1.
McLaren MP4/12
–
The McLaren MP4/12 was the car with which the McLaren Formula One team contested the 1997 Formula One season. It was driven by Mika Häkkinen and David Coulthard, the car was a totally new machine with engines supplied by Mercedes-Benz for the third year of the Anglo-German alliance. Testing was carried out with the cars painted in the traditional McLaren orange and this replaced the teams 23-year association with Marlboro. The car proved extremely promising and could have won at least seven races during the course of the season, the FO110E engine was replaced with FO110F engine from the French Grand Prix, but the trouble happened frequently to either engine. This proved frustrating, especially after Coulthard won the first race of the season in Australia, Coulthard also lost a certain victory – at Montreal, with a clutch problem after a precautionary pitstop just a few laps before the race prematurely ended. However, Coulthard did manage to win at Monza, during the season, F1 Racing photographer Darren Heath noticed that the rear brakes of the McLarens were glowing red in an acceleration zone of the track. The magazine discovered through photos of the inside of the cockpit and this allowed the driver to eliminate understeer and reduce wheelspin when exiting slow corners, dubbed brake steer. Ferraris protestations to the FIA led to the system being banned the following season at the 1998 Brazilian Grand Prix. Regardless, this was Häkkinens first win in F1 and was celebrated by the F1 world which had been tipping him to win since he first outqualified Senna at Portugal in 1993. The win set him up with a base to start his 1998 campaign. The team eventually finished fourth in the Constructors Championship, with 63 points, McLaren later designed a roadcar that shared a similar designation to the MP4/12, the McLaren MP4-12C, which also featured the brake steer system. AUTOCOURSE 1997-98, Henry, Alan, Hazleton Publishing Ltd
2.
McLaren Automotive
–
McLaren Automotive is a British automaker founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren and is based at the McLaren Technology Campus in Woking, Surrey. It produces and manufactures sports and luxury cars, usually produced in-house at designated production facilities, mcLarens founder Bruce McLaren was born in 1937, McLaren learned about cars and engineering at his parent’s service station and workshop in his hometown, Auckland, New Zealand. By 15, he had entered a local hillclimb in an Austin 7 Ulster, in 1958, McLaren arrived in United Kingdom with the ‘Driver to Europe’ scheme, intended to help Australian and New Zealand racers to compete in Europe. His mentor, Jack Brabham introduced him to Cooper Cars, a team based in Surbiton. Auspiciously starting to his F1 career in 1958, McLaren joined the F1 team a year later and that same year, he won the US Grand Prix at age 22, making him the youngest Grand Prix winner to that date. He stayed with Cooper for a seven years, winning three more Grands Prix and other races, driving for Jaguar and Aston Martin, winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1966 with Ford. McLaren founded Bruce McLaren Motor Racing in 1963, a year later, the company built the first McLaren race car – the M1A,24 were produced. Its successor, the M1B, allowed McLaren into the Can-Am championship and emerged the dominant victor with 43 victories, in 1965, the first McLaren F1 car, the M2B, debuted at the Monaco Grand Prix. However, McLaren died in 1970 before the prototype could be completed, in 1980, the company merged with Ron Dennis’ Project 4 Racing team. The merger brought back designer, John Barnard, interested in using carbon fibre composite, carbon fibre was already used in aerospace applications but had never been applied to a complete racing car monocoque. McLaren pioneered the use of fibre in motor racing with its new car. In August 1988, Dennis, Team Principal and Gordon Murray started to develop a new car and in 1992, following a brief collaboration with Mercedes-Benz for the SLR McLaren, McLaren Automotive was re-launched as a standalone manufacturer in 2010, spinning off McLaren Racing. The company launched the 12C in 2011 and the Spider model in 2012, the limited-run supercar P1 went into production in 2013 and ended in 2015. The company debuted a car for kids, the P1TM, after the P1, in September 2016, the first McLaren crest logo was designed in 1964. The logo focused on a kiwi, which was based upon New Zealands national symbol, the ‘Speedy Kiwi’ version was introduced in 1967, once again designed by Michael Turner to emphasize the higher speeds at which Bruce’s cars were racing. Its colour palette featured an orange, which became known as ‘McLaren Orange’ and was introduced in their cars. Reflecting the sport’s international growth, the ‘Speedy Kiwi’ disappeared in 1981 to be replaced by the McLaren International logo and it was designed by Raymond Loewy and evokes a chequered flag. In 1991, the three chevrons of the logo were replaced by just one, and the font was modernised, the logo was again re branded in 1997 and featured a streamlined speedmark which bares similarities to the vortices created by a McLaren racing car
3.
Woking
–
Woking is a town that shares its name with the surrounding local government district, located in the northwest of Surrey, England. It is at the edge of the Greater London Urban Area and is a part of the London commuter belt, with frequent trains. Woking is 23 miles southwest of Charing Cross in central London, Woking town itself, excluding the surrounding district, has a population of 62,796, with the whole local government district having a population of 99,500. Woking has been a Conservative area since the constituency was created in 1950, though Wokings earliest written appearance is in the Domesday Book, it is mentioned as the site of a monastery in an 8th-century context, as Wochingas. As a result, the original settlement 1 mile to the south-east, on the River Wey, later, Woking Crematorium at St Johns became the first crematorium in the United Kingdom. This site was then the home of the engineering firm James Walker & Company for many years, known as The Lion Works, this area was finally redeveloped in the 1990s into todays Lion Retail Park. This was a £40 million project to take hundreds of Woking homes away from the plain of the Hoe Stream. It has also provided new community facilities and roads, Woking Borough Council had been planning this scheme, which was approved in September 2010, for over 20 years. It was being run in conjunction with the Environment Agency, the Council has received finance from, the Public Works Loan Board, a number of grants, including £3.7 million from the Environment Agency, proceeds from the sale of new homes and of other assets. The Council expects the scheme to be funded by 2014 with no ongoing costs incurred by the Council. The scheme was completed on schedule in 2012, the constituency of Woking has historically been a Conservative safe seat, with the Liberal Democrats being the principal opposition in the last five general elections. Its current Member of Parliament is Jonathan Lord, elections to the borough council take place in three out of every four years, with one-third elected in each election. The election in 2011 gave the Conservatives an overall majority of seats for the first time in 20 years, the current Mayor of the borough is councillor Derek McCrum. In 2010 the council elected councillor Mohammed Iqbal as the first Asian Mayor of Woking and these are linked via an innovative private electricity distribution system operating completely off the public power grid. In order to do this, the government laid new power lines to all locations on the Woking sustainable community energy system. Should the public power grid fail, central Woking would continue to have an energy supply, the cost for providing this is approximately UK£0. 01/kWh less than for public electricity. It has been reported that the borough saves UK£974,000 a year in energy costs if the costs are ignored. By March 2004 the initiatives had also cut the boroughs carbon emissions by 17. 24%, Albion Square canopy was built in 2007, following local council approval three years earlier
4.
Surrey
–
Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
5.
Automotive design
–
Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
6.
Frank Stephenson
–
Frank Stephenson is a British-American automobile designer widely known for his design work at Mini, Fiat, Alfa Romeo, Ferrari and McLaren. In 2008, Autoblog called him one of most influential designers of our time. Stephenson was born in Casablanca, Morocco to an American father and a Spanish mother, due to his fathers job the family moved to a few different countries. They emigrated to Málaga, Spain where they lived for a time while his father opened a car dealership. Between 1970 and 1977 he lived in Istanbul, Turkey and then moved to Madrid where he finished high school, after high school, Stephenson spent six years competing professionally in motocross. Since childhood he has been interested in motorcycles, a passion hes carried into adulthood and this passion for all things automotive led him to study automotive design at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California from 1983 to 1986. He speaks English, German, Italian and Spanish, since 2010 he has been listed in Debretts People of Today. Stephensons design career spans several of Europes best known automotive companies and he began at Fords design studio in Cologne, Germany, where he penned some of the distinctive features of the Ford Escort RS Cosworth, in particular the large double rear spoiler. He later moved to BMW where he spent 11 years, eventually leading to an appointment as Senior Designer and his redesign of the new Mini in 2001 led to the award-winning Mini Hatch, known generally as the Mini or Mini Cooper. This rebirth of the Mini launched a new generation of Mini marque models, also while at BMW, Stephenson designed the BMW X5. In July 2002, Stephenson was appointed Director of Ferrari-Maserati Concept Design and his work with Ferrari included the design of the Maserati MC12 and Ferrari F430. He also oversaw Pininfarinas work on the Maserati Quattroporte, Maserati GranTurismo, stephensons success with Ferrari led to his appointment to head of the companys Fiat, Lancia, and Commercial Vehicle Styling Centre in Turin, Italy on 22 February 2005. He was tasked with rebuilding the struggling Fiat brand, where he directed the styling of the Punto, Bravo, in June 2007 he was made chief of Alfa Romeo Centro Stile where he replaced Wolfgang Egger, while Donato Coco took over his previous position at Fiat. Stephenson left Fiat in April 2008 to become Design Director at McLaren Automotive, Stephenson says that he looks everywhere for inspiration and is always sketching. His McLaren office is full of toys, Stephenson says of this, thats the nature of any designer, youll find they have a toy shop around. He also says that he looks to the kingdom for design. Having a deep passion for biology and evolution, he tries to find the principles in nature that makes products do what they look like they do, stephensons process progresses from sketch pad, to computer graphics, to clay models, and finally test models. He says the advantage of working with clay is that you can feel the transitions and feel where there is too much surface or more surface needed
7.
Car classification
–
Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
8.
Sports car
–
A sports car is a small, usually two seater, two door automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term was in 1928, Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and minimum weight are requisite. The basis for the car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a remarkable 75 hp DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry, capable of 150 km/h, at most, one hundred were built in four years and this was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio, duerkopps Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925, by the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3. Benz introduced the powerful SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, hispano-Suizas Alfonso XIII is considered the first sportcar developed between 1911 and 1914. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars, Austin with the Seven, the drive train and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is common to cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette, more specifically, many such sports cars have a FMR layout, with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used, the RMR layout is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis, and powers only the rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout, Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The motors distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic driving aids to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, however, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had added a lot of weight
9.
Roadster (automobile)
–
A roadster, sometimes referred to as a spider or spyder, is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a car with no weather protection. The roadster is also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500 and this type of racing car was superseded by mid-engined cars. In the nineteenth century, the word denoted a horse suitable for traveling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as and it may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck. Additional seating in the deck was known as a rumble seat or a dickey seat. The main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car, Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard. The earliest roadster automobiles had only basic bodies without doors, windshields, by the 1920s they were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains. When roadsters of this era were equipped with seats, the seats folded into the body when not in use. They are popular with collectors, often valued over other open styles, the term roadster as applied to automobiles is American in origin, before World War II, the British equivalent was a two-seat tourer. By the 1970s, the roadster was applied to open two-seat cars of sporting appearance or character. Roadsters had become almost as well-equipped as convertibles, including side windows that retract into the doors, Roadsters of that time included the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB, and Triumph TR4. A roadster is still defined as a car with two seats, with some roadsters having power tops or retractable hardtops. A few manufacturers and fabricators still offer roadsters that meet the older definitions and these include Morgan, with the windowless Roadster, Caterham, with the doorless Seven, and Ariel, with the bodyless Atom. The American hot rod is based on pre–World War II roadsters, late run Model Ts and 1932 Fords were the most popular starting points. The term roadster applies to front-engined AAA/USAC Championship cars, associated with the Indianapolis 500, the roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks, one story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a roadster is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500
10.
Automobile layout
–
In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
11.
Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
–
In automotive design, a RMR or Rear Mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one in which the rear wheels are driven by an engine placed just in front of them, behind the passenger compartment. In contrast to the rear-engined RR layout, the center of mass of the engine is in front of the rear axle and this layout is typically chosen for its low moment of inertia and relatively favorable weight distribution. The layout has a tendency toward being heavier in the rear than the front, however, since there is little weight over the front wheels, under acceleration, the front of the car is prone to lift and cause understeer. Most rear-engine layouts have historically used in smaller vehicles, because the weight of the engine at the rear has an adverse effect on a larger cars handling, making it tail-heavy. It is felt that the low polar inertia is crucial in selection of this layout, the mid-engined layout also uses up central space, making it impractical for any but two-seater sports cars. However, some use this layout, with a small. This makes it possible to move the right to the front of the vehicle. In modern racing cars, RMR is the configuration and is usually synonymous with mid engine. Due to its distribution and resulting favorable vehicle dynamics, this layout is heavily employed in open-wheel Formula racing cars as well as purpose-built sports racing cars. This configuration was also common in very small engined 1950s microcars, because of successes in racing, the RMR platform has been popular for road-going sports cars despite the inherent challenges of design, maintenance and lack of cargo space. The 1900 NW Rennzweier was one of the first race cars with mid-engine, other known historical examples include the 1923 Benz Tropfenwagen. It was based on a design named the Rumpler Tropfenwagen in 1921 made by Edmund von Rumpler. The Benz Tropfenwagen was designed by Ferdinand Porsche along with Willy Walb and it raced in 1923 and 1924 and was most successful in the Italian Grand Prix in Monza where it stood fourth. Later, Ferdinand Porsche used mid-engine design concept towards the Auto Union Grand Prix cars of the 1930s which became the first winning RMR racers and they were decades before their time, although MR Miller Specials raced a few times at Indianapolis between 1939 and 1947. The 718 followed similarly in 1958, but it was not until the late 1950s that RMR reappeared in Grand Prix races in the form of the Cooper-Climax, soon followed by cars from BRM and Lotus. Ferrari and Porsche soon made Grand Prix RMR attempts with less initial success, the mid-engined layout was brought back to Indianapolis in 1961 by the Cooper Car Company with Jack Brabham running as high as third and finishing ninth. Cooper did not return, but from 1963 on British built mid-engined cars from constructors like Brabham, Lotus and Lola competed regularly and in 1965 Lotus won Indy with their Type 38. The first rear mid-engined road car was the 1962 Bonnet / Matra Djet, nearly 1700 were built until 1967
12.
McLaren 650S
–
The McLaren 650S is a British sports car designed and manufactured by McLaren Automotive. It was announced in February 2014 as a new model, but based on the existing McLaren MP4-12C with 25% new parts, and was formally unveiled at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show. The 650S shares the MP4-12Cs Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer chassis, and is powered by the same McLaren M838T3. 8-litre V8, twin-turbo engine, power is transmitted to the wheels through a seven-speed near instantaneous shift dual-clutch gearbox. The 650S has a top speed of 333 km/h, and can accelerate from 0–100 km/h in 3.0 seconds. First announced in February 2014, the 650S Spider is a version of the 650S. It weighs 40 kilograms more than the coupe, but it nearly identical performance. It can accelerate from zero to 60 mph in 3 seconds and has a top speed of 204 mph, up to 25 percent of the parts are new compared to the McLaren 12C Spider. An MSO version of the 650S is offered in a production run of 50 vehicles. Offered with matte carbon, exclusive MSO colours, Papaya Spark, Agrigan Black and it features unique and lightweight alloy wheels. These are 4 kg lighter than the standard alloys, helped by the fact that titanium wheel bolts are used, powered by the same 3. 8-litre twin-turbocharged V8 engine, but with a reduced power output of 616 bhp. The 625C is fitted with new dampers and a revised suspension setup, braking is by cast-iron discs instead of the carbon fibre-ceramic units fitted to the 650S. Top speed remains the same as the 650S but acceleration 0–100 km/h is slightly slower at 3.1 seconds, a McLaren 650S Le Mans was revealed in early 2015 to commemorate McLaren’s inaugural win at the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995. This edition marks McLaren’s 20th anniversary since this important win - it was also their first entry ever at Le Mans where five McLaren F1 GTRs finished 1st, 3rd, developed by McLaren Special Operations, the McLaren 650S Le Mans is limited to 50 units all in coupe variants. It is inspired by the No.59 McLaren F1 GTR that won the 1995 Le Mans, hence the 650S Le Mans is finished in a metallic Sarthe Grey exterior color and fitted with ‘Le Mans Edition’ lightweight wheels. Other distinct features from the entry 650S model include a functional roof-mounted engine induction ‘snorkel’, a version of the 650S based on the Can-Am series is offered in a limited production run of 50 vehicles. The McLaren 650S GT3 is the track-only race-car version of the standard 650S, the McLaren 675LT is a lightweight, track-focused evolution of the McLaren 650S. It was announced in February 2015 and introduced at the Geneva Motor Show 2015 and it is currently the fastest car on the Top Gear test track with a time of 1.13.7 beating the Pagani Huayra by just.1 of a second. As with the 650S, the 675LT makes use of carbon fibre monocell weighing 75 kg
13.
McLaren P1
–
The McLaren P1 is a British limited-production plug-in hybrid sports car produced by McLaren. The concept car was capable of reaching speeds of 218 mph with the limiter on, debuted at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, retail began in the UK in October 2013 and all 375 units were sold out by November. The United States accounted for 34% of the units and Europe for 26% and it was considered to be the successor to the F1, utilizing hybrid power and Formula 1 technology, but did not have the same three seat layout as its predecessor. Its main competitors were the LaFerrari and the Porsche 918, a track version of the P1, the P1 GTR, was unveiled at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show. Production of the GTR was limited to 58 cars, the McLaren P1 is also one of the main rivals going against the Porsche 918 Spyder, and the Ferrari LaFerrari. The P1 features a 3. 8-litre twin-turbo V8 petrol engine. The twin turbos boost the petrol engine at 1.4 bar to deliver 727 bhp and 531 lb·ft of torque at 7,500 rpm, combined with an in-house developed electric motor producing 177 bhp and 192 lb·ft. With both engine and the motor, the P1 has a total power and torque output of 904 bhp and 723 lb·ft of torque respectively. The electric motor can be deployed manually by the driver or left in automatic mode, whereby the cars ECUs torque fill the gaps in the engines output. This gives the powertrain an effective powerband of almost 7,000 rpm, the car is rear-wheel-drive with a seven-speed dual-clutch transmission developed by Graziano. Power for the motor is stored in a 324-cell lithium-ion high density battery pack located behind the cabin. The battery can be charged by the engine or through a plug-in equipment, the car can be operated using either the petrol engine, the electric motor or with a combination of the two. The P1 has a range of at least 10 km on the combined European drive cycle. Under the EPA cycle, the range in EV mode is 19 mi, during EV mode the P1 has a petrol consumption of 4. 8g/100 mile, and as a result, EPAs all-electric range is rated as zero. The total range is 330 mi, the P1 combined fuel economy in EV mode was rated by the EPA at 18 MPGe, with an energy consumption of 25 kW-hrs/100 mi and petrol consumption of 4.8 gal-US/100 mi. The combined fuel economy when running only with petrol is 17 mpg‑US,16 mpg‑US for city driving, both of these features are operated via two buttons on the steering wheel. It also generates a downforce of 600 kg at 160 mph and it boasts of drag coefficient of only 0.34. The P1 accelerates from 0–62 mph in 2.8 seconds, 0–200 km/h in 6.8 seconds and it completes a standing quarter mile in 9.75 seconds at 246 km/h
14.
Engine
–
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
15.
McLaren
–
McLaren Racing Limited, competing as McLaren Honda, is a British Formula One team based at the McLaren Technology Centre, Woking, Surrey, England. McLaren is best known as a Formula One constructor but has competed in and won the Indianapolis 500. The team is the second oldest active team after Ferrari and they are one of the most successful teams in Formula One history, having won 182 races,12 drivers championships and eight constructors championships. The team is an owned subsidiary of McLaren Technology Group. Further American triumph followed, with Indianapolis 500 wins in McLaren cars for Mark Donohue in 1972, the combination of Prost and Senna was particularly dominant—together they won all but one race in 1988—but later their rivalry soured and Prost left for Ferrari. Fellow English team Williams offered the most consistent challenge during this period, however, by the mid-1990s, Honda had withdrawn from Formula One, Senna had moved to Williams, and the team went three seasons without a win. Ron Dennis retired as McLaren team principal in 2009, handing the role to longtime McLaren employee Martin Whitmarsh. At the end of 2013, after the teams worst season since 2004, McLaren announced in 2013 that they would be using Honda engines from 2015 onwards, replacing Mercedes-Benz. The team raced as McLaren-Honda for the first time since 1992 at the 2015 Australian Grand Prix, Bruce McLaren Motor Racing was founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren. Bruce was a driver for the British Formula One team Cooper with whom he had won three Grands Prix and come second in the 1960 world championship. In 1964 and 1965, McLaren were based in New Malden, then Feltham, during this period, Bruce drove for his team in sports car races in the United Kingdom and North America and also entered the 1965 Tasman Series with Phil Hill, but did not win it. He continued to drive in Grands Prix for Cooper, but judging that teams form to be waning, Bruce made the teams Grand Prix debut at the 1966 Monaco race. His race ended after nine laps due to an oil leak. Neither car brought great success, the best result being a fourth at Monaco, for 1968, after driving McLarens sole entry for the previous two years, Bruce was joined by 1967 champion and fellow New Zealander Denny Hulme, who was already racing for McLaren in Can-Am. That years new M7A car, Herds final design for the team, was powered by Cosworths new and soon to be ubiquitous DFV engine, Hulme also won the Italian and Canadian Grands Prix later in the year, helping the team to second in the constructors championship. The year 1970 started with a place each for Hulme. After his death, Teddy Mayer took over control of the team, Hulme continued with Dan Gurney. Gurney won the first two Can-Am events at Mosport and St. Jovite and placed ninth in the third, but left the team mid-season, and Gethin took over from there
16.
McLaren M838T engine
–
The McLaren M838T engine is a 3.8 litre 90 degree twin-turbocharged flat-plane V8, designed and developed by in collaboration with Ricardo plc. McLaren bought the rights to the Tom Walkinshaw Racing developed engine which was designed for the IRL Indycar championship, however, other than the 93 mm bore, little of that engine remains in the M838T. In only 18 months, Ricardo went from a sheet of paper to a running prototype. Developed with help from Ricardo, the engine redlines at 8500 rpm, McLaren claims that the engine has the highest horsepower to CO2 emission ratio of any current production engine. The engine is built at Ricardos engine assembly facility in Shoreham-by-Sea, the turbochargers are supplied by MHI, and are different units from those used in Mitsubishi Lancer Evolutions. The engine was designed and built for the McLaren MP4-12C, where it produces 441 kW and 632 N·m, however, in 2012 McLaren released an update increasing power to 459 kW. For the GT3 racecar, the engine produces power at only 368 kW. The engine has a bore and stroke of 93 mm ×69.9 mm, the engine has been upgraded to optimise cooling and durability under higher loads. The engine block has also modified to incorporate an integrated electric motor as part of a hybrid drive train. The petrol engine produces 542 kW at 7,200 rpm with an additional 131 kW from the electric motor, at 4,000 rpm the engine is said to produce 720 N·m of torque while the electric motor can produce a maximum of 260 N·m from 0 rpm upwards
17.
Turbocharger
–
Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
18.
V8 engine
–
A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
19.
Transmission (mechanics)
–
A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
20.
Dual-clutch transmission
–
A dual-clutch transmission, is a type of automatic transmission or automated automotive transmission. It uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets and it can fundamentally be described as two separate manual transmissions contained within one housing, and working as one unit. This type of transmission was invented by Frenchman Adolphe Kégresse just before World War II, initially, the control systems were based on purely analogue/discrete digital circuitry with patents filed in July 1981. All of these early AP twin-clutch installations featured a dry clutch. A dual-clutch transmission eliminates the torque converter as used in conventional epicyclic-geared automatic transmissions, the first series production road car with a DCT was the 2003 Volkswagen Golf Mk4 R32. In 2010, on BMW Canadas website for the 3 Series Coupe and it is actually a dual-clutch semiautomatic. In DCTs where the two clutches are arranged concentrically, the outer clutch drives the odd-numbered gears, while the smaller inner clutch drives the even-numbered gears. Since alternate gear ratios can preselect an odd gear on one gear shaft while the vehicle is being driven in an even gear, DCTs are the fastest-shifting road car transmission available and are even able to shift faster than a professional race car driver using a manual transmission. DCTs can even shift more quickly than cars equipped with single-clutch automated-manual transmissions, also, with a DCT, shifts can be made more smoothly than with a single-clutch AMT, making a DCT more suitable for conventional road cars. Dual-clutch transmissions use two different types of clutches, either two wet multiplate clutches, bathed in oil —or two dry single-plate clutches. Currently, three variations of clutch installation are used, the second implementation uses two single-plate dry clutches—side-by-side from the perpendicular view, but again sharing the center line of the crankshaft. A later variation uses two separate but identical-sized clutches and these are arranged side-by-side when viewed head-on, and also share the same plane when viewed perpendicularly. This latter clutch arrangement is driven by a gear from the engine crankshaft, BorgWarner Inc. supplies wet dual clutches and electrohydraulic control modules for these dual-clutch transmissions, along with complete dual-clutch transmission and transaxle assemblies. BorgWarner, which call their technology DualTronic, entered production for Volkswagen Group. The company signed agreements with three other European automotive manufacturers to incorporate their components in DCTs. On 14 January 2009, BorgWarner announced a joint venture with the China Automobile Development United Investment Co. Ltd. which is owned by 12 Chinese automakers and this joint venture is known as the BorgWarner United Transmission Systems Co. Ltd. and is located in Dalian, China. The company has produced various dual-clutch transmission modules beginning in 2011, the Nissan GT-R uses BorgWarner components, including the dual-clutch module, clutch-control, shift-actuation systems, and synchronizer assemblies. EATON developed the first dual-clutch transmission for class 6-7 trucks in North America - Procision, Fiat Powertrain Technologies developed a dual-clutch transmission with Magneti Marelli and BorgWarner called Euro Twin Clutch Transmission
21.
Wheelbase
–
In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
22.
McLaren F1
–
The McLaren F1 is a sports car designed and manufactured by McLaren Cars. Originally a concept conceived by Gordon Murray, he convinced Ron Dennis to back the project and engaged Peter Stevens to design the exterior and interior of the car. On 31 March 1998, the XP5 prototype set the record for the worlds fastest production car, the F1 surpassed the Jaguar XJ220s 213 mph record from 1992, as well as the low production number RUF CTR2s 217 mph record from 1995. The McLarens record lasted until the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 beat it in 2005 with a top speed of 253.81 mph and it features a powerful engine and is somewhat track oriented, but not to the degree that it compromises everyday usability and comfort. It was conceived as an exercise in creating what its designers hoped would be considered the road car. Production began in 1992 and ended in 1998, in all,106 cars were manufactured, with some variations in the design. In 1994, the British car magazine Autocar stated in a road test regarding the F1, The McLaren F1 is the finest driving machine yet built for the public road. They further stated, The F1 will be remembered as one of the events in the history of the car. In 2005, Channel4 placed the car at one on their list of the 100 greatest cars. In popular culture, the McLaren F1 has earnt its spot as The greatest automobile ever created and The Most Excellent Sports Car Of All Time amongst a variety of car enthusiasts. Notable past and present McLaren F1 owners include Elon Musk, Jay Leno, chief engineer Gordon Murrays design concept was a common one among designers of high-performance cars, low weight and high power. This was achieved through use of high-tech and expensive materials such as fibre, titanium, gold, magnesium. The F1 was the first production car to use a carbon-fibre monocoque chassis, Gordon Murray had been thinking of a three-seat sports car since his youth. When Murray was waiting for a home from the Italian Grand Prix in 1988, he drew a sketch of a three-seater sports car. Murray declared that During this time, we were able to visit with Ayrton Senna, the visit related to the fact that at the time, McLarens F1 Grand Prix cars were using Honda engines. Of course the car we would create, the McLaren F1, needed to be faster than the NSX, but the NSXs ride quality and handling would become our new design target. Being a fan of Honda engines, I later went to Hondas Tochigi Research Center on two occasions and requested that they consider building for the McLaren F1 a 4.5 litre V10 or V12. I asked, I tried to persuade them, but in the end could not convince them to do it, and the McLaren F1 ended up equipped with a BMW engine
23.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
–
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
24.
Twin-turbo
–
Twin-turbo or biturbo refers to a turbocharged engine in which two turbochargers compress the intake charge. Other kinds of turbocharging include sequential turbocharging, and staged turbocharging, the latter is used in diesel automobile racing applications. Paralleled twin-turbo refers to the configuration in which two identical turbochargers function simultaneously, splitting the turbocharging duties equally. Each turbocharger is driven by half of the engines spent exhaust energy, in most applications, the compressed air from both turbos is combined in a common intake manifold and sent to the individual cylinders. Usually, each turbocharger is mounted to its own individual exhaust/turbo manifold, parallel twin turbos applied to V-shaped engines are usually mounted with one turbo assigned to each cylinder bank, providing packaging symmetry and simplifying plumbing over a single turbo setup. When used on engines, parallel twin turbos are commonly applied with two smaller turbos, which can provide similar performance with less turbo lag than a single larger turbo. Some examples of parallel twin-turbo inline engines are Nissans RB26DETT, BMWs N54, some examples of V formation engines with parallel twin-turbos include Mitsubishis 6A12TT, 6A13TT and 6G72TT, Nissans VG30DETT and VR38DETT, and Audis 1997-2002 S4, 1997-2005 A6, and 2003-2004 RS6. While a parallel twin-turbo set-up theoretically has less lag than a single turbocharger set up. Some ways to counter this are to use a pressure set up with smaller turbos. While this setup sacrifices some top end power, it still has less lag than an engine with a single turbo set up making the same power. Another system would be the use of variable geometry turbochargers and this system changes the angle of the guide vanes depending on the exhaust pressure, giving the system excellent power throughout the rev range. Once used mainly in turbocharged engines, Chrysler was the first to use it in mass-production gasoline-powered vehicles with the Shelby CSX. It is possible to use parallel operation with more than two turbochargers, two such examples are the Bugatti EB110 and Bugatti Veyron, both of which run four turbochargers in parallel. The EB110 runs 4 turbos on a 3.5 litre V12 engine, producing 542 hp at 8000 rpm, the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport uses the quad-turbo 8.0 W16 engine that produces 1216 PS. Sequential turbos refer to a set-up in which the motor uses one turbocharger for lower speeds. Typically, larger high-flow turbochargers are not as efficient at low RPM, on the other hand, smaller turbos spool up quickly at low RPM but cannot supply enough air at higher engine speed. During low to mid engine speeds, when available spent exhaust energy is minimal, as RPM increases, the secondary turbocharger is partially activated in order to pre-spool prior to its full utilization. Once a preset engine speed or boost pressure is attained, valves controlling compressor, in this way a full twin-turbocharger setup provides the benefits associated with a large turbo, including maximum power output, without the disadvantage of increased turbo lag
25.
Formula One
–
Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
26.
Understeer and oversteer
–
Understeer and oversteer are vehicle dynamics terms used to describe the sensitivity of a vehicle to steering. Simply put, oversteer is what occurs when a car turns by more than the amount commanded by the driver, conversely, understeer is what occurs when a car steers less than the amount commanded by the driver. Automotive engineers define understeer and oversteer based on changes in steering angle associated with changes in lateral acceleration over a sequence of steady-state circular turning tests. Car and motorsport enthusiasts often use the more generally in magazines. Understeer and oversteer are defined by an understeer gradient K that is a measure of how the steering needed for a steady turn changes as a function of lateral acceleration. Steering at a steady speed is compared to the steering that would be needed to follow the same circular path at low speed, the low-speed steering for a given radius of turn is called Ackermann steer. The vehicle has a positive understeer gradient if the difference between required steer and the Ackermann steer increases with respect to incremental increases in lateral acceleration, the vehicle has a negative gradient if the difference in steer decreases with respect to incremental increases in lateral acceleration. Several tests can be used to determine understeer gradient, constant radius, constant speed, formal descriptions of these three kinds of testing are provided by ISO. Gillespie goes into some detail on two of the measurement methods. Results depend on the type of test, so giving a deg/g value is not sufficient. Vehicles are inherently nonlinear systems, and it is normal for K to vary over the range of testing and it is possible for a vehicle to be understeer in some conditions and oversteer in others. Therefore, it is necessary to specify the speed and lateral acceleration whenever reporting understeer/oversteer characteristics and these individual contributions can be identified analytically or by measurement in a Bundorf analysis. When an understeer vehicle is taken to the limit of the tires, where it is no longer possible to increase lateral acceleration. Although the vehicle cannot increase lateral acceleration, it is dynamically stable, when an oversteer vehicle is taken to the grip limit of the tires, it becomes dynamically unstable with a tendency to spin out. However, at some limit in lateral acceleration, it is not physically possible for even the most skilled driver to maintain a steady state, understeer gradient is one of the main measures for characterizing steady-state cornering behavior. It is involved in other such as characteristic speed, lateral acceleration gain, yaw velocity gain
27.
Ferrari 360
–
The Ferrari 360 is a two-seater sports car built by Ferrari from 1999 to 2005. It succeeded the Ferrari F355 and was replaced by the Ferrari F430 and it is a mid-engined, rear wheel drive V8-powered coupe. Ferrari partnered with Alcoa to produce a new all aluminium space-frame chassis that was 40% stiffer than the F355 which had utilized steel. The design was 28% lighter despite a 10% increase in overall dimensions, along with a lightweight frame the new Pininfarina body styling deviated from traditions of the previous decades sharp angles and flip-up headlights. The new V8 engine, common to all versions, utilizes a 3.6 litre capacity, flat plane crankshaft, titanium connecting rods and generates 395 bhp. Despite what looks like on paper modest gains in reality the power to weight ratio was improved on over the F355. According to Ferrari weight was reduced by 60 kg and the 0 to 100 km/h acceleration performance improved from 4.7 to 4.5 seconds, the 360 Modena press car was ludicrously quick and sounded more like Schumachers weekend wheels than a street car. But the other cars were different, when Car and Driver tested a F360 it proved heavier and slower than its predecessor five years before. There were 8,800 Modenas and 7,565 Spiders produced worldwide, there were 4,199 built for the US market,1,810 Modenas and 2,389 Spiders. Of those numbers there were only 469 Modenas and 670 Spiders that were produced with a gated 6 speed manual transmission as opposed to the automated F1 single clutch transmission. In addition to there were the low volume factory race cars. The first up was the 360 Modena Challenge, used in a one make series, the N-GT was a 360 Challenge car evolved even further to compete more seriously in the FIA N-GT racing classes alongside other marques such as Porsche. A single 360 Barchetta was produced as a wedding present from Ferrari to former Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo. The first model of the 360 to be shipped was the Modena, named after the town of Modena and its six-speed gearbox is available as a manual, or an F1 electrohydraulic manual. The 360 Modena went into production in 1999 and remained in production until 2005 when it was replaced by the F430, the Modena was followed two years later by the 360 Spider, Ferraris 20th road-going convertible which at launch overtook sales of the Modena. Other than weight, the Spiders specifications matched those of the Modena almost exactly, the Challenge Stradale was a later addition to the line-up, the finale model before replacement. It was essentially a lightened, factory tuned version of the Modena with many of the Modenas optional extras becoming standard, carbon seats, racing exhaust, carbon engine bay, and so on. Famously at the time Ferrari claimed it dropped up to 110 kg over the stock Modena helping to improve its handling
28.
Ultima GTR
–
The Ultima GTR is a super car manufactured by Ultima Sports Ltd of Hinckley, Leicestershire, England, and described by commentators as a supercar. The car was both in kit form and as a turnkey vehicle until early 2015, when it was replaced by the Ultima Evolution. The design is mid engined, rear drive layout, with a tubular steel space frame chassis. A convertible version called the Ultima Can-Am was also produced, fastest road car over the 1/4 mile,9. In October 2009 Ultima set another time of 1 minute 9.9 seconds, in 2015 the GTR and Can-Am names were retired and replaced by the Ultima Evolution range, which represents a complete reengineering of the package. Details on the record-breaking 0-100-0 test MacG Racing - A British team racing the Ultima GTR in Britcar and elsewhere
29.
Chassis
–
A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
30.
Salzburg
–
Salzburg is the fourth-largest city in Austria and the capital of the federal state of Salzburg. Salzburgs Old Town is internationally renowned for its architecture and is one of the best-preserved city centers north of the Alps. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997, the city has three universities and a large population of students. Tourists also visit Salzburg to tour the historic center and the scenic Alpine surroundings, Salzburg was the birthplace of 18th-century composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In the mid‑20th century, the city was the setting for the musical play, traces of human settlements have been found in the area, dating to the Neolithic Age. The first settlements in Salzburg continuous with the present were apparently by the Celts around the 5th century BC, around 15 BC the Roman Empire merged the settlements into one city. At this time, the city was called Juvavum and was awarded the status of a Roman municipium in 45 AD, Juvavum developed into an important town of the Roman province of Noricum. After the Norican frontiers collapse, Juvavum declined so sharply that by the late 7th century it became a ruin. The Life of Saint Rupert credits the 8th-century saint with the citys rebirth, when Theodo of Bavaria asked Rupert to become bishop c. 700, Rupert reconnoitered the river for the site of his basilica, Rupert chose Juvavum, ordained priests, and annexed the manor Piding. He traveled to evangelise among pagans, the name Salzburg means Salt Castle. The name derives from the barges carrying salt on the Salzach River, the Festung Hohensalzburg, the citys fortress, was built in 1077 by Archbishop Gebhard, who made it his residence. It was greatly expanded during the following centuries, independence from Bavaria was secured in the late 14th century. Salzburg was the seat of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman Empire, as the reformation movement gained steam, riots broke out among peasants in the areas in and around Salzburg. The city was occupied during the German Peasants War, and the archbishop had to flee to the safety of the fortress It was besieged for three months in 1525. It was in the 17th century that Italian architects rebuilt the city center as it is today along with many palaces,21,475 citizens refused to recant their beliefs and were expelled from Salzburg. Most of them accepted an offer by King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, the rest settled in other Protestant states in Europe and the British colonies in America. In 1772–1803, under archbishop Hieronymus Graf von Colloredo, Salzburg was a centre of late Illuminism, in 1803, the archbishopric was secularised by Emperor Napoleon, he transferred the territory to Ferdinando III of Tuscany, former Grand Duke of Tuscany, as the Electorate of Salzburg
31.
Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren
–
When it was developed, German manufacturer Mercedes-Benz owned 40 percent of the McLaren Group. SLR stands for Sport Leicht Rennsport, homage to the Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR which served as the McLarens inspiration, both coupé and roadster versions were offered. The SLR McLaren was succeeded by the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG, the car was presented as Tomorrow Silver Arrow in a clear reference to the Silver Arrows of the golden age of Mercedes in competition during the fifties. Later that year, during the Frankfurt Motorshow it was presented the roadster version, wanting to bring the concept to production, Mercedes joined with their Formula One partner, McLaren, thus creating the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. The Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren saw a run of over six years. On 4 April 2008, Mercedes announced it would discontinue the SLR, the last of the coupés rolled off the production line at the end of 2009 and the roadster version was dropped in early 2010. The SLR features Sensotronic Brake Control, a type of brake-by-wire system, the brake discs are carbon-ceramic and provide better stopping power and fade resistance than steel discs when operating under ideal working temperature. Mercedes-Benz claims these discs are fade resistant to 1,200 °C, the front discs are internally vented and 370 mm diameter eight-piston calipers are used. Rear discs are 360 mm in diameter with four-piston calipers, during wet conditions the calipers automatically skim the surface of the discs to keep them dry. To improve braking performance an automatic air brake deploys at a 65 degree angle at high speed, the SLR features active aerodynamics, there is a spoiler mounted on the rear integral air brake flap. The spoiler increases downforce depending on its angle of elevation, the SLR sports a 232 kg hand-built 5,439 cc, supercharged, all-aluminium, SOHC, V8 engine. The cylinders are angled at 90 degrees with three valves per cylinder and lubricated via a dry sump system, the compression ratio is 8.8,1 and the bore and stroke is 97 mm ×92 mm. The Lysholm-type twin-screw supercharger rotates at 23,000 rpm and produces 0.9 bar of boost, the compressed air is then cooled via two intercoolers. The engine generates a power of 626 PS at 6,500 rpm. McLaren took the concept car designed by Mercedes and moved the engine 1 metre behind the front bumper. They also optimised the design of the centre firewall, the SLR uses AMG SPEEDSHIFT R five-speed automatic transmission with three manual modes. For durability Mercedes selected a five-speed transmission rather than their seven-speed gearbox which was more complex, the car uses carbon fibre reinforced plastics construction in an attempt to keep the weight low. Despite CFRP materials the total weight is 1,750 kg
32.
Ilmor
–
Ilmor, founded by Mario Illien and Paul Morgan in November 1983, is a British independent high-performance autosport engineering company. With manufacturing based in Brixworth, Northamptonshire, and maintenance offices in Plymouth, Michigan, after originally developing IndyCar engines, the company built a partnership with Mercedes-Benz to power F1 cars for both the Sauber and McLaren teams. After the death of Paul Morgan in an aeroplane crash in 2001, Mercedes increased its stake until it owned the entire company. This new company, which is independent of Mercedes, is once again known as Ilmor Engineering Ltd. Racing remains the core part of the business today and Ilmor acts as a consultant for clients from all forms of racing. However, the business is now using its racing expertise to diversify into areas such as OEM automotive, defence, marine. There was some acrimony in their split from Cosworth, their former employer claiming that the Ilmor engine was different from their planned modifications to the DFX. Founded as an independent British engine manufacturer in 1983, it started building engines for Indy cars with the money of team owner, the Ilmor-Chevrolet 265-A debuted at the 1986 Indianapolis 500 with Team Penske driver Al Unser. In 1987, the program expanded to all three Penske team drivers, Patrick Racing, and Newman/Haas Racing. Mario Andretti, driving for Newman/Haas, won at Long Beach and he also won the pole position for the 1987 Indianapolis 500. A year later, the engine was rebadged as the Chevy Indy V-8, and Rick Mears won the 1988 Indianapolis 500, the engine went on to have a stellar record in CART. From 1987 to 1991, the engine won 64 of 78 races, the 265-A engine was followed up by the 265-B engine. The Chevy-B was fielded singly by Penske Racing in 1992 and won five CART series races, all other Ilmor teams remained with the Chevy-A for 1992. It was at time that Ilmor was receiving new competition from Cosworth, which had just introduced their new powerplant. For 1993, the 265-C engine was introduced, replacing both the A and the B, the Chevy-C was used widespread, and produced continued success for Ilmor. Chevrolet dropped its support after the 1993 season. For the 1994 season, two new engines were introduced, the 265-D engine replaced the C, although some of the smaller teams associated with Ilmor still ran the C in 1994. Without badging support, the engines were referred to simply as the Ilmor-C, the other engine introduced in 1994 was the top-secret 265-E, which was actually a 3.43 liter pushrod engine, used by Penske Racing at the 1994 Indianapolis 500
33.
Ricardo plc
–
Ricardo plc is a British publicly listed company named after its founder, Sir Harry Ricardo, originally incorporated and registered as Engine Patents Ltd in 1915. Since 1919 the headquarters have been at Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex, Ricardo develops engines, transmissions, vehicle systems, intelligent transportation systems and hybrid & electric systems. The industries served are in transportation, defence and clean energy and its client list includes transportation original equipment manufacturers, supply chain organisations, energy companies, financial institutions and government agencies. Harry Ricardo was born in London in 1885 and was educated at Rugby, the first internal combustion engined cars were made by Daimler and Benz in the year of his birth and in his childhood days he was clearly highly influenced by these new forms of transport. Over the years, he was responsible for significant developments in the design of engines for a number of applications. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1929 and in 1948 was knighted in recognition of his services to the combustion engine industry. He died in 1974 at the age of 89, from his earliest days, Harry Ricardo had a fascination for engines. He had designed and built many small engines in his youth including, at the age of 17, in 1906 he filed his first engine design patent while still a student at Cambridge. In 1908 ‘The Two-Stroke Engine Company’ started to manufacture and sell a car - the Dolphin - fitted with the novel engine he had designed and patented earlier as a student at Cambridge. In 1915 Harry Ricardo formed Engine Patents Ltd, the company which is known as Ricardo plc. In this year he was contacted by the Royal Naval Air Service to help with the design of a device to manoeuvre battle tanks into position aboard railway wagons, in fact, he discovered numerous problems with the tank engine itself that he was able to help with. For example, the engine, a Daimler 105 bhp sleeve-valve gasoline engine, had a poor lubrication system. Its purely reciprocating sleeves supplied a large quantity of oil into the exhaust port, Harry designed a new 4-stroke crosshead-type engine producing 150 bhp with no visible smoke. Around 8000 engines were produced to power the tanks, making this engine the UKs first mass-produced internal combustion engine, many more of these engines found applications powering generators in workshops, hospitals and camps. The success of this venture yielded £30,000 in royalties and led to Harry Ricardo being able to buy the land, here is a selection of Ricardo-inspired developments marking advances in land, sea and air environments. 1906, The Dolphin motor car Started during Harry Ricardo’s student days in Cambridge, the Dolphin project for a range of cars was technically interesting. Ricardo himself was not involved in owning or running the company, the combustion chamber was advanced, too, allowing a degree of charge stratification. Both two and four-cylinder versions were built, along with a car to suit the bigger engine
34.
Tom Walkinshaw Racing
–
Tom Walkinshaw Racing was an auto racing team and engineering firm founded in 1976, in Kidlington, near Oxford, England by touring car racer Tom Walkinshaw. The company initially handled privateer work before entering works touring car racers for manufacturers such as Mazda, the relationship continued and by 1988, TWR-Jaguar had taken its first Le Mans victory in a V12-powered XJR-9. Further success followed with a Le Mans win in 1990, TWR and Jaguar formed JaguarSport initially to build tuned versions of Jaguar road-cars, culminating in the production of the XJ220 and XJR-15 supercars at a new facility at Bloxham. With Jaguar falling under Fords control in 1989, the TWR relationship declined and by 1994, JaguarSport had been liquidated, TWR nonetheless continued to achieve racing success with other manufacturers, notably winning Le Mans again in 1996 and 1997 in a Porsche-powered WSC-95. However, it was the costs resulting from the purchase of the Formula 1 team Arrows in 1996 that led to the demise of TWR in 2002, the UK assets and facility were bought by Menard Competition Technologies. The facilities were used as Arrows Grand Prix International, Super Aguri, the Australian part of the business was sold to Holden. TWR started by modifying BMW3.0 CSLs, but soon was contracted to head Mazdas works program in the British Touring Car Championship, the TWR developed RX-7, with Win Percy in the driving seat, won the title in both 1980 and 1981. Walkinshaw himself also took a win in the Spa 24 Hours, success in the latter series with both cars led to a partnership to develop a Jaguar prototype for Group C racing, for use in both the World Sportscar Championship and the IMSA GT Championship. As Bob Tullius Group 44 initially ran Jaguar powered cars in IMSA, however, it soon became clear that a single partner could successfully run in both WSCC and IMSA and so by 1988 TWR had secured the contract to run in both series. TWR Jaguar cars won the WSCC outright in 1987,1988 and 1991 and won the prestigious 24 Hours of Le Mans and the 24 Hours of Daytona in 1988 and 1990. The series started in 1985 with XJR-6, designed by Tony Southgate, with a built from carbon-fibre. Although this car won both the WSCC Drivers and Manufacturers championship, Jaguar decided that it no longer had any interest in WSCC due to rule changes. For IMSA in 1991, TWR ran the XJR-16, a development of the XJR-10 turbo car, in spite of six wins in fourteen races, TWR-Jaguar was placed second overall to the more consistent Nissan team. In 1991, in parallel with production of the XJR-14, TWR also developed the £500,000 XJR-15 for privateers and this was raced in its own series, the Jaguar Intercontinental Challenge, supporting F1 races at Monaco, Silverstone and Spa. The winning driver, Armin Hahne, took a US$1m prize, the car was also road-legal, the only road-car to be fully designed and built by TWR. TWR modified its Jaguar XJR-14 design into the TWR WSC-95 for Porsche, in 1997, Nissan Motorsports turned to Tom Walkinshaw Racing to help them develop the Nissan R390 GT1 race car to compete in sports car racing. In the 199824 Hours of Le Mans, Nissan was able to achieve success with all four of their cars finishing the race, placing 3rd, 5th, 6th. Raul Boesel, Martin Brundle and Teo Fabi each won the WSCC Drivers Championship, a number of prominent motor-racing engineers made careers at TWR, including Roger Silman, Tony Southgate and Ross Brawn
35.
Graziano Trasmissioni
–
Graziano Oerlikon is an Italian company based in Turin manufacturing gearboxes, drivelines and their mechatronics components. It makes the Pre-Cog seven-speed Seamless-Shift gearbox dual-clutch gearbox used in the McLaren MP4-12C, Graziano Oerlikon is the world largest supplier of precision gears and shafts for final reduction components within the agricultural and off-highway vehicle. The company is known for supplying transmission and mechatronics for premium performances cars. Customers include Ferrari, Lamborghini, Audi, Maserati, Alfa Romeo and Aston Martin, competitors are Germans ZF Friedrichshafen and Getrag. Graziano Trasmissioni was started in 1951 as a family company with 15 employees by Carlo Graziano. In 1963, the moved to its present headquarters in Cascine Vica. After 1981, the companys export activity increased progressively, the company then expanded, opening a factory in India in 1999, another in Suzhou in 2006 and a third in Cerveny Kostelec, in 2006. In 2007 it merged with North American Fairfield, becoming Oerlikon Drive Systems, Graziano is currently named Oerlikon Graziano. From 1996-1997, starts the cooperation with Ferrari, it developed and supplied the complete gearboxes for the Ferrari Modena,612 Scaglietti, Enzo,430, the new Lamborghini Aventador uses a single-clutch lightweight 7-speed semi-automatic gearbox built by Graziano. Despite being single-clutch, gear-shifts are accomplished in 50ms, the Gallardo used a mid-engine gearbox. The DCT gearbox used in the new Audi R8 was developed in partnership with Graziano and it is built and pretested at Grazianos Luserna plant in Italy before shipment to Volkswagens Kassel plant in Germany, where the clutch and mechatronics modules are added. The finished transmission is sent to Audi. Lists the cars equipped with Graziano gearboxes and this list includes various Ferraris, the Lamborghini Gallardo/Audi R8, Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione, Aston Martin V8 Vantage and DB9 and Maserati Quattroporte and Coupé/Spyder
36.
Horsepower
–
Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
37.
Ron Dennis
–
Ronald Dennis CBE is a British businessman and Official British Business Ambassador for The United Kingdom. Dennis is the Global Consultant for Minsheng Investment Corporation and also owner of Absolute Taste and he is best known for his former role as owner, CEO, chairman and founder of McLaren Technology Group. Dennis was removed from his McLaren management roles in 2016 but remains a director of the company, since 1981, Dennis has been the team principal of the McLaren Formula One team, and was instrumental in transforming the outfit into a regular world championship contender. Constructors and drivers world championships were won with Niki Lauda, Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna, Mika Häkkinen and Lewis Hamilton. After being handed a three page business plan by a chef for his Formula One team, he set up a company, Absolute Taste. In January 2007, Dennis sold half of his 30 percent shareholding in the McLaren Group to the Bahrain Mumtalakat Holding Company, leaving him with a 15 percent share. In 2009, Dennis, together with co-owners Mansour Ojjehs TAG Group, as of January 2014, Mumtalakat hold 50 percent of the Groups shares, with Dennis and Mansour Ojjeh holding 25 percent each. Ron Dennis was placed at number 648 in the Sunday Times Rich List 2006 with a net worth of £90 million, in the Sunday Times Rich List 2011, Dennis net worth is estimated to be £177m. In April 2014, it was stated he had a net worth of approx and his net worth grew in 2014 when he purchased McLaren Group. Aside from McLaren Group, he is one of six British business persons to be an official British Business Ambassador for advanced engineering and manufacturing. Dennis is also a trustee for Tommys, a miscarriage help charity. He is the Global Consultant for the state owned China Minsheng Investment Group, with interests in foreign trade, Dennis also became Chairman of the British East Asian Council in 2014. Before the merger with Louis Vuitton, Dennis was a shareholder in the luxury watch maker TAG Heuer, along with his business partner. Dennis tried to purchase the company again in October 2016, with a bid of 1. Dennis was born and raised in Woking, England, and studied motor vehicle engineering at Guildford Technical College and he began working for the Cooper Formula One team in 1966 as a mechanic at the age of 18 where he worked alongside lead driver Jochen Rindt. In 1968 Rindt moved to Brabham and took Dennis with him, for the 1969 season Rindt moved to Team Lotus, however, Dennis stayed on, choosing instead to work for Sir Jack Brabham. When Brabham chose retirement in 1971, Dennis and his colleague Neil Trundle decided to start their own team, in 1971, Rondel Racing was founded in Denniss native Woking. Money was at a premium though and Dennis was trying to find sponsorship, Vlassopulos asked his friend Ken Grob, chairman of Alexander Howden, insurance brokers in London if he was interested in joining in
38.
McLaren Technology Centre
–
The McLaren Technology Centre is the headquarters of the McLaren Technology Group Ltd and all of its companies, located on a 500,000 m² site in Woking, Surrey, England. The complex consists of four buildings, two of which are open, the main building is the McLaren Technology Centre. The others are The McLaren Production Centre, the McLaren-GSK Centre for Applied Performance, the main headquarters building is a large, roughly semi-circular, glass-walled building, designed by the architect Norman Foster and his company, Foster and Partners. The building was short-listed for the 2005 Stirling Prize, which was won by the Scottish Parliament building, about 1,000 people work at the Technology Centre. It is home to the McLaren Racing Formula One constructor and McLaren Automotive and it is also the main setting of McLarens new cartoon, Tooned. In 2011, the size of the centre was doubled after a second building and this two storey building is used for manufacturing cars for McLaren Automotive and also for some of McLaren Applied Technologys products. Two more buildings are planned for the site to complete the complex, the McLaren Applied Technology Centre and these will sit beside the semi circular McLaren Technology Centre headquarters and the McLaren Production Centre. McLaren Technology Centre, This is the headquarters of McLaren Group. This was the first building to open in the complex, McLaren Production Centre, This is the main headquarters of McLaren Automotive. This was the building to open. McLaren-GSK Centre for Applied Performance, This will be the building to open. Planning was submitted in 2011 and accepted after amendments to the plans in April 2014 and this will be the headquarters for the McLaren-GSK partnership. McLaren Applied Technologies Centre, Plans have not yet been submitted for this building and it will be the headquarters for McLaren Applied Technologies. The building is accompanied by a series of lakes, one formal lake directly opposite that completes the circle of the building. Together they contain about 50,000 m³ of water and this water is pumped through a series of heat exchangers to cool the building and to dissipate the heat produced by the wind tunnels. The main working space of the building is split into 18 metre wide sections known as fingers that are separated by six metre wide corridors known as streets, facilities for employees include a 700-seat restaurant, a juice and coffee bar, a swimming pool and a fitness centre. An underground Visitor and Learning Centre is connected to the building by a walkway. A145 metre long, rectangular-circuit shaped wind tunnel is located at one end of the building, team McLaren uses it for testing and development of aerodynamic parts, as well as testing aerodynamic set-ups
39.
David Cameron
–
David William Donald Cameron is a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016. He served as the Leader of the Conservative Party from 2005 to 2016 and was Member of Parliament for Witney from 2001 to 2016, Cameron identifies as a One-Nation Conservative, and has been associated with both economically liberal and socially liberal policies. Born in London to wealthy upper middle-class parents, Cameron was educated at Heatherdown School, Eton College, from 1988 to 1993 he worked at the Conservative Research Department, assisting the Conservative Prime Minister John Major, before leaving politics to work for Carlton Communications in 1994. Becoming an MP in 2001, he served in the shadow cabinet under Conservative leader Michael Howard. Cameron sought to rebrand the Conservatives, embracing an increasingly liberal position. The 2010 general election led to Cameron becoming Prime Minister as the head of a government with the Liberal Democrats. His administration introduced large-scale changes to welfare, immigration policy, education and it privatised the Royal Mail and some other state assets, and legalised same-sex marriage. When the Conservatives secured a majority in the 2015 general election he remained as Prime Minister. To fulfil a manifesto pledge, he introduced a referendum on the UKs continuing membership of the EU, Cameron supported continued membership, following the success of the Leave vote, he resigned to make way for a new Prime Minister and was succeeded by Theresa May. Cameron has been praised for modernising the Conservative Party and for decreasing the United Kingdoms national deficit, conversely, he has been criticised by figures on both the left and right, and has been accused of political opportunism and elitism. Cameron is the son of Ian Donald Cameron a stockbroker, and his wife Mary Fleur, a retired Justice of the Peace. Camerons parents were married on 20 October 1962, the journalist Toby Young has described Camerons background as being upper-upper-middle class. Cameron was born in Marylebone, London, and raised in Peasemore, Berkshire and he has a brother, Alexander Cameron, QC, a barrister, and two sisters, Tania Rachel and Clare Louise. Blairmore was built by Camerons great-great-grandfather, Alexander Geddes, who had made a fortune in the trade in Chicago, Illinois. Blairmore was sold soon after Ians birth, Cameron has said, On my mothers side of the family, her mother was a Llewellyn, so Welsh. Im a real mixture of Scottish, Welsh, and English and he has also referenced the German Jewish ancestry of one of his great-grandfathers, Arthur Levita, a descendant of the Yiddish author Elia Levita. From the age of seven, Cameron was educated at two independent schools, at Heatherdown School in Winkfield in Berkshire, which counts Prince Andrew, owing to good grades, Cameron entered its top academic class almost two years early. At the age of thirteen, he went on to Eton College in Berkshire and his early interest was in art
40.
Ariel Atom
–
There have been seven Ariel Atom generations to date, Ariel Atom, Ariel Atom 2, Ariel Atom 3 Ariel Atom 3.5, Ariel Atom 3S, Ariel Spec, Race Atom, and Ariel Atom 500 V8 Limited Edition. The current models are the Ariel Atom 3,3.5, the more powerful 3. 5R, the 3S, the Spec, Race Atom, the Ariel Atom features a prominently visible chassis and a drag coefficient of 0.40. Known then as the LSC, it was developed at the university in 1996 with input and funding from various automotive industry members, including British Steel, the car was first shown publicly at the British International Motor Show at the NEC in Birmingham in October 1996. The Atom suspension setup was tuned by the engineers at Lotus, the Atom’s suspension derives from single seat racing cars and is fully adjustable, requiring only a spanner/wrench. Both front and rear double unequal length wishbones and inboard, pushrod-operated dampers contribute to the Atom’s dynamic handling, adjustable suspension rod ends feature inboard rubber/metal bushings to promote a more comfortable road-going ride. The front and rear Bilstein dampers are also adjustable, stacked helper coil springs and main coil springs produce a low spring rate for minor deflections and a higher rate for large ones. In 2005 Track and Race Car magazine published the results of a comprehensive test of a range of cars, from the Porsche 911 Carrera S, Ford GT, BMW M5 to the Caterham CSR260. The supercharged Ariel Atom 2 won the 0–100–0 mph test by a clear margin at 10.88 seconds, ahead of the Caterham CSR260 and the Ford GT in fourth. The following year, the Atom won Autocars 0–100 mph challenge as the new Ariel Atom 2300 bhp supercharged edition achieved a time of 6.86 seconds, at the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham, the Atom broke the indoor speed record. The high gloss floor that the cars ran on was only 220 m long, the driver of the Atom launched in fourth gear and still had wheelspin until the car reached 70 mph and started to get traction. Brammo Motorsports of Ashland, Oregon signed a deal with Ariel Ltd to manufacture the Atom in the US starting in late 2005. In the US the Atom 2 was available with the supercharged GM Ecotec engine, there was a limited run of 10 US-built Atom 2 cars in 2006-2007, which were powered by imported Honda K20As. Brammo Motorsports ceased production of the Atom in 2008 to focus on the manufacture of an electric motorcycle, TMI started production by building Honda-powered Atom 3 cars. TMI AutoTech Inc also operates the Spec, RaceAtom Series at VIR, introduced in February 2008, the Ariel Atom 500 features a 500 horsepower 3. The engine weighs 90 kg and is coupled to a SADEV six-speed sequential gearbox to cope with the power over the Honda unit. During the development process the RS performance engine was replaced by a unit prepared by Hartley Enterprises giving the production version of the 550 kg car 909 bhp/tonne. Ariel claims this variant will accelerate from 0-60 mph in less than 2.3 seconds, in June 2014 a 3. 5R was presented to Avon and Somerset Police, the force local to the Crewkerne factory, to support a local motorcycle safety initiative. It has pursuit lights and police livery, in October 2014, TMI AutoTech, Inc. announced the arrival of an all new Atom for the US market, the 3S
41.
Pagani Huayra
–
The Pagani Huayra is an Italian mid-engined sports car produced by Pagani. Succeeding the companys offering, the Zonda, it had a base price of €850,000. It is named after Huayra-tata, a Quechua wind god, the Huayra was named The Hypercar of the Year 2012 by Top Gear magazine and received a very positive review when tested by Richard Hammond on Top Gear. It is also unofficially faster around the track than the Ferrari LaFerrari, however, in June 2016, the Huayra was beaten by the McLaren 675LT that set a record of 1,13.7. On February 11,2015 it was reported that the Pagani Huayra has been sold out, the Huayra was limited to just 100 units as part of Paganis agreement with engine supplier Mercedes-AMG. The Huayra uses a twin-turbo, V12 engine developed by Mercedes-AMG specially for the Huayra, the Huayras 6. 0-litre engine, the M158, produces 730 PS and 811 lb·ft of torque. Its top speed is about 238 mph and it has a 0-60 acceleration time of 2.8 seconds, using Pirelli tires, the Pagani Huayra is capable of withstanding 1.66 g of lateral acceleration at speeds of up to 230 mph. The Pagani Huayra uses a sequential gearbox and a single disc clutch. The choice not to use a dual-clutch in an oil bath was due to the increase in weight of over 70 kg, as a result, the entire transmission weighs 96 kg. The car is equipped with Brembo brake calipers, rotors and pads, the calipers have four pistons in front and four in the rear. The rotors are drilled carbon ceramic,380 mm in diameter and 34 mm thick, Pagani Huayra has a power to weight ratio of 1.85 kg per horsepower. Mercedes-Benzs AMG division provides the engine of the Huayra which is hand-built, like many high-performance cars, the Huayra uses dry sump lubrication. The fuel consumption of the Huayra is 10 mpg in city and 14 mpg in highway, a water / oil heat exchanger reduces engine warm-up times on cold days and helps maintain a stable temperature for refrigerants and lubricants. To minimize the use of pipes and fittings, the tank is mounted directly on the engine. Intercooler fins act as a tank circuit at low temperatures. The titanium exhaust system was designed and built by MHG-Fahrzeugtechnik, hydroformed joints were developed to reduce back pressure and ensure a free flow exhaust. Titanium reduces the weight of the exhaust system while the Inconel silencers improve reliability in the most exposed parts of the exhaust at high temperatures, the entire system weighs less than 10 kg. The Pagani Huayra is different from its predecessor in that it incorporates active aerodynamics and it is capable of changing the height of the front from the ground and independently operating four flaps placed at the rear and front of the car
42.
Group GT3
–
Since then, Group GT3 has expanded to become the de facto category for many national and international grand touring series, although some series modify the ruleset from the FIA standard. By 2013, nearly 20 automobile manufacturers have built or been represented with GT3 machines, Group GT3 allows for a wide variety of car types to be homologated with almost no limit on engine sizes and configurations or chassis construction or layout. GT3 cars must be based on road car models in mass production. The cars in GT3 are designed to have a weight between 1200kg and 1300kg with horsepower between 500hp and 600hp. All cars have a similar power to weight ratio but achieved either by high power and high weight such as the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG or low power. GT3 cars also have control, ABS and built in air jacks for quick pit stops. The concept behind Group GT3 was introduced by Stéphane Ratel, head of the SRO Group and this would allow drivers a bridge between smaller national series and the professional international FIA GT Championship. Further, the category was conceived to use sprint formats for races, a similar category, under the same name, had been in use in the British GT Championship which the SRO Group also organized. The British GT Championship, International GT Open, Spanish GT Championship, the SRO Group expanded the category in 2007 with the launch of two new regional championships, the Brazilian GT Championship and the German ADAC GT Masters, exclusively running Group GT3 cars. The British GT Championship abandoned Group GT2 cars, promoting GT3 to their premiere category, the French FFSA GT Championship also added a new GT3 category. The Australian GT Championship brought on board the GT3 category in 2008 while the VLN Series and 24 Hours Nürburgring added GT3 categories in 2009, GT3 category cars also replaced Group GT1 cars in the FIA GT1 World Championship before rebranding as the FIA GT Series in 2013. As of March 2017,47 cars have been homologated in Group GT3 by the FIA, although four of these homologations have expired. S
,_30._August_2012,_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg)
.jpg)
,_30._August_2012,_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg)
