1.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
2.
Mazda
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Mazda Motor Corporation, commonly referred to as simply Mazda, is a Japanese multinational automaker based in Fuchū, Aki District, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. In 2011, Mazda was the fifteenth biggest automaker by production worldwide, Mazdas company website states that its name is derived from Ahura Mazda, the Avestan word for God, which is also the name of God to Zoroastrians. Specifically, the states that The name was also associated with Ahura Mazda. The company website further notes that the name derives from the name of the companys founder. Mazda began as the Toyo Cork Kogyo Co, Ltd, founded in Hiroshima, Japan,30 January 1920. Toyo Cork Kogyo renamed itself to Toyo Kogyo Co. Ltd. in 1927, in the late 1920s the company had to be saved from bankruptcy by Hiroshima Saving Bank and other business leaders in Hiroshima. In 1931 Toyo Kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles with the introduction of the Mazda-Go autorickshaw, Toyo Kogyo produced weapons for the Japanese military throughout the Second World War, most notably the series 30 through 35 Type 99 rifle. The company formally adopted the Mazda name in 1984, though every automobile sold from the bore that name. The Mazda R360 was introduced in 1960, followed by the Mazda Carol in 1962, both piston-powered and rotary-powered models made their way around the world. The R100 and the RX series led the companys export efforts, during 1968, Mazda started formal operations in Canada although Mazdas were seen in Canada as early as 1959. In 1970, Mazda formally entered the American market and was successful there. To this day, Mazda remains the only automaker to have produced a Wankel-powered pickup truck, additionally, it is also the only marque to have ever offered a rotary-powered bus or station wagon. After nine years of development, Mazda finally launched its new model in the U. S. in 1970, Mazdas rotary success continued until the onset of the 1973 oil crisis. As American buyers quickly turned to vehicles with fuel efficiency. Combined with being the least-efficient automaker in Japan, inability to adjust to excess inventory and over-reliance on the U. S. market, the company suffered a huge loss in 1975. Fortunately, the company had not totally turned its back on piston engines, the smaller Familia line in particular became very important to Mazdas worldwide sales after 1973, as did the somewhat larger Capella series. Mazda refocused its efforts and made the engine a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant. Starting with the lightweight RX-7 in 1978 and continuing with the modern RX-8 and this switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered Mazda Roadster, inspired by the concept jinba ittai
3.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
4.
Fuel
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A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. The concept was applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy. The heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine, other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a known as cellular respiration. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy or mechanical energy. The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks by Homo erectus near 2,000,000 years ago, throughout most of human history fuels derived from plants or animal fat were only used by humans. Charcoal, a derivative, has been used since at least 6,000 BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around the 18th century, charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a fuel for barbecue cooking. Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China, coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th century, gas extracted from coal was being used for lighting in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the use of coal is to generate electricity. Fossil fuels were rapidly adopted during the revolution, because they were more concentrated and flexible than traditional energy sources. They have become a part of our contemporary society, with most countries in the world burning fossil fuels in order to produce power. Currently the trend has been towards renewable fuels, such as biofuels like alcohols, chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the energy released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel. Chemical fuels are divided in two ways, first, by their physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of their occurrence, primary and secondary, solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, and pellets made from wood, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid-fuel rocket technology also uses solid fuel, solid fuels have been used by humanity for many years to create fire
5.
Carburetor
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A carburetor, or carburettor, or carburator, or carburetter is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine in the proper ratio for combustion. It is sometimes shortened to carb in North America or carby in Australia. To carburate or carburet is to blend the air and fuel or to equip with a carburetor for that purpose, carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent, aviation industries by fuel injection. They are still common on engines for lawn mowers, rototillers. The word carburetor comes from the French carbure meaning carbide, carburer means to combine with carbon. In fuel chemistry, the term has the specific meaning of increasing the carbon content of a fluid by mixing it with a volatile hydrocarbon. The first carburetor was invented by Samuel Morey in 1826, a carburetor was invented by an Italian, Luigi De Cristoforis, in 1876. Another carburetor was developed by Enrico Bernardi at the University of Padua in 1882, for his Motrice Pia, a carburetor was among the early patents by Karl Benz as he developed internal combustion engines and their components. Early carburetors were the surface type, in which air is charged with fuel by being passed over the surface of gasoline. In 1885, Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler developed a float carburetor for their engine based on the atomizer nozzle, hungarian engineers János Csonka and Donát Bánki patented a carburetor for a stationary engine in 1893. Frederick William Lanchester of Birmingham, England, experimented with the wick carburetor in cars, in 1896, Frederick and his brother built the first gasoline-driven car in England, a single cylinder 5 hp internal combustion engine with chain drive. Unhappy with the performance and power, they re-built the engine the next year into a horizontally opposed version using his new wick carburetor design. Carburetors were the method of fuel delivery for most US-made gasoline-fueled engines up until the late 1980s. 1991, Jeep Grand Wagoneer with the AMC360 cu in V8 engine, low-cost commercial vans and 4WDs in Australia continued with carburetors even into the 2000s, the last being the Mitsubishi Express van in 2003. Elsewhere, certain Lada cars used carburetors until 2006, many motorcycles still use carburetors for simplicitys sake, since a carburetor does not require an electrical system to function. EEC legislation required all vehicles sold and produced in countries to have a catalytic converter after December 1992. This legislation had been in the pipeline for some time, with cars becoming available with catalytic converters or fuel injection from around 1990. Fords first fuel-injected car was the Ford Capri RS2600 in 1970, general Motors launched its first fuel-injected car around the same time, when began to introduce fuel-injected engines to its Vauxhall Cavalier/Opel Ascona range
6.
Fuel injection
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Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. All diesel engines use fuel injection by design, petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke. On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward, the functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the task of supplying fuel to the combustion process. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better, Fuel injection also dispenses with the need for a separate mechanical choke, which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be adjusted as the engine warms up to normal temperature. Furthermore, on spark ignition engines, fuel injection has the advantage of being able to facilitate stratified combustion which have not been possible with carburetors, Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution of multi-point fuel injection, less fuel is needed for the power output. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine. The more consistent and predictable composition of the exhaust makes emissions control devices such as catalytic converters more effective, herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first device with a design similar to modern fuel injection, using a jerk pump to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch. Fuel injection was in commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Another early use of direct injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the ultra lean-burn principle, fuel is injected toward the end of the compression stroke and they are often started on gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene. Direct fuel injection was used in notable World War II aero-engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB601, the BMW801, German direct injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single point fuel injection, due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines utilizing fuel injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and the Mitsubishi Kasei. Alfa Romeo tested one of the first electronic systems in Alfa Romeo 6C2500 with Ala spessa body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors and were fed by a semi-high-pressure circulating fuel pump system, all diesel engines have fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The invention of mechanical injection for gasoline-fueled aviation engines was by the French inventor of the V8 engine configuration, Leon Levavasseur in 1902, the first post-World War I example of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925
7.
Gasoline
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Gasoline /ˈɡæsəliːn/, known as petrol /ˈpɛtrəl/ outside North America, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
8.
Motor oil
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Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances are often used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds, motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins, and polyinternal olefins, organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters, on September 6,1866 American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company. While studying the healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively in high temperatures and this meant no more gummed valves, corroded cylinders or leaking seals. In 1873 Ellis officially renamed the company to Valvoline after the engine valves the product lubricated. Motor oil is a lubricant used in combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and it also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and can lead to engine failure, in petrol engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 160 °C. In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C, motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures. Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to keep the engine clean. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself and it is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running. Rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type. In the crankcase of an engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings, and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase
9.
Internal combustion engine cooling
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Internal combustion engine cooling uses either air or a liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal combustion engine. For small or special purpose engines, air cooling makes for a lightweight, the more complex circulating liquid-cooled engines also ultimately reject waste heat to the air, but circulating liquid improves heat transfer from internal parts of the engine. Engines for watercraft may use open-loop cooling, but air and surface vehicles must recirculate a fixed volume of liquid, heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a water wheel extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are inefficient, so more heat energy enters the engine comes out as mechanical power. Internal combustion engines remove waste heat through cool intake air, hot exhaust gases, Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat is essential, it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some exit velocity in the water to carry it away. Thus, all heat engines need cooling to operate, Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants. Cooling becomes more important in when the climate very hot. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the temperature of engine materials. Engine cooling removes energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive, some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only incidental heat loss, a design called adiabatic. Such engines can achieve high efficiency but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using either air or a liquid coolant run through a heat exchanger cooled by air. Marine engines and some engines have ready access to a large volume of water at a suitable temperature. The water may be used directly to cool the engine, but often has sediment, which can clog coolant passages, or chemicals, such as salt, thus, engine coolant may be run through a heat exchanger that is cooled by the body of water. Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and chemicals such as antifreeze, the industry term for the antifreeze mixture is engine coolant. Some antifreezes use no water at all, instead using a liquid with different properties, such as propylene glycol or a combination of propylene glycol, most air-cooled engines use some liquid oil cooling, to maintain acceptable temperatures for both critical engine parts and the oil itself. Most liquid-cooled engines use air cooling, with the intake stroke of air cooling the combustion chamber. An exception is Wankel engines, where parts of the combustion chamber are never cooled by intake. There are many demands on a cooling system, one key requirement is to adequately serve the entire engine, as the whole engine fails if just one part overheats
10.
Radiator (engine cooling)
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Engine coolant is usually water-based, but may also be oil. It is common to employ a water pump to force the engine coolant to circulate, in automobiles and motorcycles with a liquid-cooled internal combustion engine, a radiator is connected to channels running through the engine and cylinder head, through which a liquid is pumped. This liquid may be water, but is commonly a mixture of water. Antifreeze itself is usually ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby cooling the fluid, which in turn cools the engine. Radiators are also used to cool automatic transmission fluids, air conditioner refrigerant, intake air. Radiators are typically mounted in a position where they receive airflow from the movement of the vehicle. Where engines are mid- or rear-mounted, it is common to mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve sufficient airflow, alternatively, the radiator may draw air from the flow over the top of the vehicle or from a side-mounted grill. For long vehicles, such as buses, side airflow is most common for engine and transmission cooling, automobile radiators are constructed of a pair of header tanks, linked by a core with many narrow passageways, giving a high surface area relative to volume. This core is made of stacked layers of metal sheet, pressed to form channels. For many years radiators were made from brass or copper cores soldered to brass headers, modern radiators have aluminum cores, and often save money and weight by using plastic headers. This construction is more prone to failure and less easily repaired than traditional materials, an earlier construction method was the honeycomb radiator. Round tubes were swaged into hexagons at their ends, then stacked together, as they only touched at their ends, this formed what became in effect a solid water tank with many air tubes through it. Some vintage cars use radiator cores made from coiled tube, a less efficient, radiators first used downward vertical flow, driven solely by a thermosyphon effect. Coolant is heated in the engine, becomes less dense, as the radiator cools the fluid, the coolant becomes denser and falls. This effect is sufficient for low-power stationary engines, but inadequate for all, all automobiles for many years have used centrifugal pumps to circulate the engine coolant because natural circulation has very low flow rates. A system of valves or baffles, or both, is incorporated to simultaneously operate a small radiator inside the vehicle. This small radiator, and the associated blower fan, is called the heater core, like the radiator, the heater core acts by removing heat from the engine. For this reason, automotive technicians often advise operators to turn on the heater and set it to if the engine is overheating
11.
Wankel engine
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The Wankel engine is a type of internal combustion engine using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion. The engine is referred to as a rotary engine, although this name applies also to other completely different designs. All parts rotate moving in one direction, as opposed to the reciprocating piston engine which has pistons violently changing direction. The design was conceived by German engineer Felix Wankel, Wankel received his first patent for the engine in 1929. He began development in the early 1950s at NSU, and completed a prototype in 1957. NSU subsequently licensed the design to companies around the world, who have continually added improvements, the engines produced are of spark ignition, with compression ignition engines only in research projects. The Wankel engine has the advantages of compact design and low weight over the most commonly used internal combustion engine employing reciprocating pistons, the point of power to weight has been reached of under one pound weight per horsepower output. In 1951, NSU Motorenwerke AG in Germany began development of the engine, the first, the DKM motor, was developed by Felix Wankel. The second, the KKM motor, developed by Hanns Dieter Paschke, was adopted as the basis of the modern Wankel engine, so the Wankel engine design used today was not designed by Felix Wankel, and the Paschke engine could be a more apt title. The basis of the DKM type of motor was that both the rotor and the housing spun around on separate axes, the DKM motor reached higher revolutions per minute and was more naturally balanced. However, the engine needed to be stripped to change the spark plugs, the KKM engine was simpler, having a fixed housing. The first working prototype, DKM54, produced 21 hp and ran on February 1,1957, at the NSU research and development department Versuchsabteilung TX. The KKM57 was constructed by NSU engineer Hanns Dieter Paschke in 1957 without the knowledge of Felix Wankel, in 1960, NSU, the firm that employed the two inventors, and the US firm Curtiss-Wright, signed a joint agreement. Curtiss-Wright recruited Max Bentele to head their design team, many manufacturers signed license agreements for development, attracted by the smoothness, quiet running, and reliability emanating from the uncomplicated design. Amongst them were Alfa Romeo, American Motors, Citroen, Ford, General Motors, Mazda, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, Porsche, Rolls-Royce, Suzuki, in the United States in 1959, under license from NSU, Curtiss-Wright pioneered improvements in the basic engine design. In Britain, in the 1960s, Rolls Royces Motor Car Division pioneered a two-stage diesel version of the Wankel engine, Citroën did much research, producing the M35, GS Birotor and RE-2 Helicopter using engines produced by Comotor, a joint venture of Citroën and NSU. General Motors seemed to have concluded the Wankel engine was more expensive to build than an equivalent reciprocating engine. General Motors claimed to have solved the fuel issue
12.
Felix Wankel
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Felix Heinrich Wankel was a German mechanical engineer and inventor after whom the Wankel engine was named. Wankel was born in 1902 in Lahr in what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden in the Upper Rhine Plain of present-day southwestern Germany and he was the only son of Gerty Wankel and Rudolf Wankel, a forest assessor. His father fell in World War I, thereafter, the family moved to Heidelberg. He went to schools in Donaueschingen, Heidelberg, and Weinheim. He learned the trade of purchaser at the Carl Winter Press in Heidelberg and he and some friends had already run an unofficial afterwork machine shop in a backyard shed in Heidelberg since 1924. Wankel now determined to receive unemployment benefits and to focus on the machine shop, Wankel was gifted since childhood with an ingenious spatial imagination, and became interested in the world of machines, especially combustion engines. After his mother was widowed, Wankel could not afford university education or even an apprenticeship, however, at age 17, he told friends that he had dreamt of constructing a car with a new type of engine, half turbine, half reciprocating. True to this prediction, he conceived the Wankel engine in 1924, during the early 1920s Wankel was a member of various radical right-wing and anti-Semitic organizations. In 1921 he joined the Heidelberg branch of the Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund and in 1922 he became a member of the NSDAP, Wankel founded and led youth groups associated with a cover-up organization of the NSDAP. With them he conducted training, scouting games and night walks. In the meantime Wankels mother had helped founding the local chapter of the NSDAP in his hometown Lahr, here Wankel not only rejoined the party in 1926, but also met Gauleiter Robert Heinrich Wagner. In 1931 Wagner entrusted Wankel with the leadership of the Hitler Youth in Baden, but both soon fell out with each other, because Wankel tried to put a stronger emphasis on military training, whereas Wagner wished for the Hitler Youth to be a primarily political organization. In a particularly bitter and ugly controversy Wankel publicly accused Wagner of corruption, Wagner paid back by stripping Wankel of his office by early 1932 and managed to have him expelled from the party in October 1932. Since the Nazis seizure of power on 30 January 1933 had strengthened his position, only by intervention of Hitlers economic adviser Wilhelm Keppler with Hitler himself, Wankel was set free in September 1933. Keppler had been a friend of Wankels and an ardent supporter of his technological endeavors since 1927 and he now helped Wankel to get state contracts and his own Wankels Versuchs Werkstätten in Lindau. Wankel tried to rejoin the NSDAP in 1937, but was turned down, by the help of Keppler, however, he was admitted to the SS in 1940 in the rank of Obersturmbannführer. Two years later his membership was revoked, though, for yet unknown. During World War II, Wankel developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes, for BMW and Daimler-Benz
13.
Kit car
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A kit car, also known as a component car, is an automobile that is available as a set of parts that a manufacturer sells and the buyer then assembles into a functioning car. Usually, many of the mechanical systems such as the engine. Kits vary in completeness, consisting of as little as a book of plans, there is a sub-set of the kit car, commonly referred to as a re-body, in which a commercially manufactured vehicle has a new body put on the running chassis. Most times, the drive gear and interior are retained. The definition of a kit car usually indicates that a manufacturer constructs multiple kits of the same vehicle, a kit car should not be confused with a hand built car or special car, which is typically built from scratch by an individual. Kit cars have been around from the earliest days of the automobile, in 1896 the Englishman Thomas Hyler-White developed a design for a car that could be assembled at home and technical designs were published in a magazine called The English Mechanic. In the USA, the Lads Car of 1912 could be bought for $160 fully assembled or $140 in kit form and it was not until the 1950s that the idea really took off. Car production had increased considerably and with rust proofing in its many older vehicles were being sent to breaker yards as their bodywork was beyond economic repair. An industry grew up supplying new bodies and chassis to take the components from these cars and convert them into new vehicles, fiber reinforced plastic was coming into general use and made limited-scale production of automobile body components much more economical. The Lotus Elan, for example, was available in this form and it was often claimed that the kits could be taken home and completed in only a weekend. During the 1970s many kits had bodies styled as sports cars that were designed to directly to VW Beetle chassis. This was popular as the old body could be separated from the chassis leaving virtually all mechanical components attached to the chassis. This made the Beetle one of the most popular donor vehicles of all time, examples of this conversion include the Bradley GT, Sterling, and Sebring which were made by the thousands and many are still around today. Volkswagen based dune buggies also appeared in large numbers in the 1960s and 1970s based usually on a shortened floor pan. These replicas are in appearance like the original, but their bodies are often made of fiberglass mats soaked in polyester resin instead of the original sheet metal. Replica kit cars enable enthusiasts to possess a vehicle of a type that because of scarcity they may not be able to afford, and at the same time take advantage of modern technology. The Sterling Nova Kit originally produced in the UK was the most popular VW based Kits being produced worldwide and licensed under several different names with an estimated 10000 sold. Many people react sceptically when they first hear about kit cars as it appears to them to be impossible to assemble a car at home
14.
Hot rod
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Hot rods are typically old, classic American cars with large engines modified for linear speed. The origin of the hot rod is unclear. Some automotive historians say that the term originated with stolen vehicles being refitted with another engine, in the early days of automobile manufacturing there was no identical matching transmission, body frame, and engine numbers. It was possible to change engines and repaint the car or truck and in turn it into a different vehicle. The term hot was equivalent to being stolen, the term rod was equivalent to any motorized vehicle. Another possible origin includes replacement of the camshaft with a new version, roadsters were the cars of choice because they were light, easy to modify, and inexpensive. The term became commonplace in the 1930s or 1940s as the name of a car that had been hopped up by modifying the engine for higher performance, a term common in the early days was gow job. This has fallen into disuse except with historians, the term has broadened to apply to other items that are modified for a particular purpose, such as hot-rodded amplifier. The activity increased in popularity after World War II, particularly in California, many cars were prepared by bootleggers in response to Prohibition to enable them to avoid revenue agents, some police vehicles were also modified in response. The first hot rods were old cars, modified to reduce weight, speedster was a common name for the modified car. Wheels and tires were changed for improved traction and handling, Hot rod was sometimes a term used in the 1950s as a derogatory term for any car that did not fit into the mainstream. Hot rodders modifications were considered to improve the appearance as well, engine swaps often involved fitting the Ford flathead engine, or flatty, in a different chassis, the 60 horse in a Jeep was a popular choice in the 40s. In the 1950s, the block was often fitted with crankshafts of up to 4.125 in stroke. In addition, rodders in the 1950s routinely bored them out by 0.1875 in, due to the tendency of blocks to crack as a result of overheating, a perennial problem, in the 50s and 60s, the flatty was supplanted by the early hemi. By the 1970s, the small-block Chevy was the most common option, and since the 80s, after World War II there were many small military airports throughout the country that were either abandoned or rarely used that allowed hot rodders across the country to race on marked courses. Originally drag racing had tracks as long as one mile or more, as hot rodding became more popular in the 1950s, magazines and associations catering to hot rodders were started. These were led by Honk. and Car Craft, as some hot rodders also raced on the street, a need arose for an organization to promote safety, and to provide venues for safe racing. Hot rodders including Wally Parks created the National Hot Rod Association to bring racing off the streets and they created rules based on safety and entertainment, and allowed Hot Rodders of any caliber the ability to race
15.
Light aircraft
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A light aircraft is an aircraft that has a maximum gross takeoff weight of 12,500 lb or less. Many light aircraft are used commercially for passenger and freight transport, sightseeing, photography, others such as Cirrus Aircrafts SR20 and SR22, the GippsAero GA8 Airvan, the Aviat Husky, the Robin DR400, and the civil aircraft from Grumman. Examples of aircraft that are at the gross takeoff weight for this category include the de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter. The many uses of aircraft include aerial surveying, such as monitoring pipelines. They are also used for cargo operations, such as feeding cargo hubs. Light aircraft are used for marketing purposes, such as banner towing and skywriting. Primary flight instruction is conducted in light aircraft. The majority of aircraft are light aircraft, the most popular in history being the Cessna 172. Larger light aircraft, such as twin turboprops and very light jets are used as business aircraft. General aviation Light-sport aircraft Ultralight aviation Aviation safety
16.
NSU Motorenwerke
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NSU Motorenwerke AG, or NSU, was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and pedal cycles, founded in 1873. Acquired by Volkswagen Group in 1969, VW merged NSU with Auto Union, creating Audi NSU Auto Union AG, the name NSU originated as an abbreviation of Neckarsulm, the city where NSU was located. The business relocated in 1880 to Neckarsulm, there followed a period of rapid growth and in 1886, the company began to produce bicycles, the first of them a high wheeler or Penny-farthing branded as the Germania. By 1892, bicycle manufacturing had completely replaced knitting machine production, at about this time, the name NSU appeared as a brand name. The first NSU motorcycle appeared in 1901, followed by the first NSU car in 1905, from 1957, NSU-Fiat cars assumed the brand name Neckar. During World War II NSU produced the Kettenkrad, the NSU HK101 and they also made the 251 OSL motorcycle during the war. In December 1946, Das Auto reported the company had resumed the manufacture of bicycles and motor-bicycles at Neckarsulm, the first postwar model was the NSU Fox in 1949, available in 2-stroke and 4-stroke versions. In 1953, the NSU Max followed, a 250 cc motorbike with a unique overhead camdrive with connecting rods, all these new models had an innovative monocoque frame of pressed steel and a central rear suspension unit. Albert Roder, the engineer behind the success story, made it possible that in 1955. NSU also holds four world records for speed,1951,1953,1954, in August 1956, Wilhelm Herz at the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, became the first man to ride a motorcycle faster than 200 mph. In 1957, NSU re-entered the car market with the new Prinz, a car with a doubled NSU Max engine. NSUs last production motorcycle was the Quick 50, in 1964, NSU offered the worlds first Wankel engined car, the Wankelspider. In development of the project, NSU built the Sport Prinz, in the same year Prinz 1000 and derivatives like the TT and TT/S followed. The Typ 110 was launched in 1965 as a car with a more spacious body design. The last NSU cars with a conventional four-stroke engine had the air-cooled OHC four-cylinder engine in common, the car was marketed in the U. K. In 1967, the four-door NSU Ro 80, with a 115 hp version of the same 2-rotor, was presented to the public. Weighing 1,200 kg, it had a Cd of 0.36, disc brakes, independent suspension and it soon gained several design awards such as car of the year 1967, while drivers liked its performance. Virtually all the major motor manufacturers purchased licenses from NSU to develop and produce the rotary engine
17.
NSU Ro 80
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The NSU Ro 80 is a four-door, front-engine sedan manufactured and marketed by the West German firm NSU from 1967 until 1977. The Ro 80 was voted Car of the Year for 1968 and 37,398 units were manufactured over a production run. The front brakes were mounted inboard, reducing the unsprung weight, the suspension was independent on all four wheels, with MacPherson struts at the front and semi-trailing arm suspension at the rear, both of which are space-saving designs commonly used today. Power assisted ZF rack and pinion steering was used, again foreshadowing more recent designs, the gear lever itself then could be moved through a standard H pattern gate. The styling, by Claus Luthe who was head of design at NSU and later BMW, was considered very modern at the time, the large glass area foreshadowed 1970s designs such as Citroëns. The shape was also slippery, with a coefficient of 0.355. This allowed for a top speed of 112 mph, indeed, comparisons have been drawn between the design of the Ro80 and the aerodynamic 1982 Audi 100 built in the same factory some 15 years later. Interior trim combined cloth covered seats with PVC headlining and a carpeted floor, leather seats were a factory option, although rarely specified. The companys limited resources focused on improving the reliability of the rotary engine, in most respect the Ro 80 changed very little during its ten years in production. From September 1969 the rectangular headlights were replaced with twin halogen units, the car developed an early reputation for unreliability. The three-piece rotor tip seals were made out of the same material, the design fault caused the center section to have higher abrasion at cold starts than the corner pieces and the tip seals could push together, allowing the gas to blow past. With a changed tip seal design this was solved and with a tip seal center piece made of Ferrotic. The fact that the engine design was inherently thirsty and a poor understanding of the Wankel engine by dealers. NSU was acquired by Volkswagen in 1969, and merged with Auto Union to create the modern day Audi company as it is known today, in the UK, owners left with cars with seized engines that were going nowhere were provided with a solution by the Hurley Engineering Company. They supplied a torque converter adapter plate and other fittings so that a Ford Essex V4 engine could be fitted in the left by a removed rotary engine. It was the engine short enough to fit in the vacated space without modification to the body work. Later the Ford V6 was tried but needed body modifications, was thirsty, series production began in October 1967 and the last examples came off the production line in April 1977. During 1968, the first full year of production,5,986 cars were produced, increasing to 7,811 in 1969, after this output declined, to about 3,000 -4,000 per year for the next three years
18.
Mazda RX-8
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The Mazda RX-8 is a sports car that was manufactured by Mazda between 2003 and 2012. It was first shown in 2001 at the North American International Auto Show and it is the successor to the RX-7 and, like its predecessors in the RX range, it is powered by a Wankel engine. The RX-8 began North American sales in the 2004 model year, Mazda announced on August 23,2011, that the RX-8 was to be discontinued citing the 2011 model as the last line of production. The RX-8 was removed from the European market in 2010 after the car failed to meet emissions standards, without the volume sales from Europe coupled with rising Yen prices, Mazda could not justify the continued sale of the RX-8 in other markets. Mazda introduced rotary engine vehicles in the US in 1971, beginning with the R100 and eventually introducing the RX-2, RX-3, RX-4, RX-5, after 1995, Mazda suffered from a relatively undistinguished and ordinary product line in the US except for the MX-5 Miata. The RX-8 combined two previous products, with the dimensions of the RX-8 to be slightly smaller than those of the Cosmo. Mazda chose not to install the 2.0 L three-rotor 20B-REW, in Japan, sales were affected by the fact that the RX-8 did not comply with Japanese Government dimension regulations, and Japanese buyers were liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. Development of the RX-8 can be traced as far back as the 1995 Mazda RX-01 concept car, naturally aspirated with side exhaust ports, this engine produced 210 hp. Because of Mazdas financial state at the time and the market interest in SUVs. Styling was developed, in Mazda tradition, by competition between its design studios in Japan, the US, and Europe, the lead designer was Ikuo Maeda, the son of Matasaburo Maeda. The project obtained official approval from management, and eventually the RX-8 concept car was produced and shown in 2001, a near-production reference exhibit RX-8 was shown shortly thereafter at the 2001 Tokyo Motor Show, pending final approval for production. Production RX-8 closely resembles this vehicle save for minor trim details, the RX-8 was designed as a front mid-engine, rear-wheel drive four-door, four-seater quad coupe. The car has near 50,50 front-rear weight distribution and a low moment of inertia, achieved by mounting the engine behind the front axle. The front suspension uses double wishbones and the rear is multi-link, weight is trimmed through the use of materials such as aluminium and plastic for several body panels. The rest of the body is steel, except for the plastic front, the manual gearbox model uses a carbon fiber composite driveshaft to reduce the rotational mass connected to the engine. At the heart of the Mazda RX-8 is its high-revving,1. 3-liter rotary engine, Power is sent to the rear wheels through a torque-sensing conical limited slip differential for improved handling. While underpowered in comparison to the final RX-7, the RX-8 is considered its successor as Mazdas rotary engine sports sedan and its layout and clever engineering, along with typical Mazda suspension tuning have endowed it with excellent driving dynamics which have garnered much praise and numerous awards. It has also proved popular in Japan among car enthusiasts as well as aftermarket equipment manufacturers, a prominent feature of the RX-8 is a pair of rear-hinged freestyle doors to provide easier access to the rear seats
19.
Formula racing
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Formula racing is any of several forms of open-wheeled single-seater motorsport. The origin of the lies in the nomenclature that was adopted by the FIA for all of its post-World War II single-seater regulations. The best known of these formulae are Formula One, Two, Three, common usage of formula racing encompasses other single-seater series, including the GP2 Series, which replaced Formula 3000. Categories such as Formula Three and GP2 are described as feeder formulae, there are two primary forms of racing formula, the open formula that allows a choice of chassis or engines and the control or spec formula that relies on a single supplier for chassis and engines. Formula Three is an example of a formula, while Formula BMW is a control formula. There are also some exceptions on these two forms like Formula Ford where there is an open chassis formula but a single brand engine formula. The first race to be run to the early Formula One regulations was a non-championship Grand Prix in Turin in September 1946, the first officially recognised Drivers World Championship was held in 1947 and the Formula One World Championship was inaugurated in 1950. This was the first example of formula racing, Formula E is intended to be the highest class of competition for one-make, single-seat, electrically powered racing cars. The series was conceived in 2012, with the championship to be held in 2014–15. So far, nine cities have confirmed to host an ePrix, Beijing, Putrajaya, Rio de Janeiro, Punta del Este, Buenos Aires, Miami, Long Beach, Monte Carlo, Berlin and London. In order to manage the costs of operating a Formula E team each constructor will be mandated to make their car available to two teams for a maximum capped price. This cap is set at €350000. Also, all teams and cars have been accommodated at the testing facility Donington Park. Based on pre-season testing at Donington, the 2014-15 car achieved performance somewhere between Formula Three and Formula 4 cars, the GP2 series was introduced in 2005 by Bernie Ecclestone and Flavio Briatore following the discontinuation of the long-term F1 feeder series – Formula 3000. So far,25 out of 136 GP2 drivers have reached F1, in 2012 the GP2 and GP2 Asia Series combined to make one longer GP2 series, which contained four Asian Grands Prix next to the well-known European races. In 2003, the most senior Formula Renault was the Formula Renault V6 Eurocup, after just two seasons Renault merged the series with the World Series by Nissan to form the World Series by Renault, which supported the Formula One Grands Prix. Part of this series are Formula Renault 3.5 and Formula Renault 2.0, the GP3 Series was launched by Bruno Michel in 2010 as a feeder series for GP2. So far, four drivers have competed in Formula One after GP3 – the 2010 champion Esteban Gutiérrez, the 2011 champion Valtteri Bottas, Jean-Éric Vergne, Formula Three has a long history, with at least ten active championships around the world
20.
Pro Mazda Championship
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The Pro Mazda Championship Presented by Cooper Tires debuted as a new series in 2013, replacing the Star Mazda Championship which ceased operation in 2012 after 22 years. The series is sanctioned by INDYCAR and owned and operated by Andersen Promotions and it is the second official step on the Mazda Road to Indy ladder system bridging the gap between the Cooper Tires USF2000 Championship Powered by Mazda and Indy Lights Presented by Cooper Tires. The series champion is awarded a scholarship package from Mazda to advance to Indy Lights competition the following year, Cooper Tires Pro Mazda competes on all open-wheel disciplines, road courses, street courses, and ovals. The series primary sponsors are Mazda and Cooper Tire and the cars, a new chassis will be introduced in 2018. The PM-18 will use the USF-17 chassis - to be introduced in 2017 - as the car to help control the operational costs for teams who wish to move up. The USF-17 is a carbon monocoque chassis built to the latest FIA F3 test specifications with additional safety features to meet the specific needs of racing in the United States. Both chassis and bodyworks will be built by italian manufacturer Tatuus The series is the second rung of the Mazda Road to Indy and is sanction by IndyCar. In December 2012, series founder Gary Rodriguez announced that the series had sold to Dan Andersens Andersen Promotions. Andersen previously owned a multi-car Star Mazda team, Andersen Racing and its IndyCar sanctioning and place in the Road to Indy remain unchanged. In the past, the series had six divisions, each of which held their own championship. In the late 1990s a single national series emerged as the venue for the cars. In the mid-2000s the series formed a relationship with the Skip Barber National Championship and in 2010 Star Mazda became a part of the Mazda Road to Indy program, between USF2000 and Indy Lights. Through the Mazda Road to Indy program, the Pro Mazda champion receives funding to compete in Indy Lights the following year. The first single-seat, tube-frame prototype race car was built by Hayashi for use by the Jim Russell Racing School was shipped to the Riverside Raceway school in late 1983, the Mazda Pro Series made its competition debut at the Long Beach Grand Prix. In late 1984, The Jim Russell School was required to make the legal to race in SCCA sanctioned events. So, it was required that all the cars roll over bars to be cut off, shortly thereafter, the car became so popular that numerous regional/divisional series were established by the Russell Racing School. The SCCA reluctantly accepted the car into its amateur levels of racing, early competitors included, Johnny OConnell, Tommy Kendall, Mike Groff, Jeff Krosnoff, Norm Turley, Norm Breedlove, Ken Thwaits, Jon Beekhuis. First year the “Star Formula Mazda” was constructed by Valley Motor Center, Star Mazda Series created by Gary Rodrigues
21.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
22.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
23.
Mazda Cosmo
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The Mazda Cosmo is a grand touring coupé that was produced by Mazda from 1967 to 1995. Throughout its history, the Cosmo served as a vehicle for Mazda. The final generation of Cosmo served as Mazdas flagship vehicle in Japan, the first Mazda to bear the Cosmo name was the first 2-rotor rotary engine powered series car. Full production began in May 1967 and lasted through 1972, though Cosmos were built by hand at a rate of only one per day. The car was featured in the show The Return of Ultraman. Cosmos were built in five batches, In 1968, Mazda went racing with the Cosmo and they selected one of the most grueling tests in Europe to prove the reliability of the rotary engine, the 84-hour Marathon de la Route at the legendary Nürburgring circuit in Germany. Two mostly stock Cosmos were entered, along with 58 other cars, one major change to the cars 10A engines was the addition of a novel side- and peripheral-port intake system, A butterfly valve switched from the side to the peripheral port as RPMs increased. The engines were limited to 130 PS to improve durability, the cars ran together in fourth and fifth place for most of the race, but the all-Japanese car was retired with axle damage in the 82nd hour. The other car, driven by Belgians, completed the race in fourth overall and this was to be the only racing outing for the Cosmo—the next Mazda race car would be a Familia Rotary. The Series I/L10A Cosmo was powered by a 0810 two-rotor engine with 982 cc of displacement and it used a Hitachi four-barrel carburetor and an odd ignition design—two spark plugs per chamber with dual distributors. A four-speed manual transmission and 14-inch wheels were standard, the front independent suspension was A-arm/coil spring design with an anti-roll bar. The rear used a live axle with a de Dion tube, trailing arms, power-unassisted 10 inch disk brakes were found in front with 7.9 inches drum brakes in the rear. Performance in the quarter-mile was 16.4 s, with a 115 mph top speed, the price was lower than the Toyota 2000GT at 1.48 million yen. The Series II/L10B was introduced in July 1968 and it had a more-powerful 128 hp /103 lb·ft 0813 engine, power brakes,15 inch wheels and a 5-speed manual transmission. The wheelbase had been expanded by 15 inches for more room and this Cosmo was good for over 120 mph and could accelerate to cover a quarter-mile in 15.8 s. Visual changes included a larger grille under the front bumper with two additional vents to each side of this mouth, only 1,176 were ever made, and fewer than six Series II models were initially imported into the United States. The price was up a bit to 1.48 million yen, comedian and former talk show host Jay Leno owns a 1970 Series II Cosmo which was featured on the North American Speed Channel series My Classic Car in March 2006. It was believed to be the only remaining Series II Cosmo in the United States, there is a Series II Cosmo in a collection in Alberta, Canada as well
24.
Tokyo Motor Show
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The Tokyo Motor Show is a biennial auto show held in October–November at the Tokyo Big Sight, Tokyo, Japan for cars, motorcycles and commercial vehicles. In 1958, due to construction of a subway and underground parking lot near Hibiya Park, the show was shifted to the Korakuen Bicycle Racing Track. The show, as the year was marred by heavy rain, in 1959 the event moved indoor to its newly opened Harumi Showplace venue which was three times the size of its previous venue. Onward from 1973, as the decided not to host a show for the following year due to the international energy crisis. However, from 2007 onwards the event has once again returned to a schedule which combines both passenger and commercial vehicles, including motorcycles and auto parts. The first Tokyo Motor Show was held in Hibiya Park from April 20 to April 29,1954, of the 267 vehicles on display, only seventeen were passenger cars, which reflected the paucity of personal family transport in Japan at the time. Trucks, buses, and motorcycles made up most of the exhibits, the second Tokyo Motor Show was held over twelve days, beginning on May 7,1955. Almost 785,000 visitors attended, among them HIH Prince Akihito, the highlights of the passenger cars on display were the new Datsun 110, Toyopet Crown RS and Toyopet Master RR. The 1959 show opened on October 24, notable premiers included Mitsubishis first own passenger car, the Mitsubishi 500. At the 1964 Motor Show, in September, the Nissan Fairlady 1500, daihatsu EV1 The 26th Tokyo Motor Show was held in October and November 1985. Concepts for new hybrids, plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles from Japans leading automakers are now on display at the Tokyo Motor Show. As one example, Toyota Motor Corporation introduced its 1/X concept vehicle, toyotas other plug-in hybrid concept, the Hi-CT, is a small, boxy, two-door vehicle aimed at young car buyers. General Motors, Ford, Chrysler and Hyundai did not attend the show, Honda will also unveil the one-wheeled scooter transport, the Honda U3-X. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation introduced a Beetle-like electric vehicle with electric motors, called the i MiEV Sport. Nissan unveiled the Pivo 2, an electric vehicle with a lithium-ion battery pack. But Japanese automakers werent the only ones unveiling clean car concepts in Tokyo, audi arrived with its Metroproject Quattro, a plug-in hybrid with a direct-injection, turbocharged,150 horsepower gasoline engine mounted up front and a 30-kilowatt motor on its rear axle. The concept vehicle employs a battery pack that allows it to run on electric power only
25.
Dry sump
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A dry-sump system is a method to manage the lubricating motor oil in four-stroke and large two-stroke piston driven internal combustion engines. The dry-sump system uses two or more oil pumps and an oil reservoir, as opposed to a conventional wet-sump system, which uses only the main sump below the engine. A dry-sump engine requires a pressure valve to regulate negative pressure inside the engine. In the wet-sump system of most production engines, a pump collects this oil from the sump. Dry-sump designs frequently mount the pump and scavenge pumps on a common crankshaft. It is common practice to have one scavenge pump per crankcase section, therefore, an inverted V engine would have a minimum of two scavenge pumps and a pressure pump in the pump stack. The main purpose of the system is to contain all the stored oil in a separate tank. This reservoir is usually tall and round or narrow and specially designed with baffles. The dry-sump oil pump is a minimum of 2 stages, with as many as 5 or 6, the remaining stages scavenge the oil out of the dry-sump pan and return the oil to the top of the tank or reservoir. If an oil cooler is used usually it is mounted inline between the outlets and the tank. The dry-sump pump is driven by a Gilmer or HTD timing belt and pulleys, off the front of the crankshaft. The dry-sump pump is designed with multiple stages to ensure all the oil is scavenged from the pan. A dry-sump system offers many advantages over a wet-sump, the primary advantages include, Improved engine reliability due to consistent oil pressure. This is the reason why dry-sumps were invented, increased oil capacity, by using a larger external reservoir than would be practical in a wet-sump system. Prevention of the engine experiencing oil-starvation during high g-loads, which is useful in racing cars, high performance sports cars. Improvements to vehicle handling and stability, the vehicles center of gravity can be lowered by mounting the engine lower in the chassis due to a shallow sump profile. A vehicles overall weight distribution can be modified by locating the external oil reservoir away from the engine, Improved pump efficiency to maintain oil supply to the engine. Furthermore, scavenge pumps can be of a design that is tolerant of entrapped gasses than the typical pressure pump
26.
Mazda Familia
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The Mazda Familia, also marketed prominently as the Mazda 323 and Mazda Protegé, was a small family car that was manufactured by Mazda between 1963 and 2003. The Familia line was replaced by the Mazda3/Axela for 2004 and it was marketed as the Familia in Japan. For export, earlier models were sold with nameplates including,800,1000,1200, in North America, the 1200 was replaced by the Mazda GLC, with newer models becoming 323 and Protegé. In Europe, all models after 1977 were called 323, Mazda Familias were manufactured in Hiroshima, Japan and were also assembled in various countries including Taiwan, Malaysia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Colombia, and New Zealand. Mazdas automotive plans for the early sixties consisted of growing alongside the Japanese economy, as a preview, testing the waters, a larger Mazda 700 prototype was shown at the 8th Tokyo Motor Show in 1961, and formed the basis for the upcoming Mazda Familia. Meanwhile, the four door version of the R360 was introduced as the Mazda Carol, which appeared in 1962, the first production Familia, styled by young Giorgetto Giugiaro while working at Carrozzeria Bertone, appeared in October 1963. In line with Mazdas policy of only gradually approaching the production of private cars, the van was joined in April 1964 by a plusher Familia Wagon, in October by a 4-door sedan, and in November by a two-door sedan. The Flat Deck design of the versions was reportedly inspired by the Chevrolet Corvair. Private car versions received foglights in the grille as well as more chrome trim, the Familia was sold in other markets as the 800. The Familia was introduced to the Japanese market in time for the 1964 Summer Olympics which began in October, the cars used a 782 cc, SA four-stroke aluminum inline-four engine, also known as the White Engine. There was also a version available from November 1964. An all new Familia 1000 Coupé arrived in November 1965, with a 985 cc SOHC PC engine, around the same time, the 800 engine was upgraded, adding three extra horsepower. As a number of new 1 liter vehicles were introduced by Mazdas competitors, another 987 cc OHV engine appeared in January 1967, the 1 liter sedans and vans are recognizable by their broader, rounded-off rectangular headlights. Production of the sedan continued until November 1967, while the Van versions continued until they were replaced in February 1968, around 400,000 of the first Familia were built,130,473 of which were sedans and coupés. Around 10,000 of the first generation Familia were exported, data Primary sources below are listed at the head of each column, information sourced elsewhere is referenced directly in the relevant cells. Data is for models as marketed in the Japanese domestic market, the new Familia appeared in November 1967 with the same pushrod 987 cc engine as used in the previous generation sedans. It was sold as the Mazda 1000 in some markets, after an April 1970 facelift, the slightly different OHC PC engine was also offered, in a model called the Familia Presto in the domestic Japanese market. A larger 1169 cc inline-four engined version came along in February of the following year, in this form, the car was first exhibited in Europe at the 1968 Paris Motor Show in the autumn of that year
27.
Mazda Grand Familia
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The Mazda Grand Familia is an automobile which was produced by Mazda in Japan from 1971 to 1978. It was sold as the Mazda 808 in some markets including Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. The body style configurations offered were a two-door coupé, a sedan. The Grand Familia offered only four cylinder engines. The largely identical rotary-powered versions were marketed as the Mazda Savanna in Japan, the Grand Familia/Savanna were originally intended to replace the smaller Mazda Familia to better compete with the Toyota Corolla and the Nissan Sunny. With the onset of the 1970s energy crisis however, the Familia sold better due to its fuel economy and this generation was available in coupé, sedan, and station wagon forms. Engines were inline four-cylinder units and included a 1,272 cc, the 1.5 was replaced by a larger,1,586 cc, four in November 1973, an engine which had already been used in some export markets for over two years. In the Japanese market, a myriad of equipment levels were available, originally, only a four-speed manual transmission was available. Later desmogged versions were sold as the Grand Familia AP, with AP standing for Anti Pollution, power outputs for these models were considerably lower. This name was only to the 1.6 L version of the Grand Familia. The 808 cost $2,997, which was some $200 above the Honda Civic, the car came with a four-speed manual or three-speed automatic transmission. Early models used the same four-headlight nose as the rotary model, Engine, 1972–1977 –1.6 L NA I4, single-barrel,70 hp /82 ft·lbf For 1976 and 1977, the 1.3 L version was sold as the Mazda Mizer in the United States. Engine, 1976–1977 –1.3 L TC I4, twin-barrel,69 hp /67 ft·lbf From October 1975 the Grand Familia was built in South Korea by Kia Motors, with the 1272 cc 72 PS engine and four-door bodywork. Originally it was sold as the Brisa II, alongside the smaller Brisa, the early cars had rectangular lights, but in December 1976 an updated version with single round headlights was introduced, called the Kia K303. A station wagon model of the K303 was added in 1978, Production ended in 1981, when the license expired. As part of an industrial plan Kia was then excluded from building passenger cars until 1986. The name Mazda Savanna was used on the model sold in Japan, as a coupe, sedan. Internationally it was called the Mazda RX-3 and it was smaller and sportier than its brother, the Capella Rotary/RX-2, and was largely identical to its conventional inline-four donor model, the Mazda Grand Familia
28.
Mazda Chantez
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The Mazda Chantez is a two-door kei car that was introduced by Mazda in July 1972. The Chantez had a longer wheelbase at 2,200 mm than most of its competitors, with 35 PS, top speed was 115 km/h and the 400 m sprint was dispatched in a sprightly 20.6 seconds. In more recent testing of a 1972 GF II, 0–100 km/h came up in 35.8 seconds, the engine was installed longitudinally powering the rear wheels, and the spare tire was installed next to the engine on the right side. The name chantez is second-person plural present indicative of chanter, which in French means to sing, originally, the Chantez had been planned to use a single-rotor Wankel engine, but the other Kei manufacturers considered this unfair and blocked Mazdas plans. As a result of not being able to build the car they had planned, Mazda lost interest in the Kei class and sales halted without a replacement in 1976. Mazda did not market another Kei passenger car until 1989 with a reintroduction of the Carol, and to this day still choose not to make their own engines for the Kei class. Equipment levels ranged from the lowest spec L, via the LX, GL, GF, and GL II to the top of the line GF II, which featured an interior, radial tires. In late 1974, anticipating a changing law at the turn of the year, the trunklid and front bumper were modified to fit larger-size license plates
29.
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
30.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
31.
Mazda Luce
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The Mazda Luce is an executive car that was produced by Mazda in Japan from 1969 until 1991. It was widely exported as the Mazda 929 from 1973 to 1991 as Mazdas largest sedan, later generations were installed with luxury items and interiors as the Luce became the flagship offering. The Luce was replaced by the Sentia in 1991 which was exported under the 929 name. The name luce was taken from the Italian word for light, following an agreement signed with Bertone in April 1962, the 1965 Luce 1500 show car was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro of Italy. It was low and sharp, looking more like a contemporary BMW Bavaria than any of its smaller Mazda companion products called the Mazda Familia, the production version, started production in July 1966 and launched in August, had a higher roofline but retained the BMW-esque look. It was a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive four-door sedan, and featured a square 1490 cc 1500 SOHC engine, the 1500 SS version with twin carburettors was introduced in June 1967, producing 86 PS at 5500 rpm and 117.8 N·m at 5500 rpm. A stroked 1. 8-liter 1800 engine was added in December 1968 and this new model, the Luce 1800, produced 104 PS at 5500 rpm and 152 N·m at 2500 rpm. To accommodate the taller 1800 engine the bonnet on this model has a bump in the middle with an air inlet on the leading edge. An estate was added in April 1967, with the same engine as the sedan. Unlike most commercial vehicles at the time, it was available with a three-speed automatic transmission. The Luce Mark I was sold in Australia and most other markets under the names Mazda 1500. The Mazda brand entered the United States market in 1970 with just the small R100 and this included all three of the companys piston-powered models, the compact 1200, mid-size 616, and full-size 1800. The US-market 1800 produced 98 hp and 146 N·m and cost US$2,280, performance was sluggish, with a 0 to 60 mph time of 17.5 seconds and a 20.5 seconds and 105 km/h quarter-mile. Unlike the rotary cars, the 1800 was a flop, Road & Track magazine said it was solid to the point of being overly heavy, with pleasant handling but poor performance. It was gone from the market for 1972. Opposite to what happened in the US, in Europe the 1800 had a performance with 104 PS at 5500 rpm and maximum torque of 148 N·m at 3000 rpm. The poor performance of this engine in USA was probably due to fact that in USA the petrol had an index of only 85 RON while in Europe the petrol at the time had an octane index of 95 RON. Also the manual transmission with four used in Europe contributed to a much better performance than the three-speed automatic transmission usually used in the US
32.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
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24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 24 Hours of Le Mans is the worlds oldest active sports car race in endurance racing, held annually since 1923 near the town of Le Mans, France. It is one of the most prestigious races in the world and is often called the Grand Prix of Endurance. The event represents one leg of the Triple Crown of Motorsport, other events being the Indianapolis 500, since 2012, the 24 Hours of Le Mans has been a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship. In 2017, it will be the round of the season. The race has over the years inspired imitating races all over the globe, popularizing the 24-hour format at places like Daytona, Nürburgring, Spa-Francorchamps, and Bathurst. The American Le Mans Series and Europes Le Mans Series of multi-event sports car championships were spun off from 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations. At a time when Grand Prix motor racing was the dominant form of motorsport throughout Europe, Le Mans was designed to present a different test. Instead of focusing on the ability of a car company to build the fastest machines and this encouraged innovation in producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles, because endurance racing requires cars that last and spend as little time in the pits as possible. At the same time, the layout of the track necessitated cars with better aerodynamics, while this was shared with Grand Prix racing, few tracks in Europe had straights of a length comparable to the Mulsanne. Additionally, because the road is public and thus not as meticulously maintained as permanent racing circuits, racing puts more strain on the parts, increasing the importance of reliability. The oil crisis in the early 1970s led organizers to adopt a fuel economy formula known as Group C that limited the amount of each car was allowed. Although it was abandoned, fuel economy remains important as new fuel sources reduced time spent during pit stops. Such technological innovations have had an effect and can be incorporated into consumer cars. This has also led to faster and more exotic supercars as manufacturers seek to develop road cars in order to develop them into even faster GT cars. Additionally, in recent years hybrid systems have been championed in the LMP category as rules have changed to their benefit. The race is held in June, leading at times to very hot conditions for drivers, particularly in closed vehicles with poor ventilation, the race begins in mid-afternoon and finishes the following day at the same hour the race started the previous day. Over the 24 hours, modern competitors often cover distances well over 5,000 km, the record is 2010s 5,410 km, six times the length of the Indianapolis 500, or approximately 18 times longer than a Formula One Grand Prix. Drivers and racing teams strive for speed and avoiding damage, as well as managing the cars consumables, primarily fuel, tires
34.
Catalytic converter
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A catalytic converter is an emissions control device that converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas to less toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are used with internal combustion engines fueled by either petrol or diesel—including lean-burn engines as well as kerosene heaters, the first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. These two-way converters combined oxygen with carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons to produce carbon dioxide, in 1981, two-way catalytic converters were rendered obsolete by three-way converters that also reduce oxides of nitrogen, however, two-way converters are still used for lean-burn engines. This is because three-way-converters require either rich or stoichiometric combustion to successfully reduce NOx and they are also used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through direct environmental regulation or through health, the catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining, who moved to the United States in 1930. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smoke stacks called cats for short, in the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars. He was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work, widespread adoption of catalytic converters did not occur until more stringent emission control regulations forced the removal of the anti-knock agent tetraethyl lead from most types of gasoline. Lead is a catalyst poison and would disable a catalytic converter by forming a coating on the catalysts surface. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides, the catalytic converters construction is as follows, The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic monolith with a honeycomb structure, metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required. Either material is designed to provide a surface area. A washcoat is a carrier for the materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica, the catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface and this in turn maximizes the catalytically active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the metal particles even at high temperatures. These oxides are added as oxygen storage promoters. The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metal, platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two precious metals used
35.
Mazda Capella
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The Mazda Capella is a mid-size car that was manufactured by Mazda from 1970 to 2002. Sold in the Japanese domestic market under the Capella name, the vehicle was also known in other major markets as the Mazda 626. Mazdas partner at the time, Ford would also use the Capella platform to create the Ford Telstar,4,345,279 of the 626 and Ford Telstar models were sold worldwide. Designed to compete against Japanese mid-size stalwarts such as the Honda Accord, Toyota Corona, and Nissan Bluebird, the first Capella was introduced in May 1970 and lasted until 1978, and was introduced as an intermediate alternative to the smaller Mazda Familia and the larger Mazda Luce. It was powered by four-cylinder SOHC valve engines displacing either 1.5 or 1.6 liters, output is 92 or 100 PS, respectively, and 144 N·m of torque for the larger displacement version. The first models all had rectangular headlights, while the models received round twin headlamps beginning in October 1971. From 1972 all models received the double headlamps, the taillight design was changed repeatedly over the production run. This generation was sold in markets as the Mazda 616 in sedan and, for some markets. There was also a Mazda 618 briefly sold in the United States, an optional Mazda Wankel engine was offered and known as the Capella Rotary in Japan or the Mazda RX-2 for export. In addition to the 1.6, a Capella 1500 was added in October 1970, the Capella received a fairly thorough facelift in February 1974. This facelift included a front end and a redesigned dashboard. This model received an optional 1. 8-liter engine for some markets and in Japan it was sold with the AP suffix, the 1500 was no longer available. The facelift rotary version received the CB12S chassis code rather than S122A. 5-liter tax bracket and this was the only generation that had the rotary engine offered. The RX-2 was assembled under contract in New Zealand from 1972 for Mazda New Zealand by Motor Industries International in Otahuhu, South Auckland. It was the first and only rotary-engined car ever to be assembled in the country and was made as both a sedan, with manual or automatic transmission and a manual-only coupé, the 616 was also built but was much less popular. In South Africa, where the Capella was assembled first by Illings and then by Sigma, the rotary claimed 97 kW SAE in South Africa. The facelift version arrived two years there, in mid-1976. At the end of year, the Capella RS was introduced—this lowered version with Rostyle wheels was limited to 20 cars per month
36.
Mazda RX-7
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The Mazda RX-7 is a sports car that was produced by the Japanese automaker Mazda from 1978 to 2002. The first RX-7 featured an 1,146 cc twin-rotor Wankel rotary engine, the RX-7 replaced the RX-3, with both models sold in Japan as the Mazda Savanna. The original RX-7 was a car with pop-up headlamps. The compact and lightweight Wankel rotary engine is situated slightly behind the front axle and it was offered as a two-seat coupé, with optional occasional rear seats in Japan, Australia, the United States, and other parts of the world. The rear seats were initially marketed as an option for the North American markets. The RX-7 made Car and Driver magazines Ten Best list five times, Series 1 is commonly referred to as the SA22C from the first alphanumerics of the vehicle identification number. The lead designer at Mazda was Matasaburo Maeda, whose son Ikuo would go on to design the Mazda2, the transition of the Savanna to a sports car appearance reflected products from other Japanese manufacturers. In Japan, sales were enhanced by the fact that the RX-7 complied with Japanese Government dimension regulations, in May 1980, Mazda released a limited production run of special North American models known as the Leathersport Models. This package was essentially an uprated GS model with added LS badges on each B-pillar, special striping, two primary options were also available, a three-speed JATCO 3N71B automatic transmission and air conditioning. Other GS options such as cassette tape deck, splash guards, padded center console arm rest, the LS model was only ever available in three different exterior colors, Aurora White, Brilliant Black, and Solar Gold. No official production records are known to exist or to have been released and this series of RX-7 had exposed steel bumpers and a high-mounted indentation-located license plate, called by Werner Buhrer of Road & Track magazine a Baroque depression. The Series 2 had integrated plastic-covered bumpers, wide black rubber body side moldings, wraparound taillights, while marginally longer overall, the new model was 135 lb lighter in federalized trim. The four-speed manual option was dropped for 1981 as well, while the gas tank grew larger, in 1983, the 130 mph speedometer returned for the RX-7. The GSL package provided optional four-wheel disc brakes, front ventilated, known as the FB in North America after the US Department of Transportation mandated 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number changeover. For various other markets worldwide, the 1981–1985 RX-7 retained the SA22C VIN prefix, in the UK, the 1978–1980 series 1 cars carried the SA code on the vehicle VIN but all later cars carried the FB code and these first generation RX7s are known as the FB. The license-plate surround looks much like Buhrers Styling Impressions, in Europe, the FB was mainly noticed for having received a power increase from the 105 PS of the SA22, the 1981 RX-7 now had 115 PS on tap. European market cars also received disc brakes as standard. The Series 3 featured a lower front fascia
37.
Mazda Wankel engine
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The Mazda Wankel engines comprise a family of car engines derived from experiments in the early 1960s by Felix Wankel, a German engineer. Over the years, displacement has been increased and turbocharging has been added, Wankel engines can be classified by their geometric size in terms of radius and depth, and offset. These metrics function similarly to the bore and stroke measurements of a piston engine, displacement is 3√3radius·offset·depth, multiplied with the number of rotors. Nearly all Mazda production Wankel engines share a single radius,105 mm. The only engine to diverge from this formula was the rare 13A, Mazda rotary engines have a reputation for being relatively small and powerful at the expense of poor fuel efficiency. Mazda put the engine into production, with NSU and Citroën, as part of the Comotor joint-venture. Since the end of production of the Mazda RX-8 in 2012, Wankel engines can be classified by their geometric size in terms of radius and depth, and offset. These metrics function similarly to the bore and stroke measurements of a piston engine, displacement is 3√3radius·offset·depth, multiplied with the number of rotors. Nearly all Mazda production Wankel engines share a single radius,105 mm. The only engine to diverge from this formula was the rare 13A, rather than force the majority of participants to half their quoted displacement, most racing organizations simply decided to double the quoted displacement of Wankel engines. The key for comparing the displacement between the 4-cycle engine and the engine is in studying the degrees of rotation for a thermodynamic cycle to occur. For a 4-cycle engine to complete every thermodynamic cycle, the engine must rotate 720° or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The engine rotor rotates at 1/3 the speed of the crankshaft, on two rotor engines, front and rear rotors are 180° offset from each other. Each rotation of the engine will bring two faces through the combustion cycle and this said, it takes 1080° or three complete revolutions of the crankshaft to complete the entire thermodynamic cycle. How can we get a number to compare to a 4-stroke engine. The best way is to study 720° of rotation of the two-rotor engine, every 360° of rotation, two faces of the engine complete a combustion cycle. 720° will have a total of four faces completing their cycle, 40ci per face times four faces equals 160ci or 2. 6L. Thats a well-reasoned number and now gives something that can be compared to other engines, in addition, since four faces passed by in the comparison, it’s like a four-cylinder engine
38.
Gasoline direct injection
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Directly injecting fuel into the combustion chamber requires high-pressure injection, whereas low pressure is used injecting into the intake tract or cylinder port. In some applications, gasoline direct injection enables a stratified charge combustion for improved fuel efficiency. GDI has seen rapid adoption by the industry over the past years. The major advantages of a GDI engine are increased fuel efficiency, emissions levels can also be more accurately controlled with the GDI system. The cited gains are achieved by the control over the amount of fuel. In addition some engines operate on full air intake and this means there is no air throttle plate, which greatly improves efficiency, and reduces piston pumping losses. It also eliminates air throttling losses in some GDI engines, when compared with conventional fuel-injected or carbureted engines, the engine management system continually chooses among three combustion modes, ultra lean burn, stoichiometric, and full power output. Each mode is characterized by the air-fuel ratio, the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for gasoline is 14.7,1 by weight, but ultra lean mode can involve ratios as high as 65,1. These mixtures are much leaner than in an engine and reduce fuel consumption considerably. Ultra lean burn or stratified charge mode is used for light-load running conditions, at constant or reducing road speeds, the fuel is not injected at the intake stroke but rather at the latter stages of the compression stroke. The cavity creates the effect so that the small amount of air-fuel mixture is optimally placed near the spark plug. This stratified charge is surrounded mostly by air and residual gases, which keeps the fuel, decreased combustion temperature allows for lowest emissions and heat losses and increases air quantity by reducing dilation, which delivers additional power. This technique enables the use of mixtures that would be impossible with carburetors or conventional fuel injection. Stoichiometric mode is used for moderate load conditions, fuel is injected during the intake stroke, creating a homogeneous fuel-air mixture in the cylinder. From the stoichiometric ratio, an optimum burn results in a clean exhaust emission, full power mode is used for rapid acceleration and heavy loads. The air-fuel mixture is homogeneous and the ratio is slightly richer than stoichiometric, the fuel is injected during the intake stroke. It is also possible to inject more than once during a single cycle. After the first fuel charge has been ignited, it is possible to add fuel as the piston descends, the benefits are more power and economy, However, certain octane fuels have caused exhaust valve erosion
