1.
Kukulcan
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Kukulkan is the name of a Maya snake deity that also serves to designate historical persons. The depiction of the Feathered Serpent is present in cultures of Mesoamerica. Kukulkan is closely related to the deity Ququmatz of the Kiche people, little is known of the mythology of this Pre-Columbian era deity. The cult of Kukulkan/Quetzalcoatl was the first Mesoamerican religion to transcend the old Classic Period linguistic and ethnic divisions and this cult facilitated communication and peaceful trade among peoples of many different social and ethnic backgrounds. Although the cult was centred on the ancient city of Chichen Itza in the modern Mexican state of Yucatán. In Yucatán, references to the deity Kukulkan are confused by references to an individual who bore the name of the god. Because of this, the distinction between the two has become blurred and this individual appears to have been a ruler or priest at Chichen Itza who first appeared around the 10th century. At Chichen Itza, Kukulkan is also depicted presiding over sacrifice scenes, sizeable temples to Kukulkan are found at archaeological sites throughout the north of the Yucatán Peninsula, such as Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mayapan. In the Yucatec Maya language, the name is spelt Kukulkan, the Yucatec form of the name is formed from the word kuk feather with the adjectival suffix -ul, giving kukul feathered, combined with can snake, giving a literal meaning of feathered snake. Kukulkan was a deity associated with the Itza state in the northern Yucatán Peninsula. Although the cult of Kukulkan had its origins in earlier Maya traditions and this influence probably arrived via Putún Maya merchants from the Gulf Coast of Mexico. These Chontal merchants probably actively promoted the feathered serpent cult throughout Mesoamerica, Kukulkan headed a pantheon of deities of mixed Maya and non-Maya provenance, used to promote the Itza political and commercial agenda. It also eased the passage of Itza merchants into central Mexico and other non-Maya areas, at Chichen Itza, Kukulkan ceased to be the Vision Serpent that served as a messenger between the king and the gods and came instead to symbolise the divinity of the state. El Castillo, Chichen Itza served as a temple to Kukulkan, after the fall of Chichen Itza, the nearby Postclassic city of Mayapan became the centre of the revived Kukulkan cult, with temples decorated with feathered serpent columns. At the time of the Spanish colonization, the high priest of Kukulkan was the patriarch of the Xiu faction and was one of the two most powerful men in the city. The cult of Kukulkan spread as far as the Guatemalan Highlands, stories are still told about Kukulkan among the modern Yucatec Maya. In one tale, Kukulkan is a boy who was born as a snake, as he grew older it became obvious that he was the plumed serpent and his sister cared for him in a cave. He grew to such a size that his sister was unable to continue feeding him, so he flew out of his cave and into the sea, to let his sister know that he is still alive, Kukulkan causes earth tremors every year in July
2.
Tecoh Municipality
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Tecoh Municipality is one of 106 municipalities in Yucatán State, Mexico. Located 40 km south-east of Mérida, Yucatán and it has a municipal capital of the same name. As of 2003, the city Tecoh had a population of about 8,500 people, most of the population is Maya. A number of buildings in the town were built atop older Pre-Columbian foundations, Tecoh means Place of the Puma in the Yucatec Maya language, which is still widely spoken here. Most of the farms in Tecoh are used to grow henequen, sugar, corn, Hacienda Itzincab Cámara Hacienda Oxtapacab Hacienda Sotuta de Peón Hacienda Xcanchakán The archaeological site of Mayapan
3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
4.
Maya civilization
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The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture, the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC, in the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful, the Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the divine king, kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, the Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, there are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a complex series of interlocking ritual calendars. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice, the Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide, the Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems
5.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
6.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
7.
Chichen Itza
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Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archaeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic through the Terminal Classic and into the early portion of the Postclassic period. The site exhibits a multitude of styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc. Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, the ruins of Chichen Itza are federal property, and the sites stewardship is maintained by Mexicos Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico, an estimated 1.4 million tourists visit the ruins every year. The Maya name Chichen Itza means At the mouth of the well of the Itza and this derives from chi, meaning mouth or edge, and chen or cheen, meaning well. Itzá is the name of an group that gained political. One possible translation for Itza is enchanter of the water, from its, sorcerer, the name is spelled Chichén Itzá in Spanish, and the accents are sometimes maintained in other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllable. Other references prefer the Maya orthography, Chichen Itza and this form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch and ch, since the base word cheen begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant. The word Itza has a high tone on the a followed by a glottal stop, evidence in the Chilam Balam books indicates another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is debate as to the correct translation of the rest. This earlier name is difficult to define because of the absence of a standard of orthography. This name, dating to the Late Classic Period, is recorded both in the book of Chilam Balam de Chumayel and in texts in the ruins. Chichen Itza is located in the portion of Yucatán state in Mexico. The northern Yucatán Peninsula is arid, and the rivers in the interior all run underground, there are two large, natural sink holes, called cenotes, that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. Of the two cenotes, the Cenote Sagrado or Sacred Cenote, is the most famous, according to post-Conquest sources, pre-Columbian Maya sacrificed objects and human beings into the cenote as a form of worship to the Maya rain god Chaac. Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Cenote Sagrado from 1904 to 1910, a study of human remains taken from the Cenote Sagrado found that they had wounds consistent with human sacrifice
8.
Mesoamerican ballcourt
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A Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. Although there is a variation in size, in general all ballcourts are the same shape. Although the alleys in early ballcourts were open-ended, later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, ballcourts were also used for functions other than, or in addition to, ballgames. Ceramics from western Mexico show ballcourts being used for other sporting endeavours, although ballcourts are found within most Mesoamerican sites, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. In contrast, Northern Chiapas and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some sites, including Teotihuacan, Bonampak. At Cantona, for example, the number of ballcourts is likely due to the many. One of the smallest, at Tikal site, is only one-sixth the size of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, the following is a comparison of the size of the playing alleys for several well-known ballcourts. The earliest ballcourts were doubtless temporary marked off areas of compacted soil much like those used to play the modern ulama game, paso de la Amada, Soconusco, along the Pacific coast boasts the oldest ballcourt yet identified, dated to approximately 1400 BC. This narrow ballcourt has an 80 m ×8 m flat playing alley defined by two flanking earthen mounds with benches running along their length. By the Early Classic, ballcourt designs began to feature a pair of mounds set some distance beyond the ends of the alley as if to keep errant balls from rolling too far away. By the Terminal Classic, the end zones of many ballcourts were enclosed, the evolution of the ballcourt is, of course, more complex than the foregoing suggests, and with over 1300 known ballcourts, there are exceptions to any generalization. Open ballcourts continued to be constructed into the Terminal Classic and at smaller sites, some ballcourts featured only one enclosed endzone while some ballcourts endzones are of different depths. During the Formative period, some enclosed ballcourts were entirely rectangular, one such court, at La Lagunita in the Guatemala Highlands, features rounded side walls. Unlike the compacted earth of the alley, the side walls of the formal ballcourts were lined with stone blocks. These walls featured 3 or more horizontal and sloping surfaces, there the vertical surfaces were covered with elaborate reliefs showing scenes, particularly sacrificial scenes, related to the ballgame. Most prominent ballcourts were part of their town or citys central monumental precinct and as such they share the orientation of pyramids, other than this general trend, no consistent orientation of ballcourts throughout Mesoamerica has been found, although some patterns do emerge at the regional level. In the Cotzumalhuapa region, for example, open-ended ballcourts with a north-south orientation were earlier than east-west enclosed courts, stone rings, tenoned into the wall at mid-court, appeared in the Terminal Classic era
9.
Quetzalcoatl
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Quetzalcoatl forms part of Mesoamerican literature and is a deity whose name comes from the Nahuatl language and means feathered serpent. The worship of a serpent is first documented in Teotihuacan in the first century BC or first century AD. That period lies within the Late Preclassic to Early Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology, in the Postclassic period, the worship of the feathered serpent deity was based in the primary Mexican religious center of Cholula. It is in period that the deity is known to have been named Quetzalcoatl by his Nahua followers. In the Maya area, he was approximately equivalent to Kukulkan and Gukumatz, Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec god of wind and learning, wears around his neck the wind breastplate ehecailacocozcatl, the spirally voluted wind jewel made of a conch shell. In codex drawings, Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl were both pictured as wearing an ehecailacocozcatl around each of their necks. There has additionally been at least one major cache of offerings with knives and idols adorned with the symbols of more than one god, some of which were adorned with wind jewels. It is a matter of debate among historians to which degree, or whether at all. He was also the god of the Aztec priesthood, of learning. Quetzalcoatl was one of several important gods in the Aztec pantheon, along with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, two other gods represented by the planet Venus are Quetzalcoatls ally Tlaloc who is the god of rain, and Quetzalcoatls twin and psychopomp, who is named Xolotl. Animals thought to represent Quetzalcoatl include resplendent quetzals, rattlesnakes, crows, in his form as Ehecatl he is the wind, and is represented by spider monkeys, ducks, and the wind itself. In his form as the star, Venus, he is also depicted as a harpy eagle. In Mazatec legends, the astrologer deity Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, who is represented by Venus. A feathered serpent deity has been worshiped by many different ethno-political groups in Mesoamerican history, the existence of such worship can be seen through studies of iconography of different Mesoamerican cultures, in which serpent motifs are frequent. This depiction is believed to have made around 900 BC. The first culture to use the symbol of a serpent as an important religious. At temples such as the aptly named Quetzalcoatl temple in the Ciudadela complex, feathered serpents figure prominently, the earliest depictions of the feathered serpent deity were fully zoomorphic, depicting the serpent as an actual snake, but already among the Classic Maya the deity began acquiring human features. Feathered serpent iconography is prominent at all of these sites, Cholula is known to have remained the most important center of worship to Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec/Nahua version of the feathered serpent deity, in the post-classic period
10.
Toltec
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The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology. The Aztec oral and pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec Empire, giving lists of rulers, among modern scholars it is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. Others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of history is futile. No consensus has yet emerged about the degree or direction of influence between these two sites, another source of controversy is the fact that New Age authors such as Carlos Castaneda and Don Miguel Ruiz, who say that they represent Toltec teachings. For this tradition of knowledge see Toltec, traits associated with this horizon are, The Mixteca-Puebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware ceramics. The presence of traits associated with Tula in Chichén Itzá is also taken as evidence for a Toltec horizon. The existence of any meaning of the Mixteca-Puebla art style has also been questioned, while Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital, its influence and dominance was not very far reaching. Evidence for Tulas participation in trade networks has been uncovered, for example. The debate about the nature of the Toltec culture goes back to the late 19th century and this led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been violently taken over by a Toltec military force under the leadership of Kukulcan. The historicist school of thought persisted well in to the 20th century, represented in the works of such as David Carrasco, Miguel León Portilla, Nigel Davies. Nicholson, which all held the Toltecs to have been an ethnic group. This school of thought connected the Toltecs to the site of Tula. This tradition assumes that much of central Mexico was dominated by a Toltec Empire between the 10th and 12th century CE, the Aztecs referred to several Mexican city states as Tollan, Place of Reeds, such as Tollan Cholollan. Archaeologist Laurette Sejourné, followed by the historian Enrique Florescano, have argued that the original Tollan was probably Teotihuacán, Florescano adds that the Mayan sources refer to Chichén Itzá when talking about the mythical place Zuyua. Many historicists such as H. B, for example, they seek to discern between the deity Quetzalcoatl and a Toltec ruler often referred to as Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl. Scholars such as Michel Graulich and Susan D. Gillespie maintained that the difficulties in salvaging historic data from the Aztec accounts of Toltec history are too great to overcome, the first is described as a valiant triumphant warrior, but the last as a feeble and self-doubting old man. This caused Graulich to consider that the only historical data in the Aztec chronicles are the names of some rulers. Furthermore, among the Nahuan peoples the word Tolteca was synonymous with artist, artisan or wise man, and toltecayotl
11.
Hunac Ceel
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Hunac Ceel Cauich was a Mayan general from Telchaquillo who conquered Chichen Itzá and founded the Cocom dynasty. According to the history, Hunac Ceel, also known as Cauich, unsuccessfully fought the Itzás, Ah Mex KUUK threw him into the sacred cenote of Chichén Itzá as a sacrifice to the gods. With the assistance of forces, he attacked Chichen Itzá, overthrowing the local ruling elite. Ralph L. Roys, in his commentary to the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel posits the interpretation that someone from Chichen Itzá stole away with the bride of Ah Ulil, the ruler of Izamal. Hunac Ceel and his Mexican allies used this as pretext or reason to sack the city in Izamals name, the feature film Kings of the Sun begins with Hunac Ceels forces attacking Chichen Itzá. In the year 2000, the Mexican folk dance and music group Hunac-Ceel was founded in San Luis Potosí
12.
Defensive wall
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A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements, beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced. Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick, depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the city gate and are often supplemented with towers. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts, ringworks, early castles, from very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer is one of the worlds oldest known walled cities, before that, the city of Jericho in what is now the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium BC. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 B. C. hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain, many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. Mundigak in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks, babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate. Exceptions were few — notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar. In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements which the Romans called oppida, the fortifications were continuously expanded and improved. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, in classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus. Large tempered earth walls were built in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty, although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States, mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang Dynasty. The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example, likewise, the famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls, the most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln, apart from these, the early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe and these cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces
13.
Uxmal
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Uxmal is an ancient Maya city of the classical period in present-day Mexico. It is considered one of the most important archaeological sites of Maya culture, along with Palenque, Chichén, and Calakmul in Mexico, Caracol and Xunantunich in Belize, and Tikal in Guatemala. It is located in the Puuc region and is considered one of the Maya cities most representative of the dominant architectural style. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in recognition of its significance and it is located 62 km south of Mérida, capital of Yucatán state in Mexico. Its buildings are noted for their size and decoration and its buildings are typical of the Puuc style, with smooth low walls that open on ornate friezes based on representations of typical Maya huts. These are represented by columns and trapezoidal shapes, entwined snakes and, in many cases two-headed snakes are used for masks of the rain god, Chaac, its big noses represent the rays of the storms. Feathered serpents with open fangs are shown leaving from the human beings. Also seen in cities are the influences of the Nahua. These were integrated with the elements of the Puuc tradition. The present name seems to derive from Oxmal, meaning three times built and this seems to refer to the sites antiquity and the times it had to rebuild. The etymology is disputed, another possibility is Uchmal which means what is to come, by tradition, this was supposed to be an invisible city, built in one night by the magic of the dwarf king. While much work has been done at the popular tourist destination of Uxmal to consolidate and restore buildings, little in the way of serious archeological excavation, the citys dates of occupation are unknown and the estimated population is a rough guess. Most of the major construction took place while Uxmal was the capital of a Late Classic Maya state around 850-925 AD. After about 1000 AD, Toltec invaders took over, and most building ceased by 1100 AD, Maya chronicles say that Uxmal was founded about 500 A. D. by Hun Uitzil Chac Tutul Xiu. For generations Uxmal was ruled over by the Xiu family and it was the most powerful site in western Yucatán, and for a while, in alliance with Chichen Itza, dominated all of the northern Maya area. Sometime after about 1200, no new major construction seems to have made at Uxmal, possibly related to the fall of Uxmals ally Chichen Itza. The Xiu moved their capital to Maní, and the population of Uxmal declined, Uxmal was dominant from 875 to 900 CE. The site appears to have been the capital of a state in the Puuc region from 850-950 CE
14.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
15.
Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
16.
Cozumel
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Cozumel is an island in the Caribbean Sea off the eastern coast of Mexicos Yucatán Peninsula, opposite Playa del Carmen, and close to the Yucatán Channel. The economy of Cozumel is based on tourism, there are a number of visitors to the islands balnearios, scuba diving, and snorkeling. The main town on the island is San Miguel de Cozumel, the islands belongs to Cozumel Municipality of the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. The name Cozumel was derived from the Mayan Cuzamil or Ah Cuzamil Peten in full, the island is located in the Caribbean Sea along the eastern side of the Yucatan Peninsula about 82 km south of Cancún and 19 km from the mainland. The island is about 48 km long and 16 km wide, with a total area of 477.961 km2, it is Mexicos largest Caribbean island, largest permanently inhabited island, and Mexicos third-largest island, following Tiburón Island and Isla Ángel de la Guarda. The majority of the population lives in the town of San Miguel. The municipality, which two small areas on the mainland enclaved within the Municipality of Solidaridad with a land area of 10.423 km2, has a total land area of 647.33 km2. The island is covered with mangrove forest which has many animal species. Cozumel is an island based on limestone, resulting in a karst topography. The highest natural point on the island is less than 15 m above sea level, the cenotes are deep water filled sinkholes formed by water percolating through the soft limestone soil during thousands of years. Cozumels cenotes are restricted to qualified cave divers with appropriate credentials, the dry season is short, from February to April, but even in these months precipitation is observed, averaging about 45 millimetres of rain per month. The wet season is lengthy, covering most of the months, with September and October being the wettest months, thunderstorms can occasionally occur during the wet season. Temperatures tend to remain stable with little variation from month to month though the temperatures are cooler from December to February with the coolest month averaging 22.9 °C, owing to its proximity to the sea, the island is fairly humid, with an average humidity of 83%. The wettest recorded month was October 1980 with 792 millimetres of precipitation, extremes range from 9.2 °C on January 18,1977 to 39.2 °C. The Maya are believed to have first settled Cozumel by the part of the 1st millennium AD. The island was sacred to Ix Chel, the Maya Moon Goddess, there are a number of ruins on the island, most from the Post-Classic period. The largest Maya ruins on the island were near the area and have now been destroyed. Today, the largest remaining ruins are at San Gervasio, located approximately at the center of the island, the first Spanish expedition to visit Cozumel was led by Juan de Grijalva in 1518
17.
Archibald Levin Smith
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Sir Archibald Levin Smith was a British judge and a rower who competed at Henley and in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. Smith was the son of Francis Smith, J. P. of Salt Hill, Chichester and he was baptised at New Fishbourne, West Sussex although he had some Jewish ancestry. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge and he suffered from the pituitary disorder, acromegaly, which caused him to grow to nearly 7 feet tall. Athletic as well as tall, he rowed for Cambridge in the Oxford, Oxford won in 1857 and Cambridge in 1858. In 1858 he was in the crews at Henley Royal Regatta in the Grand Challenge Cup with the C. U. B. C. and in the Visitors Challenge Cup. In the 1859 Boat Race the race was rowed in a gale of wind, Smith alone of the Cambridge oarsmen could not swim, and sat stolidly rowing until, when the water was up to his neck, he was rescued. Smith was admitted at the Inner Temple on 27 May 1856 and was called to the Bar on 17 November 1860 and he was engaged on the Home Circuit and became Judge of the High Court of Justice in 1883. He was then knighted and became an honorary bencher, in 1892 he became Lord Justice of Appeal, in which capacity he ruled on Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. On 24 October 1900 became Master of the Rolls, a position he held for almost a year until his resignation a few days before his death. Smith was an amateur cricketer and a member of Marylebone Cricket Club for whom he played in two first-class matches 1861 to 1864. He was a batsman who scored 16 runs with a highest score of 7. He was appointed Chairman of the Historical Manuscript Commission in March 1901 and he married, in 1867, Isobel Fletcher, daughter of John Charles Fletcher, of Dale Park, Sussex, and had sons Archibald and Geoffrey and daughters. Smith lived at Salt Hill, Chichester, and 40 Cadogan Place, lady Smith drowned in the River Spey in August 1901, during a visit to the estate of their son-in-law J. W. H. Grant, in Aberlour, Morayshire. Sir Archibald fell ill and also died in Aberlour less than two months later, on 20 October 1901, at the age of 65 and he is buried in the churchyard at Knockando. Parnell Commission Mara v Browne The Rowers of Vanity Fair - A L Smith List of Cambridge University Boat Race crews
18.
Tatiana Proskouriakoff
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She was born in Tomsk, in the Tomsk Governorate of the Russian Empire to a chemist and his physician wife. The family travelled to the United States in 1915, her father being asked by Tsar Nicholas II to oversee the production of munitions for World War I, the Russian Revolution forced the family to remain permanently. She was to visit Russia only once after that, to meet the Mayanist Yuri Knorozov and she was devoted to a career in interpreting art, architecture, and hieroglyphic. While growing up, Tatiana could read fluently at the age of 3 and she had a talent for drawing and received lessons in art and watercolor. The family lived for a while in Ohio, and moved to the Philadelphia area before settling down in Lansdowne, Tatiana did very well at school, was the editor of the school yearbook, and graduated valedictorian of her class. She spent a year studying at the University of Pennsylvania before graduating from the Pennsylvania State University in 1930, initially educated as an architect, she later went on to work for Linton Satterthwaite and for the University of Pennsylvania Museum at the Maya site of Piedras Negras in 1936–37. The Piedras Negras site lies between Mexico and Guatemala, traveling there was the start of her lifes work, as she found a passion for studying the ancient Maya. She made a drawing of the Piedras Negras acropolis on her return to Philadelphia. While enrolled in studies at the University of Pennsylvania, Proskouriakoff prepared archeological illustrations as a volunteer at the University Museum. Unable to get the institution to hire her, he raised funds to enable Proskouriakoff to travel to Copán and Yucatán, returning after she completed the drawings, she was given the post of a research associate at the Institution in the early 1940s. She soon became involved in Maya hieroglyphs and made significant contributions to the understanding of Mayan written language, for example, her 1942 scholarly analysis of the hieroglyphics at the Takalik Abaj ruins in Guatemala establish that the site was in part Maya, settling a debate at that time. Her greatest contribution was considered the breakthrough for Maya hieroglyphic decipherment in the late 1950s, analyzing the pattern of dates and hieroglyphs, she was able to demonstrate a sequence of seven rulers who ruled over a span of two hundred years. Knowing the context of the inscriptions, Maya epigraphers were then able to decipher the hieroglyphs and she became honorary curator, Maya art, of the Peabody Museum in 1958. Tatiana Proskouriakoff died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 30,1985 and she was buried at Piedras Negras in the Structure J-23, on Easter Sunday, in April 1998, a plaque in her honor shows her tomb. Alfred V. David Stuart and Stephen D. Houston, Scientific American Morley Hires Tatiana Proskouriakoff, villela, Khristaan D. Precolumbian Art Research Institute Journal Guatemala, Cradle of the Maya Civilization
19.
Edwin M. Shook
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Edwin M. Shook was an American archaeologist and Mayanist scholar, best known for his extensive field work and publications on pre-Columbian Maya civilization sites. Ed Shook was born in Newton, North Carolina, at age 22 he took a job as a draftsman at the Carnegie Institution of Washington which was to lead him into Mesoamerican studies from 1934 to 1998. In 1955 he became the director of the University of Pennsylvanias Tikal Project, overseeing and publishing extensive work at Tikal. Other Maya sites Shook worked at include Uaxactun, Copán, Mayapan, Kaminaljuyú, Piedras Negras, Palenque, Ceibal, Chichén Itzá, in 1998 Shook donated his archives to the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. He died at his home in Antigua Guatemala two years later
20.
J. Eric S. Thompson
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Sir John Eric Sidney Thompson, KBE was a leading English Mesoamerican archaeologist, ethnohistorian, and epigrapher. While working in the United States, he dominated Maya studies, Thompson was born on 31 December 1898 to father George Thompson, a distinguished surgeon and fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Thompson was raised in the home on Harley Street in London. At the age of 14 he was sent to Winchester College to receive an independent education, in 1915, at the beginning of World War I, Thompson used the assumed name Neil Winslow to join the British Army while underage. A year into service he was wounded and sent home to recover and he continued to serve in the Coldstream Guards until the end of the war, ending his service at the rank of officer. After the war Thompson left for Argentina to work as a gaucho on a cattle farm. Thompson first considered a medical or political career however he decided to study anthropology at the Fitzwilliam House at Cambridge University under A. C. Haddon. With the completion of his degree in 1925, Thompson wrote to Sylvanus G Morley, in 1926 Thompson arrived in the Yucatan of Mexico under the direction of Morley to work at Chichen Itza. Here he started working on the friezes of the Temple of the Warriors, later that year Morley sent Thompson to report on the site of Coba, located to the east of Chichen Itza. During the first field season at Coba, Thompson deciphered the dates on the Macanxoc stela, Morley, the foremost epigrapher, did not originally agree with the readings of the dates. It was not until a trip to Coba that Morley was persuaded by Thompsons readings. Within the next year, Thompson took post as the Assistant Curator at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago and he would work there until 1935 when he left for a position at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D. C. In 1926, while employed by the Field Museum, Thompson, under the supervision of Thomas A. Joyce and it was the fieldwork at Lubaantun that lead Thompson to disagree with Joyces argument for the early megalith and in-and-out style of architectural stratigraphy. Thompson argued that the constructions were due to root action. This root action disturbed the construction by pushing the rocks out in the fashion of the in-and out construction that invalidated Joyces argument. Toward the end of the first season at Lubaantun, the site of Pusilha was discovered and Thompson was sent to investigate with his guide, Faustino Bol. Thompsons subsequent interactions with his guide, who was a Mopan Maya, would later shed light on how Thompson viewed the ancient Maya and their culture. As a result of their conversations, Thompson concluded that is was clear that archaeological excavations were not the only means of learning about the ancient ways
21.
Tulane University
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Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is generally considered the top university and the most selective institution of education in the state of Louisiana. From a nationwide perspective, U. S. News & World Report categorizes Tulane as most selective, the school is known to attract a geographically diverse student body, with 85% of undergraduate students coming from over 300 miles away. The school was founded as a medical college in 1834. The institution was privatized under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884, Tulane is the 9th oldest private university in the Association of American Universities, which consists of major research universities in the United States and Canada. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are considered the 12th oldest and 15th oldest law and medical schools, respectively, members of Congress, heads of Federal agencies, two Surgeon Generals of the United States, U. S. At least two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the University, the university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became only the medical school in the South. In 1847, the legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department, the first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopalian priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War, after reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nations economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a dry goods and clothing business. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund and this act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a public institution to a private one. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane and he had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lees death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University, in 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would become the School of Engineering
22.
Morehead State University
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The university began as Morehead Normal School, which opened its doors in 1887. One student appeared on the first day of class in October 1887, in a little, the private school closed in the spring of 1922 when the Kentucky General Assembly established Morehead State Normal School. The state institution accepted its first students in the fall of 1923, thirteen men, starting with Frank C. Dr. Wayne D. Andrews assumed office as the 13th president on January 1,2005, Morehead State University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. 214 degree programs are available on the two-year, four-year and graduate levels through four colleges, the university offers a Doctoral degree in Education. More than half of the faculty hold doctoral degrees, the average class size is 18. The student body represents 109 Kentucky counties,42 states and 32 foreign countries, MSU supports its missions of teaching, applied research and public service through an annual budget of more than $157 million. Grants and contracts from external sources for research, service and academic/student support projects generate more than $17 million each year, annual private gifts to the university average $3 million annually. It was the first institution in Kentucky to offer a degree program online. MSU is 1 of 5 institutions in the U. S. with a degree in space science. The university has erected a space tracking system in partnership with NASA, the second component of the Space Science Center opened in 2009—a $16.6 million instruction and research support facility. MSU claims the states best computer-student ratio in its computer laboratories,64,000 persons have received degrees from MSU. The most recent rankings listed Morehead State at 24th place among the regional universities in the South. Morehead State has consistently been one of the public regional universities in Kentucky in the Regional Universities-South category. Morehead State University is located in the foothills of the Daniel Boone National Forest in Rowan County, the more than 700-acre main campus within the city limits of Morehead includes more than 50 major structures with a total replacement value of more than $650 million. The instructional plant includes 135 classrooms and 150 laboratories, housing facilities include space for approximately 2,900 students in a variety of living styles, including traditional residence halls, suites and apartments. The university has erected a space tracking system in partnership with NASA, the second component of the Space Science Center opened in 2009—a $16.6 million instruction and research support facility. The Morehead State University Arts and Humanities Council, established in 2003, encourages dialogue, part of a larger initiative within the Caudill College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, the Council works to develop cultural opportunities both on and off campus
23.
Puuc
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Puuc is the name of either a region in the Mexican state of Yucatán or a Maya architectural style prevalent in that region. The word puuc is derived from the Maya term for hill, since the Yucatán is relatively flat, this term was extended to encompass the large karstic range of hills in the southern portion of the state, hence, the terms Puuc region or Puuc hills. The Puuc hills extend into northern Campeche and western Quintana Roo, the term Puuc is also used to designate the architectural style of ancient Maya sites located within the Puuc hills, hence, the term Puuc architecture. This architectural style began at the end of the Late Classic period, in the florescence of Puuc architecture buildings were decorated with carefully cut veneer stones set into a concrete core. Long-nosed masks are found on many Puuc buildings, the concrete core-veneer masonry allowed for slightly larger and more stable interior rooms. Many corbelled vaults in the Puuc style remain standing, even when most of the stones have fallen away. The most famous of the Maya sites exhibiting the Puuc architectural style is Uxmal, other major Puuc-style sites in the region include Labna, Kabah, Sayil, the architectural style is also seen at Kiuic, Bolonchen, Chunhuhub, Xculoc, and many smaller ruins. The transition from earlier Classic Period architecture to Puuc style core-veneer masonry is well documented at the site of Oxkintok, to the south, the style can be found in Edzná, and to the east at Chichen Itza. As stated by the Maya explorer Teobert Maler, who explored this zone intensively, the recently completed Chunhuaymil project compiled data of the remaining Puuc architecture of 19 archaeological sites located in a 100 square kilometers area. Andrews, George F. Pyramids, Palaces, Monsters and Masks, carmean, Kelli, Nicholas Dunning and Jeff K. Kowalski. 2004 High times in the country, a perspective from the Terminal Classic Puuc region. In, The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands, Collapse, Transition, arthur A. Demarest, Prudence M. Rice, and Don S. Rice, eds. pp. 424–449. Dunning, Nicholas P.1992 Lords of the Hills, Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, centre dEtudes Mexicaines et Centraméricaines, Mexico. Dunning, Nicholas P. and Jeff K. Kowalski,1994 Lord of the Hills, Classic Maya settlement patterns and political iconography in the Puuc Region, Mexico. Gendrop, Paul 1998 Rio Bec, Chenes, and Puuc Styles in Maya Architecture, merk, Stephan 2011 The Long Silence. Sabana Piletas and Its Neighbours, An Architectural Survey of Maya Ruins in Northeastern Campeche, markt Schwaben, Germany, Verlag Anton Saurwein. Mills, Lawrence,1979 The Puuc, New Perspectives, Papers Presented at the Puuc Symposium, Central College, pollock, Harry E. D.1980 Puuc, An Architectural Survey of the Hill Country of Yucatan and Northern Campeche, Mexico. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Prem, Hanns J.1994 Hidden Among the Hills, Maya Archaeology of the Northwest Yucatan Península
24.
Diego de Landa
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Diego de Landa Calderón was a Spanish bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Yucatán. He is a figure in the Black Legend. Born in Cifuentes, Guadalajara, Spain, he became a Franciscan monk in 1541, Landa was in charge of bringing the Roman Catholic faith to the Maya peoples after the Spanish conquest of Yucatán. He presided over a monopoly granted to the Catholic Franciscan order by the Spanish crown. His initial appointment was to the mission of San Antonio in Izamal and he is the author of the Relación de las cosas de Yucatán in which he catalogues the Maya religion, Maya language, culture and writing system. The manuscript was written around 1566 on his return to Spain, however, the account is known only as an abridgement, which in turn had undergone several iterations by various copyists. After hearing of Roman Catholic Maya who continued to practice idol worship, he ordered an Inquisition in Mani, during the ceremony on July 12,1562, a disputed number of Maya codices and approximately 5000 Maya cult images were burned. The actions of Landa passed into the Black Legend of the Spanish in the Americas, only three pre-Columbian books of Maya hieroglyphics and, perhaps, fragments of a fourth are known to have survived. Collectively, the works are known as the Maya codices, Landas Inquisition showered a level of physical abuse upon the indigenous Maya that many viewed as excessive and was, at the very least, unusual. Scores of Maya nobles were jailed pending interrogation, and large numbers of Maya nobles, during hoisting, a victims hands were bound and looped over an extended line that was then raised until the victims entire body was suspended in the air. Often, stone weights were added to the ankles or lashes applied to the back during interrogation, some contemporary observers were troubled by this widespread use of torture. Additionally, Landa dispensed with much of the formal procedure and documentation that accompanied Spanish torture. Landa, however, perhaps inspired by intolerant fellow Franciscan Cardenal, Cisneros, Landa believed a huge underground network of apostasies, led by displaced indigenous priests, were jealous of the power the Church enjoyed and sought to reclaim it for themselves. The apostates, Landa surmised, had launched a counteroffensive against the Church, Landa claimed that he had discovered evidence of human sacrifice and other idolatrous practices while rooting out native idolatry. Lopez de Cogolludo, Landas chief Franciscan biographer, wrote of Landas firsthand experiences with human sacrifices, when Landa first came to the Yucatán, he made it his mission to walk the breadth of the peninsula and preach to the most remote villages. While passing through Cupules, he came upon a group of 300 about to sacrifice a young boy. Enraged, Landa stormed through the crowd, released the boy, smashed the idols and began preaching with such zeal and sincerity that they begged him to remain in the land, Landa was remarkable in that he was willing to go where no others would. He entered lands that had only recently conquered, where native resentment of Spaniards was still very intense
25.
Mexica
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The Mexica or Mexicas were an indigenous people of the Valley of Mexico, known today as the rulers of the Aztec Empire. The Mexica were a Nahua people who founded their two cities Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco on raised islets in Lake Texcoco around AD1300, after the rise of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Tenochca Mexica assumed a senior position over their two allied cities, Texcoco and Tlacopan. The Mexica are eponymous of the placename Mexico Mēxihco and this area was expanded upon in the wake of the Spanish conquest and administered from the former Aztec capital as New Spain. Like many of the peoples around them, the Mexica spoke Nahuatl, the form of Nahuatl used in the 16th century, when it began to be written in the alphabet brought by the Spanish, is known as Classical Nahuatl. Nahuatl is still today by over 1.5 million people
26.
Milpa
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Milpa is a crop-growing system used throughout Mesoamerica. It has been most extensively described in the Yucatán peninsula area of Mexico, the word milpa is derived from the Nahuatl word phrase mil-pa, which translates into maize field. Though different interpretations are given to it, it refers to a cropping field. Based on the ancient agricultural methods of Maya peoples and other Mesoamerican people, milpa agriculture produces maize, beans, the milpa cycle calls for 2 years of cultivation and eight years of letting the area lie fallow. The word is used for a small field, especially in Mexico or Central America, that is cleared from the jungle, cropped for a few seasons. In the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, and other areas of central Mexico, in El Salvador and Guatemala, it refers specifically to the corn crop or corn field as a whole. Milpa crops are nutritionally and environmentally complementary, maize lacks the amino acids lysine and tryptophan, which the body needs to make proteins and niacin. Beans have both lysine and tryptophan, squashes, for their part, provide an array of vitamins, avocados, fats. The milpa, in the estimation of H. Garrison Wilkes, the concept of milpa is a sociocultural construct rather than simply a system of agriculture. It involves complex interactions and relationships between farmers, as well as personal relationships with both the crops and land. For example, it has noted that the making of milpa is the central, most sacred act, one which binds together the family, the community. Forms the core institution of Indian society in Mesoamerica and its religious and social importance often appear to exceed its nutritional, milpitas, California derives its name from the Nahuatl term milpa followed by the Spanish feminine diminutive plural suffix -itas
27.
Q'umarkaj
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Qumarkaj, is an archaeological site in the southwest of the El Quiché department of Guatemala. Qumarkaj is also known as Utatlán, the Nahuatl translation of the citys name, the name comes from Kiche Qumarkah Place of old reeds. Qumarkaj was one of the most powerful Maya cities when the Spanish arrived in the region in the early 16th century and it was the capital of the Kiche Maya in the Late Postclassic Period. At the time of the Spanish Conquest, Qumarkaj was a new capital, with the capital of the Kiche kingdom having originally been situated at Jakawitz. Qumarkaj was founded during the reign of king Ququmatz in the early 15th century, in 1470 the city was seriously weakened by a rebellion among the nobility that resulted in the loss of key allies of the Kiche. Archaeologically and ethnohistorically, Qumarkaj is the best known of the Late Postclassic highland Maya capitals, the earliest reference to the site in Spanish occurs in Hernán Cortés letters from Mexico. Although the site has been investigated, little work has taken place. The surviving architecture, which includes a Mesoamerican ballcourt, temples and palaces, has been damaged by the looting of stone to build the nearby town of Santa Cruz del Quiché. The major structures of Qumarkaj were laid out around a plaza, the main ballcourt was placed between the palaces of two of the principal noble houses. Palaces, or nimja, were spread throughout the city, there was also a platform that was used for gladiatorial sacrifice. The site core is open to the public and includes basic infrastructure, Qumarkaj comes from the Kiche Qumqaraqaj. While often translated as place of old reeds or place of rotted cane, the ruins of the city are 2.5 kilometres to the west of the modern city of Santa Cruz del Quiché. Qumarkaj completely occupies 120,000 square metres of an easily defended plateau surrounded by ravines over 100 metres deep, the ravines are part of a drainage system feeding the Negro River, which flows into the Chixoy River and eventually into the Usumacinta River and the Gulf of Mexico. A natural causeway to the southeast of the links the plateau with a wide plain to the east. Qumarkaj is the largest in a group of five major sites clustered in an area of 4 square kilometres. Atalaya and Pakaman lie to the east, Pismachi lies to the south, in the Late Postclassic, the greater Qumarkaj area is estimated to have had a population of around 15,000. The inhabitants of Qumarkaj were divided socially between the nobility and their vassals, the nobles were known as the ajaw, while the vassals were known as the al kajol. The nobles were regarded as sacred and bore royal imagery and their vassals served as foot-soldiers and were subject to the laws laid out by the nobility, although they could receive military titles as a result of their battlefield prowess
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
Actun Tunichil Muknal
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Actun Tunichil Muknal, also known locally as ATM, is a cave in Belize, near San Ignacio, Cayo District, notable as a Maya archaeological site that includes skeletons, ceramics, and stoneware. There are several areas with remains in the main chamber. The best known is The Crystal Maiden, the skeleton of an adolescent, possibly a victim, whose bones have been calcified to a sparkling. The ceramics at the site are significant partly because they are marked with kill holes, many of the Maya artifacts and remains are completely calcified to the cave floor. One artifact, named the Monkey Pot, is one of just four of its type found in Central America. The Maya also modified cave formations here, in some instances to create altars for the offerings, in others to create silhouettes of faces, the cave is extensively decorated with cave formations in the upper passages. Animal life in the cave includes a population of bats, large freshwater crabs, crayfish, catfish. Large invertebrates like Amblypygi and various predatory spiders also inhabit the cave, agouti and otters may also use the cave. These and many species are quite common in river caves of this size in Belize. Other Maya archaeological sites in the vicinity are Cahal Pech, Chaa Creek, El Pilar, Actun Tunichil Muknal should not be confused with Actun Tun Kul in the Chiquibul Cave System. The cave is located in the Tapir Mountain Nature Reserve, the main cave system is about 3 mi long and consists of a long river passage for approximately 2 mi, which ends at an upstream sump. A series of upper prehistoric passages continues another mile past the sump through massive breakdown boulders, the cave can be exited through a tight squeeze ending in a giant sink hole collapse in the jungle. The caves upper passage is located about 1/3 of the way in from the lower entrance, here 14 skeletal remains have been found, and numerous examples of ancient Maya pottery remain. The cave periodically closes when rainfall causes the water level to rise. In late May 2012, a tourist accidentally dropped a camera, as a result, all cameras without a permit are banned from the cave. All visitors are told to remove their shoes and wear socks when reaching the upper dry chamber to help minimize foot traffic impact, ghost Hunters International season 3 episode 9 The Crystal Maiden, Belize and France evaluated the ghost stories behind the mysterious maiden. National Geographic listed it as #1 on their list of Top 10 Sacred Caves, Maya cave sites Marachov, Nick and Williams, Nick Below Belize ca. Miller, Tom Tunichil Muknal The Canadian Caver vol 21 no 2,1989, Williams, Nick An Introduction to Cave Exploration in Belize
30.
Baking Pot
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Researchers like Aimers favor a gradual abandonment of the site at a much later time period than other sites in the region. In the late Preclassic, Baking Pot had a population with little public architecture. In the Early Classic, the experienced a construction boom. Two architectural groups were built, with Group A to the north and this north-south orientation is similar to nearby Xunantunich. Earlier excavators like Ricketson, Gordon Willey, and Bullard and Bullard describe these groups as Group 1 and these major complexes make up the center of Baking Pot and are connected by a causeway. In the Late Classic, the population increased to approximately 3000 people, toward the end of the Classic period the local elite left and the palace complexes in the city center were abandoned. In the early Postclassic, people were living on a portion of the site but rarely used the ceremonial center. Much of the living at Baking Pot were farmers, being close to the Belize River the site has fertile soil in an alluvial valley and is primarily associated with agricultural production. In the 1920s, A. H. Anderson first conducted research at Baking Pot after some materials from the site were used in the construction of the western highway. Later excavations by Oliver Ricketson, Gordon Willey in the 1950s and William Bullard, wiley is best known for his excavations and settlement research at Barton Ramie and for his focus on Maya households during a time when most people were only focused on elite. Jaime Awe, including Jim Conlon, Jim Aimers, Josalyn Ferguson, Jennifer Piehl, Carolyn Audet, Christophe Helmke, Baking Pot is named after large pots were found by archaeologists that were once used to boil chicle. These vessels were cacao drinking vessels and were thought to contain a placename, Four Water Place, there are no carved monuments at Baking Pot, although several uncarved stelae and uncarved altars have been found. A causeway extends south and to the west of Group B, here hundreds of broken vessels were found in front of the stairway, possibly from a termination ritual. Mound 190 had deposits with finger bones, an altar, and this mound also contains evidence of ritual activity and is believed to be used for ritual/ceremonial purposes. The discovery of bones is similar to the finger bowl caches associated with Caracol. Vessel 2 at Baking Pot describes its owner in a structure that is found at Caracol as well. Naranjo pottery has also found here at Baking Pot. Belize Institute of Archaeology, National Institute of Culture and History Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc
31.
Barton Creek Cave
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Barton Creek Cave is a natural cave in Belize, known as both an archaeological site and as a tourist destination. It is located in the Barton Creek area near San Ignacio in the Cayo District, Barton Creek Cave is a primarily single-passage resurging stream cave. By 2005 the Xibalba Mapping and Exploration Team had extended the survey to 8 km, extensive looting of artifacts occurred soon after the cave was first reported, but it remains an important site for archaeologists. Evidence of cave use by the Maya exists on ten ledges within the first kilometer of cave passage, pottery shards indicate use between the Early Classic to the Late Classic periods. The remains of at least 28 humans have found within the cave. Multiyear Project to Map Caves for the Belize Department of Archaeology,2002 NSS Convention Larson et al
32.
Cahal Pech
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Cahal Pech is a Maya site located near the town of San Ignacio in the Cayo District of Belize. The site rests high above the banks of the Macal River and is located to overlook the confluence of the Macal River. The site is a collection of 34 structures, with the tallest temple being about 25 meters in height, the site was abandoned in the 9th century CE for unknown reasons. The earliest pottery in western Belize is found here, emerging information from western Belize suggests that ceramic-using populations may have been in place as early as ca.1200 B. C. at Cahal Pech and perhaps elsewhere. It is now a reserve, and houses a small museum with artifacts from various ongoing excavations. The primary excavation of the began in 1988. Restoration was completed in 2000 under the leadership of Dr. Jaime Awe, Director of the National Institute of Archaeology, other nearby Mayan sites include Chaa Creek, Xunantunich, Baking Pot, and Lower Dover
33.
Caracol
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For the Québécoise singer see Carole Facal. Caracol is the given to a large ancient Maya archaeological site. It is situated approximately 40 kilometres south of Xunantunich and the town of San Ignacio Cayo and it rests on the Vaca Plateau at an elevation of 500 meters above sea-level, in the foothills of the Maya Mountains. Long thought to be a center, it is now known that the site was one of the most important regional political centers of the Maya Lowlands during the Classic Period. Caracol covered approximately 200 square kilometers, covering a much larger than present-day Belize City. Caracol is a name from Spanish, caracol snail, shell. Local tour guides say that the nickname Caracol originates from the population of snails present on the site. Researchers would say to go to one place with all the snails. When visiting the site you will see that snails are quite literally everywhere and its ancient name has been reconstructed from the Emblem Glyph popular among its early rulers - Ux Witz Ajaw, or “Three Hills Lord”. The full name of Caracol would be Three-Hills Water, read Oxwitza, Uxwitza’ or, Hispanicised and this place name may also reference the Three Stone Place of creation. The site was first reported by a native logger named Rosa Mai, Mai reported the site to the archaeological commission for British Honduras, today Belize. In 1938 the archaeological commissioner, A. H. Anderson visited the site for two weeks along with a colleague H. B and it was Anderson who gave the site its modern name. They conducted preliminary surveys, noted 9 carved monuments, took notes on the structures of the A Group Plaza, a. H. Anderson and Linton Satterthwaite later discovered 40 stone monuments. The site was first noted and documented archaeologically in 1937 by A. H. Anderson, more extensive explorations and documentation of the site was undertaken by Linton Satterthwaite of the University Museum at the University of Pennsylvania from 1950 to 1953. During this time Satterthwaite primarily focused on finding and documenting monuments, later removing several stelae, the Caracol Archaeological Project is directed by Drs. Arlen and Diane Chase of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States. The 1988-1989 field seasons researched the southeast section of the site, the only road Caracol may be accessed by is paved for the last ten miles and leads to the Western Highway between San Ignacio and Belmopan and to Santa Elena. Caana is the largest building at Caracol and it remains one of the largest man-made structures in Belize. Construction on Caana demonstrated to be post-AD8001990 Structures A2, A7,1991 Exploration and mapping of causeways
34.
Cerros
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Cerros is an Eastern Lowland Maya archaeological site in northern Belize that functioned from the Late Preclassic to the Postclassic period. The site reached its apogee during the Mesoamerican Late Preclassic and at its peak, the site is strategically located on a peninsula at the mouth of the New River where it empties into Chetumal Bay on the Caribbean coast. As such, the site had access to and served as a link between the coastal trade route that circumnavigated the Yucatán Peninsula and inland communities. The inhabitants of Cerros constructed a canal system and utilized raised-field agriculture. The core of the site immediately abuts the bay and consists of relatively large structures and stepped pyramids, an acropolis complex. Bounding the southern side of the site is a canal network that encloses the central portion of the site. Residential structures continue outside of the canal, generally radiating southwest and southeast, from the time of its inception in the Late Preclassic Era, around 400BC, the site of Cerros was a small village of farmers, fishermen and traders. They made use of its soils and easy access to the sea. The first of the new constructions was the Structure 5C-2nd, which has become the most famous piece of architecture at the site, as kings died, others came along and new temples were constructed in their honor. The last of the constructions at the site occurred around AD100. During the Protoclassic, Cerros ceased to function as a locus of elitist activity, from then on, any new construction was probably limited to the outer residential area, as the population began to decline severely. Apart from an occupation at the end of the Late Classic period as a village community. This once glorious site was left for ruin and remained unnoticed until Thomas Gann made reference to lookout mounds along the coast in 1900. Archaeological work began at Cerros around 1973 when the site was purchased by the Metroplex Corporation of Dallas, fortunately, these plans failed and the site was given to the government of Belize. In 1974, archaeologist David Freidel and his team uncovered evidence that suggested that the site was of the Late Preclassic period, in 1975, when a dedicatory offering cache was uncovered at Structure 6, further evidence was provided that Cerros was indeed a Late Preclassic site. Throughout the 1970s, research was allowed to continue when the National Science Foundation funded further excavations, the original team completed their excavations in 1981. In the 1990s, Debra Walker and a team of archaeologists began a series of new excavations to investigate the sites demise at the end of the Late Preclassic Era. In addition to the research done at the site, Walkers team also had radiocarbon dates run on newly found artifacts and they also recalibrated several dates from the original research in order to establish a tighter chronological sequence
35.
Chaa Creek
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Chaa Creek is a tributary of the Macal River in the Cayo District in western Belize. One of the official gauging stations of the Macal is located near the confluence with Chaa Creek, there are Maya ruins that remain largely unexcavated in the Chaa Creek catchment basin, certain early research was conducted on the archaeology at Chaa Creek in 1997 by Harvard University. Significant pottery finds and other artifacts have been recovered at the Chaa Creek site, the Chaa Creek Nature Reserve is a noted area for birdwatching. Over 300 species of birds have been sighted there, the underlying geology of this watershed can be characterised as limestone associations of foothills of the Maya Mountains. Cahal Pech - another Maya site in the vicinity The Lodge at Chaa Creek - an eco-resort and 365 acre private nature reserve located in the Cayo District of Belize, Central America
36.
Colha, Belize
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Colha, Belize is a Maya archaeological site located in northern portion of the country, about 52 km. north of Belize City, near the city of Orange Walk. The site is one of the earliest in the Maya region and these peaks in population are directly related to the presence of stone tool workshops at the site. During the Late Preclassic and Late Classic periods, Colha served as a supplier of worked stone tools for the region. It has been estimated that the 36 workshops at Colha produced nearly 4 million chert and obsidian tools and this made it an important player in the trade of essential good throughout the area. The first archaeological excavations at Colha were in 1973 and it was decided that Thomas R. Hester and Harry J. Shafer should be in charge of this project due to their experience with lithics. The result was a 14-year project by Hester, Shafer, gibson, Thomas R. Hester, Harry B. Iceland, John S. Jacob, John G. Jones, kelly, Eleanor M. King, Jon C. Lohse, Virginia K. Massey, Marilyn A. Masson, Roberta McGregor, Richard Meadows, Frances Meskill, George H. Michaels, Shirley B. Mock, Daniel R. Potter, Ketherine V. Reese, Erwin Roemer, Robert F. Scott IV, Harry J. Shafer, shaw, Janet Stock, Lauren A. Sullivan, A. J. Taylor, Fred Valdez Jr. Richard r, the Colha Project is a long running dig at and around Colha. The project began in 1979 with an investigation of the lithic production sites noted by Hammond and his associates, under the direction of Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer. The 1980 season confirmed that Colha was an important center for the production of lithics for the area, the CRS program was important in the locating of several preceramic sites in Northern Belize including, Ladyville, Lowe Ranch, and Sand Hill. The latter being the subject again in 1984, in 1987, while research continued on the 1986 studies, a new emphasis was developed on the Preceramic Period. Operation 4046 located off mound at the edge of an aguada recovered lithic tools, investigations at 4046 continued during brief investigations in 1988 and recovered additional lithic material below the Maya ceramic zone. 1989 saw the first inclusion of a school from the University of Texas at Austin under the direction of Fred Valdez Jr. The research centered around preclassic deposits at Operation 2031, while John Jacobs important soil coring project started in the adjacent Cobweb Swamp, Jacobs work was the main focus in 1990, but in 1991 attention turned back to the preceramic and operation 4046 through Valdezs secong Colha field school. In Belize, there is evidence for occupation during the Archaic period before 3400 B. C. This date has been used in conjunction with the Colha chronology, introduced by Iceland, Colha falls in an area of one particularly important natural resource, chert, and is very near to Cobweb Swamp
37.
Cuello
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Cuello is a Maya archaeological site in northern Belize. The site is that of a village with a long occupational history. It was originally dated to 2000 BC, but these dates have now been corrected and updated to around 1200 BC and its inhabitants lived in pole-and-thatch houses that were built on top of low plaster-coated platforms. The site contains residential groups clustered around central patios and it also features the remains of a steam bath dating to approximately 900 BC, making it the oldest steam bath found to date in the Maya lowlands. Human burials have been associated with the structures, the oldest have no surviving burial relics. According to some sources, ceramics from the earliest phase of the settlement at Cuello already belonged to an established lowland Maya pottery tradition. Other scholars disagree, and consider that the earliest Cuello pottery was of the Swasey type, starting at 1200 BC, Cuello is located two miles Yo Creek Road in the Orange Walk District. It sits on the land of the Cuello Family but permissions are granted to visit the site. Uncorrected radiocarbon dates from the lowest stratigraphic levels of the site returned dates as far back as 2600 BC, the site was investigated in the 1970s and 1980s by archaeologist Norman Hammond. Structure 326 was excavated in 1980 and measures 8 by 4 metres, the walls of the building were made of thin poles tied together with vines. This was then coated in a layer of clay and finished with a white lime wash. Archaeological investigation has revealed that the diet of the Preclassic occupants of Cuello consisted of less than 30% maize, compared with up to 75% for the modern Maya. White-tailed deer made up half the meat in their diet, followed by freshwater turtles and domestic dogs. Two Late Preclassic mass burial areas have been uncovered at Cuello, healed fractures on the bones suggest that they may have been captured warriors. Further evidence of local warfare comes from evidence of burnt buildings at the site, a number of elite burials have been excavated at Cuello. The earliest phases of the Middle Classic included both adults and children accompanied by offerings of jade and shell ornaments, indicating social differentiation, high-status burials tended to be associated with specific locations throughout the history of the site. Burial 160 is a burial that has been dated to 500–400 BC. There was also the portion of a human skull that had been fashioned into a plaque
38.
El Pilar
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For the church in Zaragoza Spain see Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar El Pilar is an ancient Maya city center located on the Belize-Guatemala border. The site is located 12 kilometres north of San Ignacio, Belize and can be accessed through the San Ignacio, the name El Pilar is Spanish for watering basin, reflecting the abundance of streams around the site and below its escarpment, which is rare in the Maya area. El Pilar is the largest Maya site in the Belize River area with over 25 plazas and hundreds of major buildings. Archaeologist Anabel Ford first mapped El Pilar in 1983 in the course of her Belize River Archaeological Settlement Survey or BRASS project, Settlement patterns in the region suggest a hierarchy of community size and composition that was directly related to farmland. Since 1993, an archaeological field survey excavation project marked the initial examination of El Pilar. Under the direction of Anabel Ford, the map was executed with engineering survey instruments and excavations focused on access ways, stairs. When the monuments were mapped, the team verified the causeway system that linked from the east to the west uniting one ancient Maya center in two nations, Belize and Guatemala. Later excavations tunneled into major temple revealing a 2000 years construction history, Ford and her team are currently working with Lidar in order to map the area more extensively. The city grew from Middle Preclassic period, with the first small temples, the civic area was expanded, reaching its greatest extent before 1000 AD. At its height in the Late Classic, the population of El Pilar is estimated to have exceeded 180,000. Ford and her team have excavated many of the plazas, temples and palaces of the monumental civic area, surrounding the monuments is the residence that made up the ancient Maya community. Tzunu’un, a residential unit discovered, mapped and tested in 1984, became the focus of an investigation that excavated, exposed. This is the only house that the public has access to today. Working with Master Maya forest gardeners, the team has developed a forest garden around the house site, the forest gardens of El Pilar are now maintained by the Maya farmers as part of the El Pilar Forest Garden Network. The El Pilar Archeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna is open to the public and has a series of trails providing access throughout the site, tourists can take a taxi from Bullet Tree Falls directly into the Maya site. Intrepid visitors can experience both ancient and contemporary aspects of Maya life promoting Maya culture in the area, there is an active initiative to make El Pilar of Belize and Guatemala the first archaeological peace park in the world. Ford’s conservation strategy, called Archaeology Under the Canopy, promotes the conservation of ancient Maya monuments in the context of their natural environmental context, sheltered under the forest canopy after 1000 years of neglect, El Pilar and all the Maya monuments are best maintained in the shade. This preserves Maya cultural heritage along with the forest gardens the Maya created, the El Pilar Forest Garden Network
