1.
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
–
He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Stephen James Ferris, a portrait painter and a devotee of Jean-Léon Gérôme and Mariano Fortuny. He grew up around art, having been trained by his father, Ferris enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in 1879 and trained further at the Académie Julian beginning in 1883 under William-Adolphe Bouguereau. He also met his namesake Jean-Léon Gérôme, who greatly influenced Ferriss decision to paint scenes from American history, as Ferris wrote in his unpublished autobiography, axiom was that one would paint best that with which he is most familiar. However, initially his subjects were Orientalist in nature, that movement having been in vogue when he was young, some of his material was original, some of it took after Fortuny, but he was skilled enough, despite never having had any experience with Asia. In 1882, he exhibited a painting entitled Feeding the Ibis, by 1895, Ferris had gained a reputation as a historical painter, and he embarked on his dream of creating a series of paintings that told a historical narrative. In 1898 he sold one of these, General Howes Levee,1777, consequently, he never sold another one of those, but he did sell the reproduction rights to various publishing companies. This later would have the effect of greatly popularizing his work, as these companies made prints, postcards, calendars, laminated cards of these works were still being sold as late as 1984. The paintings showed idealized portrayals of famous moments from American history, the Landing of William Penn, for example, shows Penn being greeted at New Castle by American Indians who are clothed in the tradition of tribes from the Great Plains. In The First Thanksgiving 1621, the outfits the Pilgrims are shown wearing are wrong. The complete series was shown at Independence Hall in Philadelphia from 1913 to 1930, in later years it was shown in a number of locations, including the Smithsonian Institution, before being returned to the Ferris family. Ferris, who had married Annette Amelia Ryder in 1894 and with whom had had a daughter named Elizabeth Mary, although his works were widely popular for many years, modern critics are far less generous in their praise. Media related to Jean Leon Gerome Ferris at Wikimedia Commons
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
–
The First Thanksgiving 1621
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
–
The Landing of William Penn
2.
Plymouth Colony
–
Plymouth Colony was an English colonial venture in North America from 1620 to 1691. The first settlement of the Plymouth Colony was at New Plymouth, the settlement served as the capital of the colony, and is the modern town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. At its height, Plymouth Colony occupied most of the portion of the modern state of Massachusetts. Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of Separatists initially known as the Brownist Emigration and Anglicans, who came to be known as the Pilgrims. The colony was able to establish a treaty with Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure its success, in this, they were aided by Squanto and it played a central role in King Philips War, one of the earliest of the Indian Wars. Ultimately, the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony, despite the colonys relatively short existence, Plymouth holds a special role in American history. The social and legal systems of the colony became closely tied to their religious beliefs, many of the people and events surrounding Plymouth Colony have become part of American folklore, including the North American tradition known as Thanksgiving and the monument known as Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of English separatists who later came to be known as the Pilgrims, the core group was part of a Congregationalist congregation led by William Bradford. The congregation began to feel the pressures of religious persecution while still in the English village of Scrooby, near East Retford, in 1607, Archbishop Tobias Matthew raided homes and imprisoned several members of the congregation. The congregation then left England in 1609 and emigrated to the Netherlands, first to Amsterdam, in Leiden, the congregation gained the freedom to worship as they chose, but Dutch society was unfamiliar to them. Scrooby had been a community, whereas Leiden was a thriving industrial center. The community remained close-knit, but their children began adopting Dutch language and customs, the Separatists were also still not free from the persecutions of the English Crown. English authorities came to Leiden to arrest William Brewster in 1618, after he published comments critical of the King of England. Brewster escaped arrest, but the events spurred the congregation to move farther from England. This land patent allowed them to settle at the mouth of the Hudson River and they then sought financing through the Merchant Adventurers, a group of businessmen who principally viewed the colony as a means of making a profit. Upon arriving in America, the Pilgrims began working to repay their debts, using the financing secured from the Merchant Adventurers, the Colonists bought provisions and obtained passage on two ships, the Mayflower and the Speedwell. The Congregation and the colonists finally boarded the Speedwell in July 1620 in the Dutch port of Delfshaven. Speedwell was re-rigged with larger masts before leaving Holland and setting out to meet Mayflower in Southampton, the Mayflower was purchased in London
Plymouth Colony
–
Title page of Captain John Smith's 1616 work
A Description of New England, the first text to use the name "New Plymouth" to describe the site of the future colony
Plymouth Colony
–
Map of Plymouth Colony showing town locations
Plymouth Colony
–
"Signing of the Mayflower Compact" (c. 1900) by Edward Percy Moran
Plymouth Colony
–
"The First Thanksgiving at Plymouth" (1914) By Jennie A. Brownscombe
3.
Mayflower
–
The Mayflower was the ship that transported the first English Separatists, known today as the Pilgrims, from Plymouth, England to the New World in 1620. There were 102 passengers, and the crew is estimated to have been about 30 and this voyage has become an iconic story in some of the earliest annals of American history, with its story of death and of survival in the harsh New England winter environment. The culmination of the voyage in the signing of the Mayflower Compact was an event which established a form of democracy. There was a ship named Mayflower that made the London to Plymouth. This was the cause of the voyage from England to America taking more than two months. The Mayflowers return trip to London in April–May 1621 took less than half that time, by 1620, the Mayflower was aging, nearing the end of the usual working life of an English merchant ship in that era, some 15 years. No dimensions of her hull can be stated exactly, since this was years before such measurements were standardized. She probably measured about 100 feet in length from the end at the beak of her prow to the tip of her stern superstructure aft. She was about 25 feet at her widest point, with the bottom of her keel about 12 feet below the waterline, although William Bradford was not a mariner, he estimated that Mayflower had a cargo capacity of 180 tons. What is known on the basis of surviving records from that time is that she could certainly accommodate 180 casks of wine in her cargo hold, the casks were great barrels that each held hundreds of gallons of claret wine. This was a ship that traditionally was heavily armed while on trading routes around Europe, due to the possibility of encountering pirates, and with its armament, the ship and crew could easily be conscripted by the English monarch at any time in case of conflict with other nations. The general layout of the ship was as follows, Three masts, mizzen, main, and fore, Three primary levels, main deck, gun deck, and cargo hold. Aft on the deck in the stern was the cabin for Master Christopher Jones. Forward of that was the room, which housed a whipstaff for sailing control, not a wheel. Also here was the compass and probably also berths for the ships officers. Forward of the room was the capstan, a vertical axle used to pull in ropes or cables. Far forward on the deck, just aft of the bow, was the forecastle space where the ships cook prepared meals for the crew. The poop deck was above the cabin of Master Jones, on the ships highest level above the stern on the aft castle, the poop house was on this deck, which may have been for passengers use either for sleeping or cargo
Mayflower
–
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882)
Mayflower
–
Mayflower arrived in
the "Cape Cod fishhook", 11 November 1620 (satellite photo, 1997)
Mayflower
–
Plaque on the side of a building next to Newlyn Old Quay
Mayflower
–
The Mayflower Memorial in
Southampton
4.
Separatism
–
A common definition of separatism is that it is the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. While it often refers to political secession, separatist groups may seek nothing more than greater autonomy. There is some debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism. Separatist groups practice a form of identity politics, political activity, such groups believe attempts at integration with dominant groups compromise their identity and ability to pursue greater self-determination. However, economic and political factors usually are critical in creating strong separatist movements as opposed to less ambitious identity movements, groups may have one or more motivations for separation, including, emotional resentment and hatred of rival communities. Protection from ethnic cleansing and genocide, resistance by victims of oppression, including denigration of their language, culture or religion. Propaganda by those who hope to gain politically from intergroup conflict, Economic and political dominance of one group that does not share power and privilege in an egalitarian fashion. Economic motivations, seeking to end exploitation by more powerful group or, conversely. Preservation of threatened religious, language or other cultural tradition, destabilization from one separatist movement giving rise to others. Geopolitical power vacuum from breakup of larger states or empires, continuing fragmentation as more and more states break up. Feeling that the nation was added to the larger state by illegitimate means. The perception that the state can no longer support ones own group or has betrayed their interests, governments may respond in a number of ways, some of which are mutually exclusive. Settle for a confederation or a relationship where there are only limited ties among states. Some governments suppress any separatist movement in their own country, Ethnic separatism is based more on cultural and linguistic differences than religious or racial differences, which also may exist. Chechen separatism in the Caucasus, currently the Republic of Chechnya is part of the Russian Federation, serb separatism in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. Albanian separatism in Kosovo and R. Macedonia Turkish separatism in Cyprus, South Ossetian and Abkhazian separatism in Georgia. Armenian separatists of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan, azeri separatists in Iran want to unite the provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Zanjan and Ardabil with Azerbaijan. Kurdish separatism in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, silesian separatism in Poland and Czech Republic
Separatism
–
Eastern
Ukraine 's separatism emerged as a reaction to the
Euromaidan revolution
Separatism
–
Mural for Catalan independence in
Belfast.
Separatism
–
OLF rebels in Kenya armed with AK-47 rifles.
Separatism
–
A
Tuareg rebel fighter in northern
Niger.
5.
Congregationalists
–
Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
Congregationalists
–
A Congregational church in
Cheshire, CT, United States.
Congregationalists
–
Wycliffe speaking to Lollard preachers
Congregationalists
–
Elsternwick Congregational Church (1894–1977); Orrong Road,
Elsternwick, Victoria, Australia
Congregationalists
–
William Ellis preaching to the Natives, Hawaii, c. 1823
6.
Pilgrim Fathers
–
The Pilgrims or Pilgrim Fathers were early European settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States. The Pilgrims held Calvinist religious beliefs similar to the Puritans but, unlike many Puritans, the colony was established in 1620 and became the second successful English settlement in North America. While seeking religious freedom for their own group, the Pilgrims exhibited intolerance to other faiths, the Pilgrims story became a central theme of the history and culture of the United States. By this time, non-English European colonization of the Americas was also under way in New Netherland, New France, Essequibo, Colonial Brazil, Barbados, the Viceroyalty of Peru, and New Spain. This congregation held Separatist beliefs comparable to nonconforming movements led by Robert Browne, John Greenwood, William Brewster, a former diplomatic assistant to the Netherlands, was living in the Scrooby manor house, serving as postmaster for the village and bailiff to the Archbishop of York. He had been impressed by Clyftons services, and had begun participating in Separatist services led by John Smyth in Gainsborough. The Separatists had long been controversial, under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, it was illegal not to attend official Church of England services, with a fine of one shilling for each missed Sunday and holy day. The penalties for conducting unofficial services included imprisonment and larger fines, under the policy of this time, Barrowe and Greenwood were executed for sedition in 1593. During much of Brewsters tenure, the Archbishop was Matthew Hutton, but the Papistes are opposite and contrarie in very many substantiall pointes of religion, and cannot but wishe the Popes authoritie and popish religion to be established. Following the Conference in 1605, Clyfton was declared a nonconformist, Brewster invited Clyfton to live at his home. Upon Huttons death in 1606, Tobias Matthew was appointed as his replacement, disobedient clergy were replaced, and prominent Separatists were confronted, fined, and imprisoned. He is credited with driving out of the country, those who refused to attend Anglican services. At about the time, Brewster arranged for a congregation to meet privately at the Scrooby manor house. Services were held beginning in 1606, with Clyfton as pastor, John Robinson as teacher, shortly thereafter, Smyth and members of the Gainsborough group moved on to Amsterdam. Brewster is known to have been fined £20 in absentia for his non-compliance with the church and this followed his September 1607 resignation from the postmaster position, about the time that the congregation had decided to follow the Smyth party to Amsterdam. Scrooby member William Bradford of Austerfield kept a journal of the events that later was published as Of Plymouth Plantation. They lived in Leiden, Holland, a city of 100,000 inhabitants, the success of the congregation in Leiden was mixed. Leiden was an industrial center, and many members were well able to support themselves working at Leiden University or in the textile, printing
Pilgrim Fathers
–
"The Embarkation of the Pilgrims" (1857) by the American painter
Robert Walter Weir at the
Brooklyn Museum in
New York City
Pilgrim Fathers
–
Model of a typical
merchantman of the period, showing the cramped conditions that had to be endured.
Pilgrim Fathers
–
Landing of the Pilgrims by
Michele Felice Cornè, circa 1805. Displayed in the
White House
Pilgrim Fathers
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
7.
James VI and I
–
James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
James VI and I
–
Portrait by
Daniel Mytens, 1621
James VI and I
–
Portrait of James as a boy, after
Arnold Bronckorst, 1574
James VI and I
–
James (right) depicted beside his mother
Mary (left). In reality, they were separated when he was still a baby.
James VI and I
–
James in 1586, age 20
8.
Julian Calendar
–
The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
Julian Calendar
–
Russian icon of the
Theophany (the baptism of
Jesus by
John the Baptist) (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the
Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Julian Calendar
–
This is a visual example of the official date change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian
Julian Calendar
–
Key concepts
9.
Gregorian Calendar
–
The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
Gregorian Calendar
Gregorian Calendar
Gregorian Calendar
–
First page of the papal bull
Inter gravissimas
Gregorian Calendar
–
Detail of the pope's tomb by
Camillo Rusconi (completed 1723); Antonio Lilio is genuflecting before the pope, presenting his printed calendar.
10.
Provincetown Harbor
–
Provincetown Harbor is a large natural harbor located in the town of Provincetown, Massachusetts. A tall green buoy east of Long Point marks the entrance to Provincetown Harbor from Cape Cod Bay, most of Cape Cod was created by the Laurentide Glacier between 18,000 and 15,000 years ago. Near this cape we came to anchor in fifteen fathoms, where we took great store of codfish, for which we altered the name, here we saw sculls of herring, mackerel, and other small fish, in great abundance. This is a low sandy shoal, but without danger. John Smith explored the harbor in 1614 and wrote, Cape Cod. is only a headland of high hills of sand, overgrown with pines, hurts, and such trash. This Cape is made by the sea on the one side. Provincetown Harbor was the initial anchoring place of the Pilgrims traveling on the Mayflower in 1620, before they proceeded to Plymouth, thoreau later observed that Smiths description of the harbor may have been less colored by the hardships of transoceanic troubles than the Pilgrims. The Mayflower held several different passengers in addition to the Pilgrims on its first transoceanic voyage, before coming ashore at the extreme northwest corner of the harbor, the Pilgrims and other settlers signed the Mayflower Compact in the harbor on November 11,1620. Dorothy Bradford, the first wife of William Bradford, was one of the first adult Pilgrims to die in the New World. According to the only written description of her death from close to when it actually occurred, she fell overboard from the Mayflower in Provincetown Harbor on December 17,1620. Peregrine White, the first child born to the Pilgrims in New England, was born while they were in Provincetown Harbor. From 1818 until the 1850s a fishing village existed at Long Point, complete with a post office, schoolhouse,6 windmills for saltworks, when the families left in the 1850s, they floated their homes a mile across the harbor, where many still stand today. During the American Civil War, the military established defensive artillery positions at this location. The Long Point Battery would come to be known as Fort Useless, today, Long Point is a ghost village, and nothing remains save for the Long Point Light, which had been replaced by a new light in 1875. For the better part of history, the eastern part of Provincetown harbor was connected to yet another harbor. East Harbor was the most protected mooring place in the outer Cape for boats using Cape Cod Bay, East Harbor had a 1, 000-foot-wide inlet from Provincetown Harbor, as shown in the adjacent map from 1836. A wooden bridge was erected over the East Harbor in 1854, only to be destroyed by a winter storm and this made Provincetown much like an island, in that it relied almost entirely upon its harbor for its communication, travel, and commerce needs. The East Harbor thus became a lake, connected to Provincetown Harbor only through a culvert in the dike, and in 1910, tidal flow was successfully restored by the National Park Service working together with other local, state, and federal agencies
Provincetown Harbor
–
Cape Cod's Provincetown Harbor
Provincetown Harbor
–
Aerial view of Provincetown with harbor toward bottom right
Provincetown Harbor
–
An 1882 painting of the Mayflower at anchor by William Halsall
Provincetown Harbor
–
Long Point Light at the tip of Cape Cod
11.
Cape Cod
–
Cape Cod is a geographic cape extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months, as defined by the Cape Cod Commissions enabling legislation, Cape Cod is conterminous with Barnstable County, Massachusetts. It extends from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest, since 1914, Cape Cod has been separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal. The canal cuts 17.5 miles roughly across the base of the peninsula, though portions of the Cape Cod towns of Bourne. Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal, the Sagamore Bridge, in addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and limited passenger services onto the Cape. Cape territory is divided into fifteen towns with many villages, like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations, commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape, the phrases Cape Cod and the Islands and the Cape and Islands are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County, Dukes County, and Nantucket County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, the Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned, one of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Cape Cod in particular is a retirement area,27. 8% of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older. And the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England, by voter registration numbers, Democrats outnumber Republicans by less in the three counties than in the whole of Massachusetts, to varying degrees. The name Cape Cod, as it was first used in 1602 and it remained that way for 125 years, until the Precinct of Cape Cod was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown. No longer in use over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal. The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland, most agencies, including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness, groundwater management, and the like. Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a line between Provincetown and Marshfield. North of Cape Cod Bay is Massachusetts Bay, which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod, and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay, Cape Cod extends 65 miles into the Atlantic Ocean, with a breadth of between 1–20 miles, and covers more than 400 miles of shoreline. Its elevation ranges from 306 feet at its highest point, at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod, one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, Cape Cod shields much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves
Cape Cod
–
Cape Cod National Seashore
Cape Cod
–
The Cape and Islands
Cape Cod
–
The dunes on
Sandy Neck are part of the
barrier beach that helps prevent
coastal erosion.
Cape Cod
–
Barnstable County historical map, 1890
12.
Colony of Virginia
–
The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
–
"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
–
Flag
Colony of Virginia
–
Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
–
Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
13.
Massachusetts
–
It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
–
A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
–
Flag
Massachusetts
–
Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
–
The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
14.
Social contract
–
The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore, is often an aspect of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract, a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept, the starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent any political order that Thomas Hobbes termed the state of nature. In this condition, individuals actions are only by their personal power. Each solved the problem of authority in a different way. Grotius posited that human beings had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a state of nature, human life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, though the sovereigns edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the authority of government. Pufendorf disputed Hobbess equation of a state of nature with war, the central assertion of social contract approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but are instead human creations. According to Hobbes citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism, the Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence. The concept of the contract is posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic. They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good, to suffer injustice, evil, for no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist, he would be mad if he did. Such is the account, Socrates, of the nature. The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato, Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the worlds oldest records. The Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata, then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt the need of food and shelter. As men lost their glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property. He was called the Great Chosen One, and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people, in his rock edicts, the Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. There never was such a thing as justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm
Social contract
–
The original cover of
Thomas Hobbes 's work
Leviathan, 1651.
15.
Leiden
–
Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
Leiden
–
The Old Rhine in Leiden appears as a
gracht
Leiden
–
Windmill museum De Valk
Leiden
–
Otto van Veen: Relief of Leiden (1574), Inundated meadows allow the Dutch fleet access to the Spanish infantry positions.
Leiden
–
17th-century houses along the Herengracht.
16.
Dutch Republic
–
It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
Dutch Republic
–
Dutch East-India trading ship 1600
Dutch Republic
–
Flag
Dutch Republic
–
Onrust Island near
Batavia, 1699
Dutch Republic
–
Courtyard of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 1653
17.
Plymouth, Massachusetts
–
Plymouth /ˈplɪməθ/ is a town in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States. Plymouth holds a place of prominence in American history, folklore, and culture. Plymouth was the site of the founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims. Plymouth is where New England was first established and it is the oldest municipality in New England and one of the oldest in the United States. The town has served as the location of prominent events. Plymouth served as the capital of Plymouth Colony from its founding in 1620 until the merger with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691. Plymouth is named after the English city of the same name, Plymouth is the largest municipality in Massachusetts by area. The population is 58,271, according to the 2014 Demographics by Cubit, Plymouth is one of two county seats of Plymouth County, the other being Brockton. Plymouth is located approximately 40 miles south of Boston in a region of Massachusetts known as the South Shore. Throughout the 19th century, the town thrived as a center of ropemaking, fishing, and shipping, and once held the worlds largest ropemaking company and it continues to be an active port, but today the major industry of Plymouth is tourism. Plymouth is served by Plymouth Municipal Airport, and contains Pilgrim Hall Museum, as one of the countrys first settlements, Plymouth is well known in the United States for its historical value. The events surrounding the history of Plymouth have become part of the ethos of the United States, particularly relating to Plymouth Rock, the Pilgrims. The town itself is a popular tourist spot during the Thanksgiving holiday, Plymouth is home to the Old Colony Club, one of the oldest Gentlemens clubs in the world. Prior to the arrival of the Pilgrims, the location of Plymouth was a village of 2,000 Wampanoag Native Americans called Patuxet and this region that became Plymouth was visited twice by European explorers prior to the establishment of Plymouth Colony. In 1605, Samuel de Champlain sailed to Plymouth Harbor, calling it Port St. Louis, captain John Smith, a leader of the colony at Jamestown, Virginia, explored parts of Cape Cod Bay, he is credited with naming the region New Plimouth. Two plagues afflicted coastal New England in 1614 and 1617, possibly transmitted from British, the plague killed between 90% and 95% of the local Wampanoag inhabitants. Plymouth has played an important role in American colonial history. It was the landing site of the first voyage of the Mayflower
Plymouth, Massachusetts
–
Court Street, Plymouth Center, 2009
Plymouth, Massachusetts
–
Flag
Plymouth, Massachusetts
–
The First Thanksgiving, painted by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (1863–1930). The First Thanksgiving took place in Plymouth in 1621.
Plymouth, Massachusetts
–
A Plymouth deed signed by
Josiah Cotton as Register of Deeds, Courtesy of Shiwei Jiang
18.
Plymouth
–
Plymouths early history extends to the Bronze Age, when a first settlement emerged at Mount Batten. This settlement continued as a trading post for the Roman Empire, until it was surpassed by the prosperous village of Sutton founded in the ninth century. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers departed Plymouth for the New World, during the English Civil War the town was held by the Parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646. The combined town took the name of Plymouth which, in 1928, the citys naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during World War II, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war the city centre was rebuilt and subsequent expansion led to the incorporation of Plympton. The city is home to 262,700 people, making it the 30th most populous area in the United Kingdom. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and is represented nationally by three MPs, Plymouths economy remains strongly influenced by shipbuilding and seafaring including ferry links to Brittany and Spain, but has tended toward a service-based economy since the 1990s. It has the largest operational base in Western Europe – HMNB Devonport and is home to Plymouth University. An unidentified settlement named TAMARI OSTIA is listed in Ptolemys Geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city, at the time this village was called Sutton, meaning south town in Old English. The name Plym Mouth, meaning mouth of the River Plym was first mentioned in a Pipe Roll of 1211, the name Plymouth first officially replaced Sutton in a charter of King Henry VI in 1440. See Plympton for the derivation of the name Plym, during the Hundred Years War a French attack burned a manor house and took some prisoners, but failed to get into the town. In 1403 the town was burned by Breton raiders, on 12 November,1439, the English Parliament made Plymouth the first town incorporated. The castle served to protect Sutton Pool, which is where the fleet was based in Plymouth prior to the establishment of Plymouth Dockyard. In 1512 an Act of Parliament was passed for further fortifying Plymouth, defences on St Nicholas Island also date from this time, and a string of six artillery blockhouses were built, including one on Fishers Nose at the south-eastern corner of the Hoe. This location was further strengthened by the building of a fort in 1596, during the 16th century locally produced wool was the major export commodity. According to legend, Drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the Hoe before engaging the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers set sail for the New World from Plymouth, during the English Civil War Plymouth sided with the Parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the Royalists. The last major attack by the Royalist was by Sir Richard Grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards Plymouth, the civil war ended as a Parliamentary win, but monarchy was restored by King Charles II in 1660, who imprisoned many of the Parliamentary heroes on Drakes Island
Plymouth
–
Plymouth Hoe viewed from
Mount Batten
Plymouth
Plymouth
–
Prysten House, Finewell Street, 1498, is the oldest surviving house in Plymouth, and built from local Plymouth Limestone and
Dartmoor granite
Plymouth
–
John Foulston 's Town Hall, Column and Library in
Devonport
19.
Devon
–
Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
Devon
–
Menhir at
Drizzlecombe
Devon
Devon
–
Part of the seafront of
Torquay, south Devon, at high tide
Devon
–
Heathland at
Woodbury Common in south east Devon
20.
Of Plimoth Plantation
–
The book ends with a list, written in 1651, of Mayflower passengers and what happened to them. The document has carried many names, at the top of the original text is Of Plim̃oth Plantation, but newer prints of the text utilize the modern spelling, Plymouth. The text of Bradfords journal is called the History of Plymouth Plantation. In Wilberforces text it is cited as History of the Plantation of Plymouth and it is also sometimes called William Bradfords Journal. A version published by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is titled Bradfords History Of Plimoth Plantation while labeled The Bradford History on the spine and it has also been called The Mayflower, although it is not a ships log and was written after the events. Bradford’s history is a blend of fact and interpretation, the Bradford journal records not only the events of the first 30 years but also the reactions of the colonists. The Bradford journal is regarded by historians as the preeminent work of 17th century America and it is Bradford’s simple yet vivid story, as told in his journal, that has made the Pilgrims the much-loved spiritual ancestors of all Americans. Bradford apparently never made an effort to publish the manuscript during his lifetime, as also that some use may be made hereof in after times by others in such like weighty employments, and herewith I will end this chapter. Bradford, like all writers of his time, uses a variety of spelling, a rule code for spelling was unknown then and dictionaries were uncommon. Consistency in spelling was not a virtue, and even important state papers might reflect regional speech, in addition, there were a number of particular customs used, as for example the long s, which was used when the letter s was doubled or used initially. Bradford also uses common abbreviations such as wt for with, and it should also be noted that the y was not the y as used in present English, but instead was a thorn or thet, pronounced as th is today. The word ye was not pronounced as yee, but rather was pronounced as the is today, after the death of Thomas Prence, who succeeded Bradford as Governor of Plymouth Colony, the manuscript was left in the tower of the Old South Meeting House in Boston. During the Revolutionary War, British troops occupied the church and the manuscript was lost for another century, when Bishop of London Frederick Temple learned of the importance of the book, he thought it should be returned. Because the book was being held by the Church of England, by the time the formal request from Hoars group reached England, the Archbishop was Frederick Temple. The bishops court ordered that a copy of the document be made for the court. The Bradford journal was presented to the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts during a joint session of the legislature on May 26,1897 and it is on deposit in the State Library of Massachusetts in the State House in Boston. In June 1897 the state legislature ordered publication of the history with copies of the associated with the return. In 1912, the Massachusetts Historical Society published an authorized version of the text
Of Plimoth Plantation
–
The front page of the Bradford journal
21.
William Bradford (1590-1657)
–
William Bradford was an English Separatist originally from the West Riding of Yorkshire, who later moved to Leiden in Holland, and then in 1620 migrated to the Plymouth Colony on the Mayflower. He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact and went on to serve as Governor of the Plymouth Colony intermittently for thirty years between 1621 and 1657. His journal Of Plimoth Plantation covered the years from 1620 to 1657 in Plymouth, William Bradford was born to Alice and William Bradford in Austerfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, being baptized on March 19, 1589/90. In a time when most of their countrymen were farmers of modest means, Bradfords childhood was marked by numerous deaths in the family. He was just over a year old when his father died, when he was four years old, his mother remarried, and Bradford was sent to live with his grandfather. Two years later, his grandfather died, and he returned to live with his mother and stepfather, a year later, in 1597, his mother died. Bradford thus became an orphan at the age of seven and was sent to live with two uncles. His uncles wanted young Bradford to help on the farm, and he became familiar with the Bible and classic works of literature. This, too, is seen by some as a key factor in his intellectual curiosity, when Bradford was twelve years old a young friend invited him to hear the Rev Richard Clyfton preach ten miles away in All Saints Church that is located in Babworth. Clyfton was a minister who believed that the Church of England ought to institute reforms to eliminate all vestiges of Roman Catholic practices. Proponents believed that this would result in a purer Christian church, Bradford was inspired by Clyfton’s preachings and continued to attend his sermons, even though he was forbidden by his uncles. During one meeting, Bradford met William Brewster, who was a bailiff and his residence was at Scrooby manor, four miles from Austerfield. During frequent visits, Bradford borrowed books from Brewster, and Brewster regaled the young man with stories of the efforts toward church reform taking place across England. When King James I came to the English throne in 1603, he declared that he would put an end to church reform movements and deal harshly with radical critics of the Church of England. By 1607, secret meetings were being held at Scrooby Manor and about 50 reform-minded individuals began to celebrate the Sabbath led by Richard Clyfton and this group decided that reform of the Church of England was hopeless and they would sever all ties, and they became known as Separatists. The weekly meetings of the Separatists attracted the attention of the Archbishop of York, Brewster was found guilty of being disobedient in matters of religion and was fined. Some members were imprisoned and others were watched night and day, according to Bradford, adding to their concerns, the Scrooby congregation learned that other Separatists in London had been imprisoned and left to starve. The Scrooby congregation decided in 1607 to leave England unlawfully for the Dutch Republic, most of the congregation were imprisoned for a short time after this failed attempt, including Bradford
William Bradford (1590-1657)
–
"Embarkation of the Pilgrims," by
Robert Walter Weir.William Bradford is depicted at center, kneeling in the background, symbolically behind Governor John Carver (holding hat) whom Bradford would succeed.
William Bradford (1590-1657)
–
The Manor House,
Austerfield,
South Yorkshire —birthplace of William Bradford
William Bradford (1590-1657)
–
A modern view of the city of
Leiden featuring the
Hooglandse Kerk
William Bradford (1590-1657)
–
Signing the Mayflower Compact 1620, a painting by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris 1899
22.
Nathaniel Morton
–
Nathaniel Morton was a Separatist settler of Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, where he served for most of his life as Plymouths secretary under his uncle, Governor William Bradford. Nathaniel Morton the eldest son of George Morton and his wife Juliana Carpenter, Mortons son Nathaniel was born in Leiden, Holland, during the time the Separatists lived there between their flight from England and their eventual migration to Plymouth Colony. The Morton family sailed for Plymouth on the ship Ann in 1623, after his fathers untimely death, Nathaniel was taken into the household of his uncle William Bradford, then governor of Plymouth. Morton married Lydia Cooper on 25 Dec 1635 and they had nine children, Remember, Mercy, Hannah, Eleazer, Lydia, Nathaniel, a stillborn daughter, Elizabeth and Joanna. After the death of Lydia, Nathaniel married Anne Pritchard, Remember Morton, daughter of Nathaniel Morton, married Abraham Jackson of Plymouth, another initial proprietor of the colony. Their descendant Lydia Jackson became the wife of philosopher, poet. From December 1645 until his death, Morton was annually elected Secretary of Plymouth Colony and it later turned up in the library of the Bishop of London in 1855, and was returned to Massachusetts. Morton also wrote First Beginnings and After Progress of the Church of Christ at Plymouth, annually since 1961, The Wall Street Journal publishes an excerpt from Mortons history of Plymouth Colony as an op-ed the Wednesday before Thanksgiving Day. Morton was also the first to record the list of signers of the Mayflower Compact in his work of 1669, john Ratcliff Anderson, Robert Charles, The Great Migration Begins 1620-1633, II, Boston, Mass
Nathaniel Morton
–
Stamps on
tercentenary of signing of
Mayflower Compact, 1920. List of signers first printed by Nathaniel Morton of
Plymouth Colony in 1669
Nathaniel Morton
–
Title page, New England's Memorial, by Nathaniel Morton. Published at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1669
23.
Julian calendar
–
The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
Julian calendar
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Russian icon of the
Theophany (the baptism of
Jesus by
John the Baptist) (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the
Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Julian calendar
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This is a visual example of the official date change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian
Julian calendar
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Key concepts
24.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar
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First page of the papal bull
Inter gravissimas
Gregorian calendar
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Detail of the pope's tomb by
Camillo Rusconi (completed 1723); Antonio Lilio is genuflecting before the pope, presenting his printed calendar.
25.
Thomas Prince
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Thomas Prince was an American clergyman, scholar and historian noted for his historical text A Chronological History of New England, in the Form of Annals. He was the child of Samuel Prince Esq. and Mercy Hinkley. While at Harvard his interest in books was sparked after he chanced in my leisure Hours to read Mr, after graduation he began teaching at Sandwich while working on his M. A, which was granted in absentia in 1710 a year after he had begun travelling. He spent 2 years travelling to such as the West Indies and Madeira before travelling to England in 1711. He returned to Boston in 1717, homesick, and traveled with Deborah and her brother Samuel Denny and he married Deborah on October 30,1719, they had four daughters and a son. He was ordained as a minister on October 1,1718 by Dr. Joseph Sewell, and became the pastor for Old South Church, a position he retained until his death. In 1728 Prince began work on a A Chronological History of New England, in the Form of Annals, a history of New England beginning with the 6th day of creation. The volume had poor sales, which is attributed to the lack of need for a text of such detail at that time and the lack of interest in a text written for a higher purpose than to amuse its reader. Despite the lack of interest in the text Prince continued to work as a second volume, due to lack of further interest in the text this format was discontinued. I have laboured after accuracy, and yet I dare not say that I am without mistake, nor do I desire the reader to conceal any he may possibly find. ”Prince, a noted preacher presented a sermon at his own ordination which was said to be a wonderful production. He was given offers from various churches in New England upon his return. In the 1740s he was a supporter of the First Great Awakening, inviting George Whitefield to preach in Boston in September 1740. The publication is notable as the first such Christian periodical to be created, in 1743 he wrote An Account of the Revival of Religion in Boston in the Years 1740-1-2-3, an account of the revival of Christianity in Boston linked in part to his support of the Great Awakening. As well as the collection of books, Thomas Prince also left an intellectual legacy. Dr. Charles Chauncy, a frequent ideological opponent of Prince and he may be justly characterized as one of our great men. Deserves to be remembered with honour and his reliance on primary sources and meticulous checks of factual accuracy also makes his Annals a key historical work, one which is still in print today. A printing company named after him was also formed in 1858, the Prince Society, described in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature as one of the most honoured of American historical organizations is also named after him. Thomas Prince, and was by him bequeathed to the Old South Church,1870 http, //www. americanantiquarian. org/Inventories/Portraits/97. htm Princes library now resides in the Boston Public Library
Thomas Prince
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Signature
Thomas Prince
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Portrait by
Joseph Badger ca.1750 (courtesy American Antiquarian Society)
Thomas Prince
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For other uses, see
Thomas Prince (disambiguation).
26.
Genealogy
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Genealogy, also known as family history, is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship, the results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives. Amateur genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses, professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to other professionals, both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who can prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose to support the group. Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from experienced researchers. Such societies generally serve a specific geographical area and their members may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries. Some schools engage students in projects as a means to reinforce lessons regarding immigration. Other benefits include family medical histories with families with medical conditions that are hereditary. The terms genealogy and family history are used synonymously. The term family history may be popular in Europe, genealogy more popular in the United States. In communitarian societies, ones identity is defined as much by ones kin network as by individual achievement, would be answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe. New Zealand Māori, for example, learn whakapapa to discover who they are, Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a doctrine of baptism for the dead, in societies such as Australia or the United States, there was by the 20th-century growing pride in the pioneers and nation-builders. Establishing descent from these was, and is, important to such groups as the Daughters of the American Revolution, in Nazi Germany, family histories were compiled to affirm individuals affiliation with the master race and to adhere to legal requirements for marriage. In Germany today, family history is often perceived as a threat to privacy rather than as a source of self-esteem. Most 20th-century sources remain unavailable to the public on privacy grounds, funding of support for family history at archives is limited
Genealogy
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The family tree of
Ludwig Herzog von Württemberg (ruled 1568–1593)
Genealogy
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12 generations patrilineage of a Hindu Lingayat male from central
Karnataka worth over 275 years, depicted in descending order
Genealogy
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A Medieval genealogy traced from
Adam and Eve
Genealogy
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GRAMPS is an example of genealogy software.
27.
John Carver (Mayflower passenger)
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John Carver is credited with writing the Mayflower Compact, was its first signer, and was the first governor of New Plymouth Colony. Carver was a Leiden Separatist instrumental in organizing the Pilgrims Mayflower voyage in 1620, on which he was a passenger, a good candidate location for his ancestry may be the parish of Doncaster in Yorkshire, northern England. The author Charles Edward Banks thought so in 1929 but may have chosen the wrong Carver family to give credence to his research, the area did have a number of parishes that would eventually comprise the Separatist church whose members escaped to Holland and later to America. Bangs does note that on February 8,1609 John Carver and his first wife Mary de Lannoy, of L’Escluse, like the Separatists, who came to Holland from England about 1607/1608, the French Huguenot community was fleeing adverse events in their homeland. Mayflower passenger Francis Cooke and his French wife Hester Mahieu were also members of the French church in Leiden as was Philip de Lannoy and he may have been a relative of Carver’s wife Mary. John Carver was a deacon in Leiden about 1609 at about age 25, Leiden records of St. Pancras Church state that Carver buried a child on July 10,1609. Sometime shortly after the death of the child, Carvers wife Mary died, John Carver married secondly Katherine White, who was a prominent member of the Leiden English Separatist church. She was originally of Sturton in Nottinghamshire, eldest daughter of Alexander White, John Carvers name appears in Leiden church records for the first time in witnessing a betrothal on May 13,1616. And on May 19,1617 Katherine Carver witnessed the betrothal of Robert Cushman, Robert Cushman was a deacon of the Leiden church and would play an important part, as chief agent for the church, in preparing the Mayflower for her voyage. With the forces of King James I searching for Elder Brewster who was in hiding and they came in contact with Sir Edwin Sandys, an acquaintance of church Elder William Brewster and a leading member of the Virginia Company. The articles basically acknowledged the supremacy of the king and the Church of England, Sir Edwin Sandys reported back to Pastor John Robinson and Elder William Brewster that Carver and Cushman had carried themselves with good discretion. On November 11,1617, at St. Pancras in Leiden, Katherine Carver buried a child, by late 1618 Carver and Cushman had finally received a patent from the Virginia Company. To fund the Mayflower voyage the Leiden congregation turned to Thomas Weston, John Carver had the task of organizing the voyage, and along with chief agent Robert Cushman, the very burdensome task of negotiating funding with Thomas Weston and the Adventurers. John Carver was very wealthy and provided much of his fortune to the congregation in Leiden. Also boarding the Mayflower were four children of the More family who were sent in the care of senior Pilgrims, John Carver was entrusted with a seven-year-old boy by the name of Jasper More. The story of children was tragic, but at that time probably no one on the Mayflower knew their background. Jasper and three siblings were probably the result of a romantic relationship between his mother, a woman of the Shropshire gentry and a lover. Katherine Mores husband, Samuel More, believing that the four children were not his own, arranged to send them as indentured servants to the Colony of Virginia, the Mayflowers original destination
John Carver (Mayflower passenger)
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Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882)
John Carver (Mayflower passenger)
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Signing the Mayflower Compact 1620, a painting by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, 1899
28.
William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
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William Bradford was an English Separatist originally from the West Riding of Yorkshire, who later moved to Leiden in Holland, and then in 1620 migrated to the Plymouth Colony on the Mayflower. He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact and went on to serve as Governor of the Plymouth Colony intermittently for thirty years between 1621 and 1657. His journal Of Plimoth Plantation covered the years from 1620 to 1657 in Plymouth, William Bradford was born to Alice and William Bradford in Austerfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, being baptized on March 19, 1589/90. In a time when most of their countrymen were farmers of modest means, Bradfords childhood was marked by numerous deaths in the family. He was just over a year old when his father died, when he was four years old, his mother remarried, and Bradford was sent to live with his grandfather. Two years later, his grandfather died, and he returned to live with his mother and stepfather, a year later, in 1597, his mother died. Bradford thus became an orphan at the age of seven and was sent to live with two uncles. His uncles wanted young Bradford to help on the farm, and he became familiar with the Bible and classic works of literature. This, too, is seen by some as a key factor in his intellectual curiosity, when Bradford was twelve years old a young friend invited him to hear the Rev Richard Clyfton preach ten miles away in All Saints Church that is located in Babworth. Clyfton was a minister who believed that the Church of England ought to institute reforms to eliminate all vestiges of Roman Catholic practices. Proponents believed that this would result in a purer Christian church, Bradford was inspired by Clyfton’s preachings and continued to attend his sermons, even though he was forbidden by his uncles. During one meeting, Bradford met William Brewster, who was a bailiff and his residence was at Scrooby manor, four miles from Austerfield. During frequent visits, Bradford borrowed books from Brewster, and Brewster regaled the young man with stories of the efforts toward church reform taking place across England. When King James I came to the English throne in 1603, he declared that he would put an end to church reform movements and deal harshly with radical critics of the Church of England. By 1607, secret meetings were being held at Scrooby Manor and about 50 reform-minded individuals began to celebrate the Sabbath led by Richard Clyfton and this group decided that reform of the Church of England was hopeless and they would sever all ties, and they became known as Separatists. The weekly meetings of the Separatists attracted the attention of the Archbishop of York, Brewster was found guilty of being disobedient in matters of religion and was fined. Some members were imprisoned and others were watched night and day, according to Bradford, adding to their concerns, the Scrooby congregation learned that other Separatists in London had been imprisoned and left to starve. The Scrooby congregation decided in 1607 to leave England unlawfully for the Dutch Republic, most of the congregation were imprisoned for a short time after this failed attempt, including Bradford
William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
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"Embarkation of the Pilgrims," by
Robert Walter Weir.William Bradford is depicted at center, kneeling in the background, symbolically behind Governor John Carver (holding hat) whom Bradford would succeed.
William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
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The Manor House,
Austerfield,
South Yorkshire —birthplace of William Bradford
William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
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A modern view of the city of
Leiden featuring the
Hooglandse Kerk
William Bradford (Plymouth governor)
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Signing the Mayflower Compact 1620, a painting by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris 1899
29.
Edward Winslow (Mayflower passenger)
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Edward Winslow was a Separatist who traveled on the Mayflower in 1620. He was one of senior leaders on the ship and also later at Plymouth Colony. Both Edward Winslow and his brother, Gilbert Winslow signed the Mayflower Compact, in Plymouth he served in a number of governmental positions such as assistant governor, three times was governor and also was the colonys agent in London. In early 1621 he had one of several key leaders on whom Governor Bradford depended after the death of John Carver. In 1655 he died of fever while on a British naval expedition in the Caribbean against the Spanish and he is the only Plymouth colonist with an extant portrait, and this can be seen at Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Massachusetts. Edward Winslow was born in 1595 and would have been baptized a few days later and he was the eldest son of Edward Winslow of Droitwich, co. Worcestershire, by his wife Magdalene Oliver whom he married the year at St. Brides Church. The Winslow estate in Kempsey was called Kersweil with a name of Careswell later being given to the gentrified Plymouth estate of Governor Josiah Winslow, son of Edward Winslow. Author Charles Banks notes that it is probable that this Edward. Author Eugene Stratton believes that no one has been able to discern Kenelm Winslows ancestry with any certainty, Kenelm Winslow, probably a brother of Edward, Sr. born in 1551, was called a resident of Worcester, yeoman, in 1605. It is not certain if the family was gentry, but were at least fairly well-off, Edward, Sr. was an under-sheriff and involved in the salt production trade. Edward Winslow had four younger brothers –Gilbert accompanying him on the Mayflower in 1620, with other brothers John, Josiah, between April 1606 and April 1611, Edward Winslow attended the Kings School at Worcester Cathedral. But Winslow apparently did not fulfill his contract with Beale as about two years later, in 1617, he moved to Leiden, Holland to join the Separatist church there. In 1617 Edward Winslow traveled to Leiden Holland to join the English exile Separatist church, on April 27,1618 Winslow married in Leiden Elizabeth Barker, he being called a printer from London. Johnson reports that a search of possible English ancestral and baptismal records for Elizabeth does not reveal anything of note, merchant Adventurer investment group agent Thomas Weston assisted in this venture by providing the ship Mayflower for the Pilgrims journey. Traveling on the Mayflower in company with the Winslows were his brother Gilbert and family servant/employee George Soule, Also in the care of the family was Elinor More, a girl of eight years. In all there were four unaccompanied More children from Shipton, Shropshire in the care of senior Pilgrims on the Mayflower, Elinor, Jasper, Mary, Elinor perished the winter of 1620 with only one brother Richard More surviving. The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on September 6/16,1620, the small, 100-foot ship had 102 passengers and the crew is estimated to be approximately 30 but the exact number is unknown
Edward Winslow (Mayflower passenger)
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Edward Winslow
Edward Winslow (Mayflower passenger)
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Signing the Mayflower Compact 1620, a painting by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris 1899
30.
William Brewster (Mayflower passenger)
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William Brewster was an English official and Mayflower passenger in 1620. In Plymouth Colony, by virtue of his education and existing stature with those immigrating from the Netherlands, Brewster, a separatist, became a regular preacher, William Brewster was born in 1568, most probably in Scrooby, Nottinghamshire, England. He was the son of William Brewster and Mary and he had a number of half-siblings and his paternal grandparents were William Brewster, and Maud Mann. His maternal grandfather was William Smythe and he studied briefly at Peterhouse, Cambridge, before entering the service of William Davison in 1584. Brewster was the only Pilgrim with political and diplomatic experience, with his mentor in prison, Brewster had returned home to Scrooby for a time, where he took up his father’s former position as postmaster. While, earlier in the 16th century, reformers had hoped to amend the Anglican church, by the end of it, many were looking toward splitting from it. On its first attempt, in 1607, the group was arrested at Scotia Creek, in 1609, he was selected as ruling elder of the congregation. William lived near St. Peters church in Leiden with his wife and he taught English to Leiden University students and was also a printer of religious pamphlets. His son, Jonathan, was a ribbonweaver, William was chosen as assistant and later as an elder to Pastor John Robinson. He was still an elder when he travelled to Plymouth Colony in 1620, in Leiden, the group managed to make a living. Brewster taught English and later, in 1616–1619, as the partner of one Thomas Brewer, printed and published books for sale in England. In 1619 Brewster and Edward Winslow published a religious tract critical of the English king, the printing type was seized by the authorities from the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, and Brewsters partner was arrested. Brewster escaped and, with the help of Robert Cushman and Sir Edwin Sandys, obtained a patent from the London Virginia Company on behalf of himself. With Brewster in hiding, the Separatists looked to their deacon John Carver, in 1620 when it came time for the Mayflower departure, Elder Brewster returned to the Leiden congregation. He had been hiding out in Holland and perhaps even England for the last year, at the time of his return, Brewster was the highest-ranking layperson of the congregation and would be their designated spiritual leader in the New World. Brewster joined the first group of Separatists aboard the Mayflower on the voyage to North America, Brewster was accompanied by his wife, Mary Brewster, and his sons, Love Brewster and Wrestling Brewster. Among the people boarding the Mayflower were four unaccompanied children from Shipton and they were placed as indentured servants with senior Separatists William Brewster, John Carver and Robert Cushman, on behalf of Samuel More, husband of the children’s mother, Katherine More. Two children were placed with William and Mary Brewster, the Mayflower departed Plymouth in England in September 1620
William Brewster (Mayflower passenger)
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A rare 17th-century "
Brewster Chair," named after William Brewster
William Brewster (Mayflower passenger)
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Signing the Mayflower Compact 1620, a painting by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris 1899
