Capital of the Alps, due to its size and its proximity to the mountains. Grenobles history goes back more than 2,000 years, to a time when it was a small Gallic village, industrial development increased the prominence of Grenoble, through several periods of economic expansion over the last three centuries. The city has grown to be one of Europes most important research, technology, the population of the city of Grenoble was 160,215 at the 2013 census, while the population of the Grenoble metropolitan area was 664,832. The residents of the city are called Grenoblois, the many communes that make up the metropolitan area include three suburbs with populations exceeding 20,000, Saint-Martin-dHères, Échirolles, and Fontaine. For the ecclesiastical history, see Bishopric of Grenoble, the first references to Grenoble date back to 43 BC. Cularo was at time a little Gallic village founded by the Allobroges tribe near a bridge across the Isère River. Three centuries later and with insecurity rising in the late Roman empire, the Emperor Gratian visited Cularo and, touched by the peoples welcome, made the village a Roman city. In honour of this, Cularo was renamed Gratianopolis in 381, Christianity spread to the region during the 4th century, and the diocese of Grenoble was founded in 377 AD. From that time on, the bishops exercised significant political power over the city, until the French Revolution, they styled themselves the bishops and princes of Grenoble. Arletian rule was interrupted between 942 and 970 due to Arabic rule based in Fraxinet, Grenoble grew significantly in the 11th century when the Counts of Albon chose the city as the capital of their territories. At the time, their possessions were a patchwork of several territories sprawled across the region, the central position of Grenoble allowed the Counts to strengthen their authority. When they later took the title of Dauphins, Grenoble became the capital of the State of Dauphiné, despite their status, the Counts had to share authority over the city with the Bishop of Grenoble. One of the most famous of those was Saint Hugh, under his rule, the citys bridge was rebuilt, and both a regular hospital and a leper one were built. The inhabitants of Grenoble took advantage of the conflicts between the Counts and the bishops and obtained the recognition of a Charter of Customs that guaranteed their rights and that charter was confirmed by Kings Louis XI in 1447 and Francis I in 1541. In 1336 the last Dauphin Humbert II founded a court of justice, the Conseil delphinal and he also established the University of Grenoble in 1339. Aging and heirless, Humbert sold his state to France in 1349, the first one, the future Charles V, spent nine months in Grenoble. The city remained the capital of the Dauphiné, henceforth a province of France, the only Dauphin who really governed his province was Louis XI, whose reign lasted from 1447 to 1456
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Col du Glandon
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Col du Glandon is a high mountain pass in the Dauphiné Alps in Savoie, France, linking Le Bourg-dOisans to La Chambre. It is situated between the Belledonne, Grandes Rousses and Arvan-Villards mountain ranges, west of the Col de la Croix de Fer, the road over the Col du Glandon was opened in 1898, although it was not linked to the Col de la Croix de Fer until 1912. The pass is closed from the beginning of November to mid May. It is sometimes used by the Tour de France cycle race, from La Chambre the climb follows the D927. The ascent is 21.3 km long, climbing 1,472 m at a gradient of 6. 9%. The gradient increases as the approaches the summit, with the last two kilometres exceeding 10% with stretches at 12%. From Le Bourg-dOisans the route follows the D1091 through the Romanche valley before joining the D526 after 8 km. The climb starts at the Barrage du Verney from where there is a further 24.1 km to the summit, which is reached shortly after the junction with the route to Col de la Croix de Fer. Over this distance, the height gained is 1,152 m, the gradient is thus 4. 8%, although there are some downhill sections en route. In the climb from La Chambre mountain pass cycling milestones are placed every kilometre and they indicate the distance to the summit, the current height, and the average slope in the following kilometre. Such signposting for cyclists has become common in most major mountain passes in the French Pyrenees, the Col du Glandon was first crossed in the Tour de France in 1947 in conjunction with the Col de la Croix de Fer when the first rider over the summit was Edward Klabiński. The pass is used in conjunction with the Col de la Croix de Fer when it is not categorized for the King of the Mountains competition
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Col de la Madeleine
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Col de la Madeleine is a high mountain pass in the Alps in the department of Savoie in France which connects La Chambre in Maurienne with La Léchère in Tarentaise. The pass is closed from November to the beginning of June and it has been described as beautiful, but heartbreaking. The southern approach from La Chambre is 19.05 km. long, gaining 1,522 m. at a gradient of 8%. Alternatively, the route via the D76 is 19.8 km. long, climbing 1,520 m. at an average of 7. 7%, the northern approach can be accessed via Feissons-sur-Isère. From Feissons-sur-Isère, the climb is 25.3 km. long, gaining 1,585 m. at a gradient of 6. 2%. For the 2012 Tour de France, the height at the summit is shown as 2,000 m. whereas in years it has been shown as 1,993 m. From Aigueblanche, the climb is 28.28 km. long, climbing 1,533 m. at an average of 5. 4%, on both sides of the Col de la Madeleine mountain pass cycling milestones are placed every kilometre. They indicate the distance to the summit, the current height, such signposting for cyclists has become common in most major mountain passes in the French Pyrenees and Alps. The pass was first included in the Tour de France in 1969 and has since featured 24 times and it has been ranked hors catégorie, every year since 1995. List of highest paved roads in Europe List of mountain passes Col de la Madeleine, description, profiles and pictures Col de la Madeleine on Google Maps
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Col du Grand Cucheron
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Col du Grand Cucheron, at an elevation of 1,188 metres, is a mountain pass in the Alps in the department of Savoie in France. The pass crosses the end of the Belledonne massif, connecting the Maurienne. The climb to the col was used on Stage 12 of the 2012 Tour de France, from Les Granges the ascent is 4.01 kilometres long. Over this distance, the changes by 314 metres at an average gradient of 7.8 percent. From La Corbière, the climb is 11.61 kilometres long, gaining 805 metres at an average of 6.9 percent and this will be the direction from which the col is climbed in the 2012 Tour de France. The climb can also be accessed from Aiguebelle from where the route is 16.3 kilometres at an average of 5.3 percent and this route connects with that from La Corbière just after passing through Saint-Georges-des-Hurtières. The pass was first included in the Tour de France in 1972 and has featured three times, most recently in 1998. It is generally ranked as a Category 2 climb and it was crossed on Stage 12 of the 2012 tour, between Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne and Annonay-Davézieux, approaching from the direction of Saint-Pierre-de-Belleville. Col du Grand Cucheron cycling challenge Col du Grand Cucheron on Google Maps
26.
Ski resort
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A ski resort is a resort developed for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter sports. In Europe, most ski resorts are towns or villages in or adjacent to a ski area – a mountainous area with pistes, ski trails, the ski industry has identified advancing generations of ski resorts, First generation Developed around a well-established summer resort or village. Second generation Created from a non-tourist village or pasture, third generation or integrated Designed from scratch on virgin territory to be a purpose-built ski resort, all the amenities and services nearby. Fourth generation or village resorts Created from virgin territory or around an existing village, the term ski station is also used, particularly in Europe, for a skiing facility which is not located in or near a town or village. A ski resort which is open for summer activities is often referred to as a mountain resort. Ski areas have marked paths for skiing known as runs, trails or pistes, Ski areas typically have one or more chairlifts for moving skiers rapidly to the top of hills, and to interconnect the various trails. Rope tows can also be used on short slopes, larger ski areas may use gondolas or aerial trams for transportation across longer distances within the ski area. Ski areas usually have at least a basic first aid facility, the ski patrol is usually responsible for rule enforcement, marking hazards, closing individual runs, and removing dangerous participants from the area. Some ski resorts offer lodging options on the slopes themselves, with ski-in, après-ski is a term for entertainment, nightlife or social events that occur specifically at ski resorts. These add to the enjoyment of resort-goers and provide something to do besides skiing and snowboarding, the culture originated in the Alps, where it is most popular and where skiers often stop at bars on their last run of the day while still wearing all their ski gear. People that browse ski resort & hotel websites will commonly seek mention of the quality of après-ski in the area and it is therefore seen as an important factor for skiers to consider before booking a holiday. The concept is similar to the hole in golf. The process of development have progressed since the birth of the skiing industry. Amenities and infrastructure such as buildings, ski-lifts, gondolas, access roads, parking lots. In recent years, the use of snow cannons have increased due to the fall in the volume of snow, in order to obtain good quality snow, dust or bacteria is mixed with the water in the process of snow making to form better snowflakes. Not only that the manufacture of artificial snow is costly and uses large amounts of water, snow cannons redistributes a large amount of water unnaturally over the land and freezes the ground vegetation late into spring, preventing growth and leaving pistes bare. With enough amount of water, and the likelihood of landslides and avalanches would be drastically higher. The required space for hotels, flats and secondary residences has increased the amount of space occupied by roads, while a large amount of people requires special water, sewage and electricity systems, a great deal of construction work is needed
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Vanoise National Park
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Vanoise National Park, is a French national park between the Tarentaise and Maurienne valleys in the French Alps, containing the Vanoise massif. It was created in 1963, and is the first French national park, the Vanoise National Park is in the département of Savoie. Small villages like Champagny-le-Haut, Termignon, La Chiserette, Bramans, Sollières-Sardières, Friburge, Pralognan-la-Vanoise and Séez, the park is bordered by several large French ski resorts. On the Italian side of the border, the park is continued by the Gran Paradiso National Park, together, these two parks cover over 1250 km², making the area the largest alpine national park. The park is known for its population of Alpine ibex, bouquetin in French. The alpine chamois, like the ibex, spend most of the year above the tree line and they descend the snow line in early spring and late fall to enjoy the grass uncovered by the ice and snow. Alpine marmot, wolf, Eurasian lynx, mountain hare, Eurasian badger, ermine, there are more than 100 bird species in the protected area. Birds of prey include bearded vulture, golden eagle and Eurasian eagle-owl, other birds found in the park are black woodpeckers, rock ptarmigans, Alpine accentors, nutcrackers, choughs and black grouses. The wallcreeper is found on steep cliffs especially for nesting, Vanoise Massif Official website of the Vanoise National Park
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Paleolithic
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It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BP. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date of the Paleolithic–Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years. During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, the Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers, however, due to their nature, surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths. About 50,000 years ago, there was a increase in the diversity of artifacts. For the first time in Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record, the first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. Humankind gradually evolved from members of the genus Homo—such as Homo habilis. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures, by c. 50,000 – c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61°N latitude in Europe, by c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia, the term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek, παλαιός, palaios, old, and λίθος, lithos, stone, human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of anatomically modern humans as a distinct species. The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time and this epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africas collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean, climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic. Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch, the global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas
29.
Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Conrad II, also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 until his death in 1039. The founder of the Salian dynasty of emperors, Conrad also served as King of Germany from 1024, King of Italy from 1026, and King of Burgundy from 1033. The son of a nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace, he inherited the titles of count of Speyer. Conrad extended his power beyond his inherited lands, receiving the favor of the princes of the Kingdom of Germany. When the Saxon-based Ottonian dynasty of emperors died off with the childless Emperor Henry II, Conrad founded his own dynasty of rulers, known as the Salian dynasty, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for over a century. Conrad continued the policies and achievements of the Ottonian Henry II regarding the Catholic Church, Conrad continued to build the Church as a center for imperial power, preferring to appoint church bishops over secular lords to important posts across the Empire. Like Henry II before him, Conrad also continued a policy of neglect over Italy, especially for the city of Rome. His reign marked a point of the medieval imperial rule. Following the death of the childless King Rudolph III of Burgundy in 1032, Conrad claimed dominion over the Kingdom of Arles, the three kingdoms formed the basis of the Empire as the royal triad. The Salian dynasty has its origins with Count Werner V of Worms and his son, Conrad the Red, succeeded him as Count in 941 and King Otto I of Germany appointed him as Duke of Lorraine in 944. He was subsequently married to Liutgarde, one of Ottos daughters, in 947, the relationship was strained, however, when Otto refused to honor a peace treaty Conrad, as Ottos representative, had conducted with the rebellious Berengar II of Italy. Conrad also resented the influence of Ottos brother Henry I of Bavaria. In 953 Conrad joined the kings son Liudolf in rebellion against Otto, Conrad and Otto were soon reconciled, with Conrad fighting for Otto in the great Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Though the Germans were successful in halting the Hungarian invasions of Europe, Conrad was succeeded as Count of Worms in 956 by his son Otto of Worms, a grandson of Otto I. Sometime between 965 and 970 Otto of Worms oldest son, Henry of Speyer, was born, little is known of his life as he died the age of 20 between 985 and 990. Conrad IIs father was Henry of Speyer, and his mother was Adelaide of Alsace, after Henrys death, Adelaide married a Frankish nobleman. After her remarriage, Adelaide demonstrated no close relationship with her son, in 978 Emperor Otto II appointed his nephew Otto of Worms as Duke of Carinthia after deposing the rebellious Duke Henry I of Carinthia during the War of the Three Henries. Upon receiving the title, however, Otto lost his position at Worms
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Salian dynasty
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The Salian dynasty, was a dynasty in the High Middle Ages. He was elected German King in 1024 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 26 March 1027. The four Salian kings of the dynasty—Conrad II, Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V—ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 to 1125 and they achieved the development of a permanent administrative system based on a class of public officials answerable to the crown. Werner of Worms and his son Duke Conrad the Red of Lorraine, Conrad the Red married Liutgarde, a daughter of Emperor Otto I. Their son Otto I, Duke of Carinthia ruled Carinthia from 978 to 1004, Duke Otto had three sons, Bruno, who became Pope Gregory V, Conrad, and Henry, count of Speyer. Henry was the father of the first Salian Emperor Conrad II, Pope Leo IX also had family ties to the dynasty, since his grandfather Hugo III was the brother of Adelheid, the grandmother of Henry III. After the death of the last Saxon Emperor Henry II the first Salian regent Conrad II was elected by the majority of the Prince-electors and was crowned German king in Mainz on 8 September 1024. Early in 1026 Conrad went to Milan, where Ariberto, archbishop of Milan, when Rudolph III, King of Burgundy died 1032, Conrad II also claimed this kingship on the basis of an inheritance Henry II had extorted from the former in 1006. Despite some opposition, the Burgundian and Provençal nobles paid homage to Conrad in Zürich in 1034 and this Kingdom of Burgundy would become known as the Kingdom of Arles under Conrads successors. Already in 1028 Conrad II had his son Henry III elected and anointed king of Germany, henrys tenure led to an overstatement of previously unknown sacral kingship. So during this reign Speyer Cathedral was expanded to be the largest church in Western Christendom, henrys conception of a legitimate power of royal disposition in the duchies was successful against the dukes, and thus secured royal control. However, in Lorraine, this led to years of conflict, but also in southern Germany a powerful opposition group was formed in the years 1052–1055. 1046 Henry ended the schism, freed the Papacy from dependence on the Roman nobility. His early death in 1056 was long regarded as a disaster for the Empire, the early Salians owed much of their success to their alliance with the Church, a policy begun by Otto I, which gave them the material support they needed to subdue rebellious dukes. In time, however, the Church came to regret this close relationship, the pope also attacked the concept of monarchy by divine right and gained the support of significant elements of the German nobility interested in limiting imperial absolutism. More important, the pope forbade ecclesiastical officials under pain of excommunication to support Henry as they had so freely done in the past, in the end, Henry IV journeyed to Canossa in northern Italy in 1077 to do penance and to receive absolution from the pope. However, he resumed the practice of lay investiture and arranged the election of an antipope in 1080, the monarchs struggle with the papacy resulted in a war that ravaged through the Holy Roman Empire from 1077 until the Concordat of Worms in 1122. The reign of the last ruler of the Salian dynasty Henry V coincided with the phase of the great Investiture Controversy
31.
Aribert (archbishop of Milan)
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Aribert was the archbishop of Milan from 1018, a quarrelsome warrior-bishop in an age in which such figures were not uncommon. Aribert went to Konstanz in June 1025, with bishops of Northern Italy, to pay homage to Conrad II of Germany. There, in exchange for privileges, he agreed to crown Conrad with the Iron Crown of Lombardy and this he did, on 26 March 1026, at Milan, for the traditional seat of Lombard coronations, Pavia, was still in revolt against imperial authority. He subsequently joined a military expedition into the Kingdom of Arles, which Conrad inherited upon the death in 1032 of Rudolph III of Burgundy. A revolt soon engulfed northern Italy and, at Ariberts request, Conrads son and his consequent arrest provoked the rebellion of the anti-Imperial faction of the Milanese, seen by 19th-century historians as fiercely patriotic. Aribert had soon escaped his imprisonment and was leading the revolt from Milan, the Emperor took the step of deposing the fighting archbishop, and Johns successor Pope Benedict IX excommunicated Aribert in March 1038. That year, he held up the carroccio as the symbol of Milan, Aribert ended his episcopacy in relative peace, having agreed to cease hostilities with Henry, at Ingelheim in 1040. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
32.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire
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Kingdom of Sardinia
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The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the state of todays Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, however, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia and its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia, in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire, in 1720 it was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. While in theory the traditional capital of the island of Sardinia and seat of its viceroys was Cagliari, the Congress of Vienna, which restructured Europe after Napoleons defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. In 1847–48, in a fusion, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system, with the capital in Turin, and granted a constitution. There followed the annexation of Lombardy, the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies, Venetia, in 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century, when it was occupied by the Vandals, in 534 AD it was reconquered by the Romans, but now from the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, after that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa harassed the population of the coastal cities, information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, the Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicatus with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, free cities of the Holy Roman Empire. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the republics of Pisa. Even the title of Judices was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, of these sovereigns only two names are known, Turcoturiu and Salusiu, who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the first documents of the Judex of Cagliari, their successor, was written in romance Sardinian language. The realm was divided into four kingdoms, the Judicati, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Pope. That was the cause of leading to a long war between the Judices, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles
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