1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
3.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab
4.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
5.
Nagapattinam district
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Nagapattinam district is a coastal district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. Nagapattinam district was carved out by bifurcating the erstwhile composite Thanjavur district on October 19,1991, the town of Nagapattinam is the district headquarters. As of 2011, the district had a population of 1,616,450 with a sex-ratio of 1,025 females for every 1,000 males. It is the only district in Tamil Nadu Nagapattinam is derived from Nagar, referring to people from Sri Lanka who settled here. The town was also called Cholakula Vallipattinam during the Chola period, ptolemy refers to Nagapattinam as Nikam and mentions it as one of the most important trade centres of the ancient Tamil country. This view is doubtful as there is no evidence to prove the existence of the town as a metropolis in the name of Nikama or Nikam. Nagapattinam was referred to by writers and the Portuguese as the city of Coromandel. Appar and Tirugnanasambandar, the 7th-century saint poets refer to the city as Nagai in their verses in Tevaram, the town was originally called Nagai, the word Pattinam was attached during the Chola era when the town emerged as an important port. There are urn burials in and around the city from the Sangam period indicating some level of human habitation, the neighbouring port, Kaveripoompattinam, was the capital of the Chola kingdom of the Sangam Age, referred to widely in Tamil scriptures like Paṭṭiṉappālai. The early works of Tevaram by the 7th-century poets Appar and Sambandar mention that the town had fortified walls, busy roads, buildings, the inscriptions from the Kayarohanswami temple indicate the construction was initiated during the reign of the Pallava king, Narasimha Pallava II. A Buddhist pagoda was built under Chinese influence by the Pallava king, in the 11th century CE, Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery was built by Javanese king Sri Vijaya Soolamanivarman with the patronage of Raja Raja Chola. Nagapattinam was the prominent port of Cholas for trade and conquering gateway to the east, in the early 16th century the Portuguese made commercial contacts with the town and established a commercial centre in 1554 CE. The Portuguese also conducted missionary enterprise in the town, in 1658, the Dutch established an agreement with King Vijaya Nayakkar of Thanjavur on 5 January 1662. Ten Christian churches and a hospital were built by the Dutch and they also released coins with the name Nagappattinam engraved in Tamil letters. Under an agreement between the first Maratta King Egoji of Thanjavur and the Dutch, Naagappattinam and surrounding villages were handed over to the Dutch on 30 December 1676, in 1690, the capital of Dutch Coromandel moved from Pulicat to Nagapattinam. The town was taken by the British from the Dutch in 1781, when the Dutch and British reached a peace agreement in 1784, Nagapattinam was formally ceded to the British. 277 villages, with Nagore as the headquarters, were handed over to the East India Company, from 1799 to 1845 CE Nagapttinam was the headquarters of Tanjore district. Nagapattinam and Nagore were incorporated as a municipality in 1866 CE
6.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
7.
Postal Index Number
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A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
8.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
9.
Nagapattinam
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Nagapattinam is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. The town came to prominence during the period of Medieval Cholas and served as their important port for commerce, the Chudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam constructed by the Sri Lankan king with the help of Chola kingdom is an important Buddhist structure of the times. Nagapattinam was settled by the Portuguese and, later, the Dutch under whom it served as the capital of Dutch Coromandel from 1660 to 1781, in November 1781, the town was conquered by the British East India Company. It served as the capital of Tanjore district from 1799 to 1845 under Madras Presidency of the British and it continued to be a part of Thanjavur district in Independent India. In 1991, it was made the headquarters of the newly created Nagapattinam District, Nagapattinam is administered by a Selection-grade municipality covering an area of 14.92 km2 and had a population of 102,905 as of 2011. A majority of the people of Nagapattinam are employed in trading, fishing, agriculture. Kayarohanaswami Temple and Soundararajaperumal Temple, Nagapattinam are the major Hindu pilgrimage sites, Nagapattinam is the base for tourism for Sikkal, Velankanni, Poompuhar, Kodiyaikkarai, Vedaranyam, Mannargudi and Tharangambadi. Roadways is the mode of transport to Nagapattinam, while the city also has rail. The town, along with the district, was damaged by the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. Nagapattinam is derived from Nagar referring to people from Sri Lanka who settled here and it was also called Cholakula Vallipattinam during the Chola period, when it was one of the important ports. Ptolemy refers to Nagapattinam as Nikam and mentions it as one of the most important trade centres of the ancient Tamil country and this view is doubtful as there are no contemporary evidences to prove the existence of a metropolis in the name of Nikama or Nikam. Nagapattinam was referred by early writers and the Portuguese as the city of Coromandel, Appar and Tirugnanasambandar, the 7th-century saint poets refer to the city as Nagai in their verses in Tevaram. The town was originally called Nagai and the word Pattinam was attached during the Chola era when it emerged as an important port, there are urn burials in and around the city from the Sangam period indicating some level of human habitation. There are no references to Nagapattinam during the c. The neighbouring port, Kaveripoompattinam, was the capital of the Chola kingdom of the Sangam Age, the early works of Tevaram by the 7th-century poets Appar and Tirugnanasambandar mention the town had fortified walls, busy road building and a busy port. The inscriptions from the Kayarohanswami temple indicate the construction was initiated during the reign of the Pallava king, a Buddhist pagoda was built under Chinese influence by the Pallava king and the town was frequented by Buddhist travelers. In the 11th century CE, Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery, was built by Javanese king Sri Vijaya Soolamanivarman with the patronage of Raja Raja Chola, Nagapattinam was the prominent port of Cholas for trade and a conquering gateway to the east. In the early 16th century the Portuguese made commercial contacts with the town, the Portuguese also conducted missionary enterprise here
10.
Chennai
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Chennai /ˈtʃɛnnaɪ/, formerly known as Madras /məˈdrɑːs/ or /-ˈdræs/) is the capital of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is one of the biggest cultural, economic, according to the 2011 Indian census, it is the sixth-largest city and fourth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. The city together with the adjoining regions constitute the Chennai Metropolitan Area, Chennai is among the most visited Indian cities by foreign tourists. It was ranked 43rd most visited city in the world for year 2015, the Quality of Living Survey rated Chennai as the safest city in India. Chennai attracts 45 percent of tourists visiting India, and 30 to 40 percent of domestic health tourists. As such, it is termed Indias health capital, as a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Chennai confronts substantial pollution and other logistical and socio-economic problems. Chennai has the third-largest expatriate population in India at 35,000 in 2009,82,790 in 2011, tourism guide publisher Lonely Planet named Chennai as one of the top ten cities in the world to visit in 2015. Chennai is ranked as a city in the Global Cities Index and was ranked the best city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey. In 2015 Chennai was named the hottest city by the BBC, National Geographic ranked Chennais food as second best in the world, it was the only Indian city to feature in the list. Chennai was also named the ninth-best cosmopolitan city in the world by Lonely Planet, the Chennai Metropolitan Area is one of the largest city economies of India. Chennai is nicknamed The Detroit of India, with more than one-third of Indias automobile industry being based in the city, in January 2015, it was ranked third in terms of per capita GDP. Chennai has been selected as one of the 100 Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The name Madras originated even before the British presence was established in India, the name Madras is said to have originated from a Portuguese phrase mae de Deus which means mother of god, due to Portuguese influence on the port city. According to some sources, Madras was derived from Madraspattinam, a north of Fort St George. However, it is whether the name was in use before the arrival of Europeans. The British military mapmakers believed Madras was originally Mundir-raj or Mundiraj, Madras might have also been derived from the word Madhuras meaning juice of honey or sugarcane in Sanskrit. The nativity of name Chennai, being of Telugu origin is clearly proved by the historians. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a deed, dated 8 August 1639
11.
Mayuranathaswami Temple, Mayiladuthurai
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The Mayuranathaswami Temple or Mayuranathar Temple is a Hindu temple in the town of Mayiladuthurai in the Nagapattinam District of Tamil Nadu in India. The temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and has given its name to the town itself, the main icon is a lingam and the presiding deity is called Mayuranathar because the Hindu goddess Parvathi worshipped Shiva here in the form of a mayura. On the day of the new moon in the Tamil month of Aippasi, an annual dance festival called the Mayura Natyanjali festival is celebrated within the precincts of the temple each year. The Mayuranathaswami temple is located in the part of Mayiladuthurai about a mile from the Kaveri River. The temple is on the Chidambaram–Thanjavur highway, the presiding deity is a swayambhu lingam or a self-manifested lingam, the symbol of the Hindu god Shiva. Shivas consort is known by the names Abhayapradhambikai, Abhayambikai, Anjalanayaki, there are three smaller shrines to the Hindu god Ganesha and another to Shiva as Nataraja or Lord of Dance. One of the sculptures in the temple represent Shiva embracing Goddess Parvathi, according to mythology, the goddess Parvathi, the consort of Shiva, once offended him. Shiva was so annoyed he cursed Parvathi to be born as a lowly peahen, later, when Parvathi repented, Shiva reduced this sentence. Parvathi had to pray first at Mylapore and then at Mayiladuthurai, at the end of which she was ridden of her curse and it is believed that Brahma, Lakshmi, sage Agastya, Manmatha, birds and animals worshipped Mayuranathar. The temple was built by the Medieval Cholas, the oldest inscriptions on the temple walls date to the time of Kulothunga Chola I. Massive renovations were carried out in the 17th century, in May 1927, a temple entry of Dalits was organised on a big scale by the proponents of the Self Respect Movement thereby resulting in a huge clash. The temple complex is 719 feet long and 52 feet wide, the gopura at the eastern entrance to the temple is nine storeys high and measures 194 feet. The idol of Durga near the entrance of the temple is expertly sculpted. On the temple walls, there is the sculpture of a devotee trying to sever his head as an offering to the God, there is an expansive temple tank in the centre of the complex. People travel in large numbers to Mayiladuthurai to bathe in this tank on the day of the new moon in the Tamil month of Aippasi. This bath purifies a person of sins because the waters of the river Ganges and other Indian rivers mingle with the waters of the Kaveri river in this tank on this particular day
12.
Shaivism
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Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
13.
Medieval Cholas
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Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C. E. and established one of the greatest empires in South India. They successfully united South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in Southeast Asia and they had trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese in the east. Medieval Cholas and Chalukyas were continuously in conflict over the control of Vengi, the Chola dynasty merged into the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi through decades of alliances and later united under the Later Cholas. Vijayalaya Chola was probably a Pallava vassal, vijayalaya captured Thanjavur in 848 C. E. making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas. The Cholas under Aditya I captured the Pallavas in the north, the Chola throne went to Gandaraditya’s younger brother Arinjaya briefly before Arinjaya’s son Sundara Chola took the reins of the kingdom overlooking the claims of Uttama Chola, son of Gandaraditya. The Chola power recovered during Sundara Chola’s reign, the Chola army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala defeated the Pandyas and invaded up to Tondaimandalam in the north. Aditya Karikala was assassinated in a political plot suspected to be enacted by Uttama Chola. Uttama forced Sundara Chola to declare him as heir apparent and took over the reigns in 970 C. E. Raja Raja, during the reign of Raja Raja and his son Rajendra Chola, the Chola influence spread across South East Asia. Rajaraja consolidated the Chola defences in the north by eliminating the last remnants of the Rashtrakutas, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the Chalukyas, who were in constant conflict with the Cholas. Rajaraja soon extended his kingdom overseas to Lanka and the Chola army occupied northern portion of the island in 993 C. E. Rajaraja also invaded Vengi to restore the throne to his nephew Saktivarman. Rajendra Chola extended the empire by completing the conquest of Sri Lanka in 1018 C. E. Rajendra marched up to the river Ganges in 1019 C. E. defeating the Pala king Mahipala. Rajendra also fought the Western Chalukyas in 1021 C. E. the Chola navy attacked and conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya to secure Chola strategic interests. There was no permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority, the History of Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. Western Chalukyas felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas, for the most part, the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja Chola. Rajendras reign was followed by three of his sons in succession, Rajadhiraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola II and Virarajendra Chola, after Rajadhiraja died in 1054 C. E. Rajendra Chola II crowned himself on the battlefield. Later, Virarajendra succeeded in 1063 C. E. and managed to split the Western Chalukya kingdom by convincing Vikramaditya IV to an alliance, Vikramaditya tried to prevent Rajendra Chalukya, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Chola descent from ascending the throne of Vengi
14.
Vijayanagara Empire
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The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, the empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò Da Conti, Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empires power and wealth. The empires legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi, the previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan, efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empires patronage enabled fine arts and literature to new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, differing theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Vijayanagara empire. Others claim that they were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. He created the Kampili kingdom, but this was a short lived kingdom during this period of wars, Kampili existed near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra river in northeastern parts of the present-day Karnataka state. It ended after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate, the triumphant army led by Malik Zada sent the news of its victory, over Kampili kingdom, to Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi by sending a straw-stuffed severed head of the dead Hindu king. Within Kampili, on the day of certain defeat, the populace committed a jauhar in 1327/28 CE, eight years later, from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom emerged the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 CE. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the south of the Tungabhadra river. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in todays Karnataka. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha, italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers and he quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu, the Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute
15.
Delhi Sultanate
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The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the Mamluk dynasty, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty, the first four dynasties were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty was of Afghan origin. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi. Afterwards the Khilji dynasty was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate reached the peak of its reach during the Tughlaq dynasty. This was followed by due to continuing Hindu-Muslim wars, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia, in 1526 the Sultanate fell, to be succeeded by the Mughal Empire. By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia were under a wave of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. The wave of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni, the raids did not establish or extend permanent boundaries of their Islamic kingdoms. The Ghurid Sultan Muizz al-Din Muhammad began a war of expansion into north India in 1173. He sought to carve out a principality for himself by expanding the Islamic world, Mu’izz sought a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence, Muizz al-Din was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Hindu Khokhars in others. After the assassination, one of Mu’izz slaves, the Turkic Qutbu l-Din Aibak, assumed power, Qutb al-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, iltutmishs power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, he consolidated his power and his rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltumish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranathambhore and he also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori
16.
Thanjavur Nayak kingdom
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Thanjavur Nayak kingdom or Thanjavur Nayak dynasty were the rulers of Thanjavur principality of Tamil Nadu between the 16th to the 17th century. The Nayaks were originally appointed as provincial governors by the Vijayanagar Emperor in the 14th century, in the mid 16th century they became an independent kingdom, although continued their alliance with the Vijayanagagr Empire. Thanjavur Nayaks were notable for their patronage of literature and the arts, the Mannaru of the Mannargudi temple was their kula daivam. With the demise of the Chola dynasty in 1279, Thanjavur was ruled by a branch of Chola dynasty, the Vijayanagar rulers installed viceroys to rule over various parts of the empire. Sevappa Nayak, was the first Thanjavur Nayak king and he was the son of Timmappa Nayak, a Vijayanagara viceroy in the Arcot region from his wife Bayyambika. The work Raghunathabhyudayam written by Vijayaraghava Nayaka gives some details of Timmappa. Timmappa or Timmabhupati was the ruler of North Arcot with his capital at Nedungunram, the epigraphs of all of the Tanjore Nayaks show that they belonged to Nedungunram. One of Krishnadevarayas epigraphs mentions that Timmappa also had the privilege of serving him as a door keeper and was the emperors dalavay who took part in the Raichur campaign. According to historian V. Vriddhagirisan, Timmappa Nayak was the brother of Nagama Nayak, Nagama Nayak was the father of Visvanatha Nayak. Hence Viswanatha Nayak and Chevvappa Nayak were cousins, the work Raghunathabhyudayam mentions that Timmappa and Bayambika had 4 sons, Pedda Seva, Chinna Seva, Pedda Malla and Chinna Malla. However, not much is known of the other 3 sons, of the 4 sons, Chinna Seva alias Sevappa Nayak seems to have distinguished himself. Before assuming power of the Tanjore kingdom, Sevvappa had distinguished himself under Krishnadavaraya as an administrator, sevappas wife Murtimamba was the sister-in-law of Achyuta Deva Raya and the sister of the Vijayanagara Queen, Thirumalamba. Some sources suggest that Sevappa acquired the Thanjavur Kingdom as stridhana from Achyutadeva Raya, Sevappa was also a ceremonial betel bearer to Achyuta Deva Raya, the brother of Krishnadevaraya. According to the book Arunachala, A short history of hill and temple in Tiruvannamalai, and Sevappa being a powerful and influential man of the locality was appointed the first nayak. The position of a betel bearer was not given to an outsider. Therefore, the position was given to a trusted member within the family. Sevappas son, Achuthappa Nayak, was named in memory of Achyuta Deva Raya and he led a peaceful reign of 54 years. Up until 1580 Achuthappa Nayak co- ruled with his father under the Yuvaraja title while immediately after that he was joined by his heir-son Raghunatha Nayak and he was said to be deeply religious and was well considered a master in the art of warfare
17.
Thanjavur Maratha kingdom
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Thanjavur Marathas of the Bhonsle dynasty, were the rulers of Thanjavur principality of Tamil Nadu between the 17th to the 19th century C. E. Venkoji was the founder of the dynasty, following the demise of Chola rule in the 13th century, the Thanjavur country came under the rule of the Pandyas who ruled for about a century. Following the invasion of Malik Kafur, the Tanjore country fell into disorder, the rule of the Delhi Sultanate lasted for half a century before Pandya chieftains reasserted their independence. Soon afterwards, however, they were conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire, the supremacy of Vijayanagar was challenged by the Nayaks of Madurai who eventually conquered Thanjavur in 1646. The rule of the Thanjavur Nayaks lasted until 1673 when Chokkanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai invaded Thanjavur, Chokkanatha placed his brother Alagiri on the throne of Thanjavur, but within a year the latter threw off his allegiance, and Chokkanatha was forced to recognise the independence of Thanjavur. A son of Vijaya Raghava induced the Bijapur Sultan to help him get back the Thanjavur throne, in 1675, the Sultan of Bijapur sent a force commanded by the Maratha general Venkoji to recapture the kingdom from the new invader. Venkoji defeated Alagiri, and occupied Thanjavur and he did not, however, place his protege on the throne as instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, but seized the kingdom and made himself king. Thus began the rule of the Marathas over Thanjavur, Venkoji, a half-brother of the great Maratha king Shivaji was the first Raja of Thanjavur from the Bhosale dynasty. It is believed that he took over the administration of Thanjavur in April 1674, during his reign, his brother Shivaji invaded Gingee and Thanjavur in 1676–1677 and made his brother Santaji the ruler of all lands to the north of the Coleroon. During the last years of his reign, Venkoji also allied with Chokkanatha of Madurai to repulse an invasion from Mysore, Shahuji I was the eldest son of Venkoji and he ascended the throne at the age of twelve. During his reign, the Mughals occupied the Coromandel coast and Tiruchirapalli, Shahuji was a patron of literature. During his reign, there were frequent skirmishes and battles with the Raja of Madurai, Serfoji I was a younger son of Venkoji and he ruled from 1712 to 1728. His rule was marked by warfare and disputes with the Madurai Nayak. Tukkoji, a brother of Serfoji I ruled Thanjavur from 1728 to 1736. His reign witnessed the invasion of Chanda Sahib and he is credited with having repulsed a Muhammedan invasion of Madurai, a period of anarchy followed the death of Tukkoji and came to an end when Pratapsingh succeeded to the throne in 1739. He allied with Muhammad Ali, the Nawab of the Carnatic and aided the British against the French in the Carnatic Wars and he was the last king to be addressed to be the Directors of the British East India Company as His Majesty. In 1762, a treaty was signed between Thanjavur, Carnatic and the British by which he became a vassal of the Nawab of the Carnatic. Thuljaji was a weak ruler and the last independent ruler of Thanjavur
18.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
19.
Tanjore District (Madras Presidency)
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Tanjore district was one of the districts in the erstwhile Madras Presidency of British India. It covered the area of the districts of Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Nagapattinam. Apart from being a bedrock of Brahminism, Tanjore was a centre of Chola cultural heritage, Tanjore district was constituted in 1799 when the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II ceded most of his kingdom to the British East India Company in return for his restitution on the throne. Tanjore district, which is situated on the Cauvery Delta, is one of the richest rice-growing regions in South India and it was scarcely affected by famines such as the Great Famine of 1876–78. Tanjore district was inhabited at least since the first millennium B. C. and was the homeland of the Chola Dynasty. The Early Cholas ruled Tanjore from the 3rd century B. C. to the 3rd century A. D, the town of Poompuhar or Kaveripoompattinam served as an important port trading with Rome. Following the Kalabhra interregnum, Tanjore recovered its past glory under the Pallavas and reached the zenith of its prosperity under the Medieval Cholas, in the 13th century, Tanjore was annexed by the Pandyas who were later defeated by Malik Kafur. Tanjore was ruled for brief periods by the Delhi Sultanate and the Madurai Sultanate, till the 15th century, the British East India Company began to play a major part in the affairs of the region from 1749 onwards. In the 1760s and 1770s, the Thanjavur Maratha ruler, the Nawab of Carnatic, in 1799, the British East India Company assisted the deposed Thanjavur Maratha king Serfoji II in regaining his throne. In return for British assistance, Serfoji II retained his hold over Tanjore city, Tanjore city was eventually annexed by the British as per the Doctrine of Lapse in 1855 on the death of his son Shivaji without a surviving male heir. The district of Tanjore was created in about 1800, its limits almost the same as that of the preceding Thanjavur Maratha kingdom, Tanjore district covered a total area of 9,600 square kilometres. It had a population of 2,245,029 in 1901,91 percent of the population were Hindus,5 percent were Muslims and 4 percent Christian. The population density was 234 inhabitants per square kilometre, as of 1901, Tanjore was the most densely populated district in the Madras Presidency with Kumbakonam, Negapatam and Mayavaram being some of the most densely populated taluks. Kallars, Vanniyars, Vellalars, Thondaimandala Mudaliars, Paraiyars, Reddis, Udaiyars, during the 19th century, the Thanjavur Maratha aristocracy provided most of the Diwans of the princely state of Travancore. The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908 lists Thanjavur, along with the South Canara and Ganjam districts, throughout the British rule, Tamil Brahmins from Tanjore district dominated the provincial politics and civil services. In 1901, Tanjore had a rate of 10.1, the second highest in the Madras Presidency, with a male literacy rate of 20.3 percent. As of 1901, Tanjore district was made up of nine taluks, the District Collector of Tanjore resided at Vallam. The district was sub-divided into six divisions, some of them administered by British civil servants, as of 1901, there were five municipalities in the district, Kumbakonam, Tanjore, Mannargudi, Mayavaram and Negapatam
20.
Thanjavur district
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Thanjavur District is one of the 32 districts of the state of Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. As of 2011, Thanjavur district had a population of 2,405,890 with a sex-ratio of 1,035 females for every 1,000 males, the district is located at 10. 08°N79. 16°E /10.08,79. According to 2011 census, Thanjavur district had a population of 2,405,890 with a sex-ratio of 1,035 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 238,598 were under the age of six, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 18. 91% and. 15% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the district was 74. 44%, compared to the average of 72. 99%. The district had a total of 605,363 households and this district lies at the Kaveri delta region, the most fertile region in the state. The district is the rice producing region in the state. Kaveri River and its tributaries irrigate the district, a large number of Rice mills, Oil mills are spread over the district. Karanthai Digambar Jain Temple was built 1000 years ago is one of the famous Jain temples in Tamil Nadu. The primary deity in this Jinalaya is Shri Adinath Swamy, the other deities are Goddess Padmavati Yakshi, Nava Graha are installed. In addition few alloy idols of Thirthakars, Yakshas, and Yakshis were seated, thirthankar idols,24 Jinars big and small stone icons are also there. Festivals celebrated are Akshaya Tritiya, Mahavir Jayanti, Diwali, Jinaratri, peruvudaiyaar Temple, built by the Cholas and a UNESCO World Heritage Site is located at Thanjavur. The green paddy fields and the Kaveri river provide for picturesque spots in the district, airavateswara temple near Kumbakonam is also a UNESCO declared World Heritage site and another major tourist attraction in the district. Thanjavur flora were explored and studied by Dr. Ragupathy in 1992, Thanjavur Chola Nadu Adirampattinam Kumbakonam Temples of Kumbakonam Ayyampettai Thanjavur District Development Authority
21.
Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly
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The Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly alone has powers to legislate laws covering state subjects in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It has a strength of 235 members of whom 234 are democratically elected using the First-past-the-post system, the remaining member is nominated as a representative of the Anglo Indian community. The presiding officer of the Assembly is called the Speaker, the term of the Assembly is five years unless it is dissolved earlier. Since Tamil Nadu has a legislature, the term Tamil Nadu Legislature. However they are not one and the same, the Tamil Nadu Legislature is the legislative body while the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly is a part of it. The Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly along with the Governor of Tamil Nadu, the present State of Tamil Nadu is a residuary part of the erstwhile Madras Presidency and was formerly known as Madras State. The first legislature of any sort for the Presidency was the Madras Legislative Council which was set up as an advisory body in 1861. In 1919, direct elections were introduced with the introduction of Diarchy under the Government of India Act of 1919, between 1920-1937, the Legislative Council was an unicameral legislature for the Madras Presidency. The Government of India Act of 1935 abolished dyarchy and created a legislature in the Madras Presidency. The Legislative Assembly became the Lower House of the Presidency, after the Republic of India was established in 1950, the Madras Presidency became the Madras State and the bicameral setup continued. The Madras States assembly strength was 375 and the first assembly was constituted in 1952, the current state was formed in 1956 after the reorganisation of states and strength of the assembly was reduced to 206. Its strength was increased to the present 235 in 1965, Madras State was renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1969 and subsequently the assembly came to be called as Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council was abolished in 1986, making the legislature an unicameral body, the present Fifteenth Legislative Assembly, was constituted in 2016. It was constituted after the election of 2016, which resulted in the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam led front winning and forming the government. The next election should take place when its 5 term year ends in 2021, the first Legislature of any kind to be established in Madras was the Madras Legislative Council in 1861. First established as an advisory body, it saw the introduction of elected members in 1892. The Indian Councils Act 1909, officially introduced indirect election of members to the Council, in 1919, direct elections were introduced with the introduction of Diarchy under the Government of India Act of 1919. Between 1920-1937, the Legislative Council was a legislature for the Madras Presidency
22.
Karaikal port
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Karaikal Port Private Limited, a private port developed by the Chennai based MARG Limited, became operational in April,2009. The port is located on the Eastern coast of India in Karaikal around 300 km along the coast south of Chennai Port, MARG Ltd. signed the concession agreement in 2006 and work began in February,2007. Phase 1 was envisaged to be operational in Aug 2009, Karaikal Port became operational in April 2009 when it received its first vessel. Phase 1 comprises 2 Panamax size berths capable of handling 5.2 million MT of cargo per annum, the port has received over 250 vessels since Commercial Operations and has handled over 5 million MT of various cargo. KPPL has partners in Ocean Sparkle and PSTS, cargo evacuation is assisted by MARG Logistics, a sister concern of KPPL. Containers and liquid cargo are soon to follow, on completion, the port will be capable of handling all types of cargo. Karaikal Port is also a hub for oil exploration activities and OSV/PSVs belonging to such a Hindustan Oil Exploration Company. Karaikal Port is a draft, all weather port. The current depth of 14.5 m allows for handling of Gearless Panamax size vessels, the final depth of 41.5 m will allow cape size vessels to call at the port. The lagoon type basin protected by breakwaters allows operations all around the year, Karaikal Port received its first Gearless Panamax vessel in November,2009 and became the first Commercial port on Tamil Nadu coast to do so. The port also has the distinction of being the private port to export cargo belonging to power equipment major Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. The port obtained rail connectivity in January 2010 and its 3 railway sidings are connected to Trichy via Nagore, Karaikal Port regularly dispatches 4-5 rakes of coal as well as Fertilizer everyday
23.
Tiruchirappalli International Airport
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Tiruchirappalli International Airport is an international airport serving Tiruchirapalli in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is located on National Highway 210, about 5 km south of the city center, the airport is the third largest in the state in passenger and cargo traffic after Chennai and Coimbatore. The airport is ISO9001,2008 quality certified and was declared an international airport on 4 October 2012, Air Ceylon began operations in the late 1940s while Indian started services in the 80s. The airlines operated flights from Trichy to Colombo through Jaffna and this was a Customs Airport until 4 October 2012, when it was given an International Airport status by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. The Indra ATS Automation system was installed at Trichy in April 2012 to help air traffic control increase safety and security, the airport has two adjacent terminals. The integrated international terminal is used for international and domestic air traffic, the old terminal has been converted into an international cargo complex. The 4,000 m2 cargo complex was commissioned for operations on 21 November 2011, the new integrated passenger terminal built at cost of ₹80 crore was inaugurated on 21 February 2009 and started operations from 1 June 2009. The two-story terminal has an area of 11,777 m2. The terminal is designed to handle 470 passengers at a time, the old terminal was converted into an international cargo complex at a cost of Rupees 10 million. The 4,000 m2 cargo complex was commissioned for operations on 21 November 2011, the Central Board of Excise and Customs had earlier approved and notified the airport as an air cargo complex. The one-time holding capacity of the terminal is 250 metric tonnes The airport is the gateway for foreign export as there is no easy way for export from the central region of Tamil Nadu. On 11 October 2013, a five-metric ton capacity cold storage facility was inaugurated at the cargo section and this facility will be helpful during flight delay, flight cancellation, advance booking and holiday bookings of cargo. Trichy Airport initially had two intersecting runways, the shorter 1,456 m runway 15/33 with PCN 15F/B/W/T was closed and is now used as an alternative taxiway to the international apron. The current runway under use 09/27 is 2,480 m long with a PCN40 F/B/W/T and has turning pads at both ends, the asphalt runway has a CA-1 ILS and runway edge-lights. The other landing aids include a PAPI, HIRL, AFL, Tiruchirapalli Airport has been undergoing expansion since 2004. The runway was extended from 1,829 m to 2,480 m, apron expanded to hold 10 aircraft, fire station upgraded, a new taxiway and integrated passenger terminal were constructed. The proposed Phase 2 expansion on 210 hectares by AAI includes extending the runway to 3,810 m, construction of a air traffic control tower, additional building complex. The state government has agreed to provide free to AAI for the expansion
24.
Parvathi
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Parvati, also known as Urvi/Renu, is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion, as well as of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti and she is the mother goddess in Hinduism, and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector and regenerator of universe and she is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya, some communities also believe her to be the sister of the god Vishnu and the river-goddess Ganga. With Shiva, Parvati is a deity in the Shaiva sect. In Hindu belief, she is the energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Shiva, she is represented as the argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace Hindu temples all over South Asia, parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for mountain, Parvati derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas, Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja, Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri, Haimavathi, the Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati. Two of Parvatis most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna, the name Uma is used for Sati in earlier texts, but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna and then addressed as Uma and she is also Ambika, Shakti, Mataji, Maheshwari, Durga, Bhairavi, Bhavani, Shivaradni, and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi, regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauris name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauris skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest, some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period, as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shivas wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa and the Puranas that the stories of Sati-Parvati, Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains
25.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
26.
Government of Tamil Nadu
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The Government of Tamil Nadu is the governing authority for the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is seated at Fort St George, Chennai, the legislature of Tamil Nadu was bicameral until 1986, when it was replaced by a unicameral legislature, like most other states in India. The Governor is the head of the state while the Chief Minister heads the council of ministers. The Chief Justice of the Madras High Court is the head of the judiciary, presently Vidyasagar Rao is the acting governor and Edappadi K. Palanisamy is the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Indira Banerjee is the current Chief Justice of Madras High Court, the state of Tamil Nadu has a population of 7,21,38,958 as per the 2011 Census and covers an area of 1,30,058 km². The Tamil Nadu E-Governance Agency is the entity that facilitates e-governance efforts in Tamil Nadu, as part of the e-governance initiative, a large part of government records like land ownership records have been digitised. All major administrative offices like local governance bodies and various government departments have been computerised
27.
Peafowl
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The peafowl include three species of birds in the genera Pavo and Afropavo of the Phasianidae family, the pheasants and their allies. There are two Asiatic species and one African species, male peafowl are known for their piercing call and their extravagant plumage. The latter is especially prominent in the Asiatic species, who have a tail or train of covert feathers which they display as part of a courtship ritual. The term peacock is properly reserved for the male, the female is known as a peahen, the functions of the elaborate iridescent coloration and large train of peacocks have been the subject of extensive scientific debate. Charles Darwin suggested they served to attract females, and the features of the males had evolved by sexual selection. The Indian peacock has iridescent blue and green plumage, the peacock tail, known as a train, consists not of tail quill feathers, but highly elongated upper tail coverts. These feathers are marked with eyespots, best seen when a peacock fans his tail, both sexes of all species have a crest atop the head. The Indian peahen has a mixture of grey, brown. The female also displays her plumage to ward off female competition or signal danger to her young, the green peafowl differs from the Indian peafowl in that the male has green and gold plumage with black wings with a sheen of blue. Unlike the Indian peafowl, the green peahen is similar to the male, only having shorter upper tail coverts, a more coppery neck, the Congo peacock male does not display his covert feathers, but uses his actual tail feathers during courtship displays. These feathers are shorter than those of the Indian and green species. Females of the Indian and African species are dull grey and/or brown, chicks of both sexes in all the species are cryptically coloured. They vary between yellow and tawny, usually with patches of brown or light tan and dirty white ivory. Occasionally, peafowl appear with white plumage and this can result in the complete lack of coloration of their plumage, while preserving normal eye colour. By contrast, true albino peafowl have a lack of melanin. Leucistic peachicks are born yellow and become white as they mature. As with many birds, vibrant iridescent plumage colours are not primarily pigments, optical interference Bragg reflections based on regular, periodic nanostructures of the barbules of the feathers produce the peacocks colours. Slight changes to the spacing of these result in different colours
28.
Lingam
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The lingam is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu deity, Shiva, used for worship in temples, smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. In traditional Indian society, the linga is seen as a symbol of the energy, the lingam is often represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The union of linga and yoni represents the indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the lingam is a column-like or oval symbol of Shiva, the Formless All-pervasive Reality, made of stone, metal, or clay. The Shiva Linga is a symbol of Lord Shiva – a mark that reminds of the Omnipotent Lord, in Shaivite Hindu temples, the linga is a smooth cylindrical mass symbolising Shiva. It is found at the centre of the temple, often resting in the middle of a rimmed, disc-shaped structure, anthropologist Christopher John Fuller wrote that although most sculpted images are anthropomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception. Some believe that linga-worship was a feature of indigenous Indian religion, there is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar, and this is one possible origin of linga worship. Some associate Shiva-Linga with this Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post, in the hymn, a description is found of the beginning-less and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, in the Linga Purana the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva. The Hindu scripture Shiva Purana describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar of fire, Lord Shiva is pictured as emerging from the Lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu. The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, a similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana, The endless sky is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself. In yogic lore, the linga is considered the first form to arise when creation occurs, seek him within the self and you will soon find him, meditate on His omnipresence and gain His boons. The oldest example of a lingam that is used for worship is in Gudimallam. It dates to the 2nd century BC, a figure of Shiva is carved into the front of the lingam. There is a set of proportions for the height, width. Some types of Shiva linga are mukhalinga, lingodbhavamurti, a linga with a cobra on top, svayambhuva directly made from light, Sphatika-linga, around 70 lingas are worshipped throughout the world and have become places of pilgrimage. The Rasa linga or Parad Shiva linga is made of mercury and it is of great importance for Hindu devotees and is worshipped with complete process, belief, and devotion. It is worshipped to be physically, mentally, spiritually, and psychologically as well as to obtain protection from the natural calamities, evil power, disaster
29.
Sambandar
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Sambandar was a young Saiva poet-saint of Tamil Nadu who lived around the 7th century CE. He is one of the most prominent of the sixty-three Nayanars, Sambandars hymns to Shiva were later collected to form the first three volumes of the Tirumurai, the religious canon of Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. He was a contemporary of Appar, another Saiva saint, a Sanskrit hagiography called Brahmapureesa Charitam is now lost. The first volumes of the Tirumurai contain three hundred and eighty-four poems of Sambandar, all that out of a reputed more than 10,000 hymns. According to the ancient texts, Sambandar was born to Sivapada Hrudiyar, when Sambandar was three years old his parents took him to the Shiva temple where Shiva and his consort Parvati appeared before the child. His father saw drops of milk on the mouth and asked who had fed him, whereupon the boy pointed to the sky and responded with the song Todudaya Seviyan. At his investiture with the thread, at the age of seven. Sambandar attained liberation in Visaka Nakshtara in the Tamil month of Visakam at the age of sixteen soon after his marriage, in the first half of the seventh century, apart from Saivism, Jainism and Buddhism were among the popular faiths in south India. The Pandyan King Koon Pandiyan had converted to Jainism, which Sambandar had long expressed opposition to and his queen Mangayarkkarasiyar invited Sambandhar after the king fell ill. According to a Saivite legend, Sambandar performed music for the king, later, Sambandar reconverted the king back to Shaivism. The legend goes on to state that with Sambandars consent, the king impaled around 8000 Jains, the ancient texts say that Samabandar brought two people back to life by singing hymns to them. One of those resurrected was the daughter of a business man and he declined due to knowledge that he would soon die. At the age of 16, he is said to have attained salvation along with his bride during the marriage ceremony, an inscription of Rajaraja Chola I at Tiruvarur mentions Sambandar along with Appar, Sundarar and the latters wife Nangai Paravaiyar. Paadal Petra Sthalams are 275 temples that are revered in the verses of Tevaram and are amongst the greatest Shiva temples of the continent, vaippu Sthalangal are places that were mentioned casually in the songs in Tevaram. The focus of the moovars hymns suggests darshan within the puja offering, the hymnists made classificatory lists of places like katu, turai, kulam and kalam being used - thus both structured and unstructured places in the religious context find a mention in Tevaram. Tirumurai was one of the reasons for converting Vedic ritual to Agamic puja followed in Shiva temples. Though these two systems are overlapping, Agamic tradition ensures the perpetuation of the Vedic religions emphasis on the efficacy of ritual as per Davis, odhuvars, Sthanikars, or Kattalaiyars offer musical programmes in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu by singing Tevaram after the daily rituals. These are usually carried out as chorus programme soon after the divine offering, there are records from Kulothunga Chola III from Nallanyanar temple in South Arcot indicating singing of Tiruvempavai and Tiruvalam of Manickavasagar during special occasion in the temple
30.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
31.
Serfoji II
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Serfoji II Bhonsle (Marathi, सर्फोजी, was the last ruler of the Bhonsle dynasty of the Maratha principality of Tanjore to exercise absolute sovereignty over his dominions. His descendants, however, have managed to thrive as titular Maharajahs of Thanjavur to the present day, Serfoji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of Marathas and was descended from Shivajis half-brother Venkoji. He ruled Thanjavur from 1798 until his death in 1832, Serfoji was born on September 24,1777 in the royal house of the Maratha king, Chattrapati Shivaji. Raja Thulajah, the king of Thanjavur adopted him as his son on January 23,1787 by duly performing all of the religious rites, the boy was entrusted to the care of Rev. Christian Freidrich Schwartz, a Danish missionary. But Thulajah died soon afterwards and his half-brother Amar Singh who had earlier been appointed regent to the boy-king usurped the throne in 1787, Amar Singh denied the young prince the benefits of basic education. At this juncture, Rev. Schwartz intervened to save the young prince, soon, he became proficient in Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Sanskrit, French, German, Danish, Greek, Dutch and Latin. Meanwhile, the British interposed on his behalf and Serfoji ascended the throne of Thanjavur on June 29,1798, Serfojis sovereignty was restricted to the Fort of Thanjavur and its surrounding areas. Therefore, Serfoji is remembered in history as the last sovereign ruler of Thanjavur, during Serfojis reign which lasted from 1798 until his death in 1832, for the first time, the proceedings of the Tanjore durbar were recorded in paper. The Delta region was divided into five districts each under a Subedar, cultivable lands yielded good profits and the judiciary system was highly efficient and praiseworthy. Serfoji is also credited with having built a lot of chathrams or rest houses for weary pilgrims and these pilgrims received free boarding and lodging and their needs were taken care of by the State. In all Serfoji built three important chathrams, including one at Orathanadu, the Sarasvati Mahal Library was founded as a Palace Library by the Nayak kings of Thanjavur, it was however Serfoji who enriched it with priceless works, maps, dictionaries, coins and artwork. The bibliophile that he was, he purchased around 4000 books from different parts of the world, medical treatises, in the library collection contained his remarks alongside, in English. His library included treatises on Vedanta, grammar, music, dance and drama, architecture, astronomy, medicine, training of elephants and horses, Serfoji set up the first Devanagari printing press in South India, using stone letters. He sent many Pundits far and wide and collected huge number of books, all the books in the library carry his personal autograph in English. Apart from these, the Library contains a record of the proceedings of the Maratha court known as the Modi documents. The Encyclopedia Britannica in its survey of the libraries of the world mentions this as perhaps the most remarkable library in India, the Library is situated in the centre of Nayak palace and it was opened for public in 1918. There is also a museum there for the visitors. Serfoji founded a school called Navavidhya Kalanidhi Sala where languages, literature, Serfoji maintained close ties with the Danes at Tarangambadi and visited their schools quite often and appreciated their way of functioning
32.
Kalki Krishnamurthy
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Ramaswamy Aiyer Krishnamurthy, better known by his pen name Kalki, was a Tamil writer, journalist, poet, critic and Indian independence activist. His name also represents Kalki avatar, the tenth and last avatar of the Hindu God Vishnu and his writings includes over 120 short stories,10 novelettes,5 novels,3 historical romances, editorial and political writings and hundreds of film and music reviews. Krishnamurthys father was Ramaswamy Aiyar, an accountant in Puttamangalam village in the old Tanjore district of erstwhile Madras Presidency. In 1923 he joined as a sub-editor at Navasakthi, a Tamil periodical edited by Tamil scholar, V. Kalyanasundaram, popularly known as Thiru Vi. Krishnamurthys first book was published in 1927, leaving Navasakthi in 1928, Krishnamurthy stayed with C. Rajagopalachari at the Gandhi Ashram in Tiruchengode in Salem district and helped him edit Vimochanam, in 1931, he was again imprisoned for six months. Next year Krishnamurthy joined Ananda Vikatan, a humour weekly edited and published by S. S. Vasan, krishnamurthys witty, incisive comments on politics, literature, music and other forms of art were looked forward to with unceasing interest by readers. He wrote under the pen names of Kalki, Ra, ki, Tamil Theni, Karnatakam and so on. Vikatan published many of his stories and novels. In 1941, he left Ananda Vikatan, and rejoined the freedom struggle, upon his release after three months he and Sadasivam started the magzine Kalki. He was its editor until his death on 5 December 1954, the success that Krishnamurthy attained in the realm of historical fiction is phenomenal. Semmalar, the organ of the Tamil Nadu Progressive Writers Association. Kalki wrote the script and some lyrics for Meera, an M. S, Kalkis contribution to the cause of Tamil music is also noteworthy. He spearheaded a movement that wanted Carnatic musicians to include more Tamil songs in their concerts and his Tamil translation of Gandhis autobiography, My Experiments with Truth, was published as Satya Sothanai. Kalki considered Alai Osai, which was serialised in Kalki in 1948–49 and published as a book in 1963, the novel won him the Sahitya Akademi Award posthumously in 1956. Set at the time of Indian Independence Struggle, the book revolves around how the life of living at that time. His other social novels include Thyaga Bhoomi and Kalvanin Kadali, both of which have been filmed, Thyaga Bhoomi, which has the Salt Satyagraha as its backdrop, dealt with womens rights and untouchability. It was serialised in Ananda Vikatan, which was being filmed at the time, were used as illustration
33.
Tiruchirappalli
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Tiruchirappalli, also called Tiruchi or Trichy, is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Tiruchirappalli District. It is the fourth largest municipal corporation and the fourth largest urban agglomeration in the state, located 322 kilometres south of Chennai and 379 kilometres north of Kanyakumari, Tiruchirappalli sits almost at the geographic centre of the state. Occupying 167.23 square kilometres, the city was home to 916,857 people in 2011, tiruchirappallis recorded history begins in the 3rd century BC, when it was under the rule of the Cholas. The city has also ruled by the Pandyas, Pallavas, Vijayanagar Empire, Nayak Dynasty, the Carnatic state. The most prominent historical monuments in Tiruchirappalli include the Rockfort, the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam, the archaeologically important town of Uraiyur, capital of the Early Cholas, is now a suburb of Tiruchirappalli. The city played a role in the Carnatic Wars between the British and the French East India companies. Industrial units such as Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Golden Rock Railway Workshop, the presence of a large number of energy equipment manufacturing units in and around the city has earned it the title of Energy Equipment and Fabrication Capital of India. Tiruchirappalli is internationally known for a brand of cheroot known as the Trichinopoly cigar, a major road and railway hub in the state, the city is served by an international airport which operates flights to Southeast Asia and the Middle East. According to the National Urban Sanitation Policy, Tiruchirappalli was listed as the third-cleanest city in India in 2016. According to Hindu Mythology, the word Tiruchirappalli is derived from Tiru which is to address someone with respect, Chirapalli is a compound of siram - head, palli - to sleep. It is a reference to the deity Sriranganathaswamy who is depicted at rest with his head in an elevated position in the Srirangam Temple. Telugu scholar C. P. Brown has proposed that Tiruchirappalli might be a derivative of the word Chiruta-palli meaning little town, other scholars have suggested that the name Tiruchirappalli is a rewording of Tiru-chinna-palli, meaning holy little town. The Madras Glossary gives the root as Tiruććināppalli or the village of the shina plant. Historically, Tiruchirappalli was commonly referred to in English as Trichinopoly, Tiruchirappalli is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Tamil Nadu, its earliest settlements date back to the second millennium BC. Uraiyur, the capital of the Early Cholas for 600 years from the 3rd century BC onwards, is a suburb of present-day Tiruchirappalli, the city is referred to as Orthoura by the historian Ptolemy in his 2nd-century work Geography. The worlds oldest surviving dam, the Kallanai about 18 kilometres from Uraiyur, was built across the Kaveri River by Karikala Chola in the 2nd century AD. Following the downfall of the Pallavas in the 8th century, the city was conquered by the Medieval Cholas, who ruled until the 13th century. After the decline of the Cholas, Tiruchirappalli was conquered by the Pandyas, who ruled from 1216 until their defeat in 1311 by Malik Kafur, the victorious armies of the Delhi Sultanate are believed to have plundered and ravaged the region
34.
Bay of Bengal
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The Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar, the Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 square kilometres. Among the important ports are Chennai, Chittagong, Colombo, Kolkata, Mongla, Paradip, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, on the south, Adams Bridge and from the southern extreme of Dondra Head to the north point of Poeloe Bras. The bay gets its name from the historical Bengal region, in ancient Hindu scriptures, this water body is referred to as Mahodadhi while it appears as Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus, meaning Gulf of the Ganges, in ancient maps. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vangopasagara, also called as Vangasagara. Even today in Bengali, it is known as Bongoposagor, many major rivers of the Indian subcontinent flow west to east before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these and its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River, before joining the Meghna River. However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and this joins the Padma whereupon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans mangrove forest at the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers lies partly in West Bengal, the Brahmaputra at 2,948 km is the 28th longest River in the world. The Hooghly River, another channel of the Ganga that flows through Calcutta drains into Bay of Bengal in India itself, the Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers deposits nearly 1000 million tons of sediment per year. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr since the early Miocene period. The two rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the organic carbon deposited in the worlds oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the sea bed of the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically from the sea area by constructing sea dikes, bunds, causeways and by trapping the sediment from its rivers. Further south of Bengal, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri Rivers are the rivers that flow from west to east in the Indian subcontinent. Many small rivers drain directly into the Bay of Bengal. The Irrawaddy River in Myanmar flows into the Andaman Sea of the Bay of Bengal, some of the biggest ports in the world — Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata in India as well as Chittagong and Mongla in Bangladesh — are on the bay. Other Indian ports on the bay include Kakinada, Pondicherry, Dhamra, the islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands, Nicobar and Mergui groups of India
35.
Kaveri
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The Kaveri is a large Indian river. Rising in southwestern Karnataka, it flows southeast some 800 kilometres to enter the Bay of Bengal, in Mandya district it forms the island of Shivanasamudra, on either side of which are the scenic Shivanasamudra Falls that descend about 100 metres. The river is the source for an irrigation system and for hydroelectric power. The river has supported irrigated agriculture for centuries and served as the lifeblood of the ancient kingdoms, after the river leaves the Kodagu hills and flows onto the Deccan plateau, it forms two islands in mandya districts Srirangapatna and Shivanasamudra. First comes the Srirangapatna which forms the sangam and then comes Shivanasamudra, at Shivanasamudra the river drops 98 metres, forming the famous Shivanasamudra Falls known separately as Gagana Chukki and Bhara Chukki. Asias first hydroelectric plant was on the falls and supplied power to the city of Bangalore. In its course through Karnataka, the channel is interrupted by 12 anekattu for the purpose of irrigation, three kilometers away from Srirangapatna, the Kaveri is the basis for the Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary. Near Srirangapatna is also an aqueduct, the Bangara Doddi Nala and it is said to be the only aqueduct where the water from a river, dammed upstream, is carried by the aqueduct over the very same river few miles downstream. The river enters Tamil Nadu through Dharmapuri district leading to the plains where it meanders. It drops into the Hogenakkal Falls just before it arrives in the town of Hogenakkal in Tamil Nadu, the three minor tributaries, Palar, Chennar and Thoppar enter into the Kaveri on her course, above Stanley Reservoir in Mettur, where the dam has been constructed. It then flows further through the length of Erode district where the river Bhavani, running through the breadth of the district, merges with it. The confluence of the rivers Kaveri, Bhavani and Akash Ganga is at the place of Bhavani, Tamil Nadu Kooduthurai or Tiriveni Sangamam. While passing through Erode, two tributaries merge. Thirumani Mutharu joins it in a village called Kududurai in Namakkal District, noyyal and Amaravathi join it in Karur district before it reaches Tiruchirapalli district. Here the river becomes wide, with a bed. The northern branch of the river is called the Kollidam while the southern branch retains the name Kaveri and these two rivers join again and form the Srirangam island that is a part of the city of Tiruchirapalli. The fourth oldest functional damGrand Anicut or Kallanai was present at this place, from Thanjavur, the river splits and goes to few places in the Delta kaveri. It was built as far back as 1,800 years ago or even more, on both sides of the river are found walls spreading to a distance of 330 metres
India
