1.
Auto racing
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Auto racing is a sport involving the racing of automobiles for competition. Almost as soon as automobiles had been invented, races of various sorts were organised, by the 1930s specialist racing cars had developed. There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and it was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton. Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles, the first organized contest was on April 28,1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication Le Vélocipède, Monsieur Fossier. It ran 2 kilometres from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne, on July 22,1894, the Parisian magazine Le Petit Journal organized what is considered to be the worlds first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee, the first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day Chicago Times-Herald race of November 28,1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile, brooklands, in Surrey, was the first purpose-built motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a 4.43 km concrete track with high-speed banked corners, One of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the 2. 5-mile -long Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257. NASCAR was founded by Bill France, Sr. on February 21,1948, the first NASCAR Strictly Stock race ever was held on June 19,1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida. From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a seat to GT cars. From 1972 through 2003, NASCARs premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, the changes that resulted from RJRs involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 48 to 31 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCARs modern era. The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, the European races eventually became the closely related Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs. The best-known variety of racing, Formula One, which hosts the famous Monaco Grand Prix. In single-seater, the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front, in Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as Formula, with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the Formula terminology is not followed, the sport is usually arranged to follow an international format, a regional format, and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format. In North America, the used in the National Championship have traditionally been similar though less sophisticated than F1 cars. The series most famous race is the Indianapolis 500, the other major international single-seater racing series is GP2
2.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
3.
McLaren
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McLaren Racing Limited, competing as McLaren Honda, is a British Formula One team based at the McLaren Technology Centre, Woking, Surrey, England. McLaren is best known as a Formula One constructor but has competed in and won the Indianapolis 500. The team is the second oldest active team after Ferrari and they are one of the most successful teams in Formula One history, having won 182 races,12 drivers championships and eight constructors championships. The team is an owned subsidiary of McLaren Technology Group. Further American triumph followed, with Indianapolis 500 wins in McLaren cars for Mark Donohue in 1972, the combination of Prost and Senna was particularly dominant—together they won all but one race in 1988—but later their rivalry soured and Prost left for Ferrari. Fellow English team Williams offered the most consistent challenge during this period, however, by the mid-1990s, Honda had withdrawn from Formula One, Senna had moved to Williams, and the team went three seasons without a win. Ron Dennis retired as McLaren team principal in 2009, handing the role to longtime McLaren employee Martin Whitmarsh. At the end of 2013, after the teams worst season since 2004, McLaren announced in 2013 that they would be using Honda engines from 2015 onwards, replacing Mercedes-Benz. The team raced as McLaren-Honda for the first time since 1992 at the 2015 Australian Grand Prix, Bruce McLaren Motor Racing was founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren. Bruce was a driver for the British Formula One team Cooper with whom he had won three Grands Prix and come second in the 1960 world championship. In 1964 and 1965, McLaren were based in New Malden, then Feltham, during this period, Bruce drove for his team in sports car races in the United Kingdom and North America and also entered the 1965 Tasman Series with Phil Hill, but did not win it. He continued to drive in Grands Prix for Cooper, but judging that teams form to be waning, Bruce made the teams Grand Prix debut at the 1966 Monaco race. His race ended after nine laps due to an oil leak. Neither car brought great success, the best result being a fourth at Monaco, for 1968, after driving McLarens sole entry for the previous two years, Bruce was joined by 1967 champion and fellow New Zealander Denny Hulme, who was already racing for McLaren in Can-Am. That years new M7A car, Herds final design for the team, was powered by Cosworths new and soon to be ubiquitous DFV engine, Hulme also won the Italian and Canadian Grands Prix later in the year, helping the team to second in the constructors championship. The year 1970 started with a place each for Hulme. After his death, Teddy Mayer took over control of the team, Hulme continued with Dan Gurney. Gurney won the first two Can-Am events at Mosport and St. Jovite and placed ninth in the third, but left the team mid-season, and Gethin took over from there
4.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
5.
Robin Herd
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Robin Herd CBE is an English engineer, designer and businessman. Herd studied at St Peters College, Oxford, having turned down an offer to play cricket for Worcestershire at the age of 18 and he worked on the Concorde project for four years and was eventually promoted to Senior Scientific Officer at the age of 24. The M2A subsequently evolved into the Formula One M2B car and he also carried out work for Frank Williams in late 1969, modifying Williams Brabham BT26 to take a Ford Cosworth DFV to enter Piers Courage in Formula One. He co-founded March Engineering with Max Mosley, Alan Rees and Graham Coaker in 1969, the team completed 207 Formula One Grand Prix races between 1970 and 1992, winning three with four pole positions. He sold March Racing to the Japanese property company Leyton House in 1989 and he quit racing in 1995 and bought Oxford United Football Club, becoming chairman, and also established a company investigating natural ways of producing energy. He resigned from his duty as chairman in 1998, and formed an Indy Racing League team called March Indy International in the following year
6.
Chassis
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A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
7.
Mallite
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Mallite is a type of laminate composite material, formerly manufactured by the William Mallinson & Sons company. The material is formed of a sheet of end grain balsa wood. This construction endows the finished material with greater strength and rigidity than a light alloy sheet of equal mass, the material was originally developed in the late 1950s for use in the aerospace industry, primarily for use in flooring and internal partitioning in jet airliner construction. However, it found fame as one of the first engineered composite materials to be employed in the motorsport industry, robin Herd, formerly a designer on the Concorde project, used his aerospace knowledge to design the first McLaren single-seater racing cars. The M2A prototype used Mallite extensively, throughout its construction, with greater understanding of Mallites properties Herd later used the material to construct the unraced Cosworth four-wheel drive Formula One car of 1969, noted for its slab-sided, angular looks. Archived from the original on September 27,2007
8.
Aluminium alloy
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Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin, there are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for products, for example rolled plate, foils. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point, the most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al–Si, where the high levels of silicon contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required. Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal-skinned aircraft. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than aluminium alloys and much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will develop a white, protective layer of aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures, referred to as dissimilar-metal corrosion, this process can occur as exfoliation or as intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be heat treated. This causes internal element separation, and the metal then corrodes from the inside out, Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Aluminium alloys with a range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a system or by names indicating their main alloying constituents. Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its strength, density, ductility, formability, workability, weldability. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is too soft for such uses. Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater deformation in the elastic regime than a steel part of identical size and shape. Though there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, with completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing technology. Extrusions are particularly important in regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al–Mg–Si series
9.
Monocoque
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Monocoque, also structural skin, is a structural system where loads are supported through an objects external skin, similar to an egg shell. The word monocoque is a French term for single shell or single hull, a true monocoque carries both tensile and compressive forces within the skin and can be recognised by the absence of a load carrying internal frame. By contrast, a semi-monocoque is a combining a tensile stressed skin. Other semi-monocoques not to be confused with true monocoques include vehicle unibodies, which tend to be composites, early aircraft were constructed using frames, typically of wood or steel tubing, which could then be covered with fabric such as irish linen or cotton. The skin added nothing to the strength of the airframe and was dead weight beyond providing a smooth sealed surface. This reduced drag so effectively it was able to win most of the races it was entered into, however, it was prone to damage from moisture and delamination. While all metal aircraft from the Junkers firm had appeared as early as 1915, the first metal monocoques were built by Claudius Dornier, while working for Zeppelin-Lindau. After failed attempts with several large flying boats in which a few components were monocoques, the aluminum alloy monocoque chassis was first used in the 1962 Lotus 25 Formula 1 race car. The term monocoque is frequently misused when referring to unibody cars, in motor racing, the safety of the driver depends on the car body which must meet stringent regulations and a few cars have been built with monocoque structures. Tanks and other armored vehicles such as the German Fuchs 2 and this reduces weight for a given amount of armor compared to vehicles to which armor has been attached to an underlying frame. A monocoque-framed motorcycle was developed by the Spanish motorcycle manufacturer, Ossa, Ossa won four Grand Prix races with the monocoque bike before their rider was killed during the 1970 Isle of Man TT, causing the Ossa factory to withdraw from Grand Prix competition. Notable designers such as Eric Offenstadt and Dan Hanebrink created unique monocoque designs in the early 1970s, the 1973 Isle of Man TT was won by Peter Williams on the monocoque-framed Norton John Player Special that he helped design. Honda also experimented with a monocoque Grand Prix racing motorcycle named the NR500 in 1979, in 1987 John Britten developed the Aero-D One, featuring a composite monocoque chassis that weighed only 12 kg. The first time an aluminium monocoque frame appeared on a production motorcycle was the 2000 Kawasaki Ninja ZX-12R. This was Kawasakis flagship production sportbike aimed at being the fastest production motorcycle, various rockets have used pressure-stabilized monocoque designs, such as Atlas and Falcon 1. Balloon tanks are not true monocoques but act in the way as inflatable shells. A balloon tank skin only handles tensile forces while compression is resisted by internal pressure in a way similar to semi-monocoques braced by a solid frame. This becomes obvious when internal pressure is lost and the structure collapses, the Handle is an electric guitar characterized by its hollow sectioned monocoque chassis, created by the award-winning designer Peter Solomon
10.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
11.
Radius rod
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A radius rod is a suspension link intended to control wheel motion in the longitudinal direction. The link is connected on one end to the carrier or axle. Radius rods are sometimes used in aircraft with fixed undercarriages. Radius rods typically are mounted ahead of the wheel, in that position they resist dive under braking forces and wheel hop under acceleration. Radius rods are made of stamped steel or aluminum for lightness. Improvements in composite materials technology make possible plastic suspension links, although they are still uncommon, other suspension components can be made to act as radius rods under certain conditions. On a vehicle with longitudinal leaf springs, such as a Hotchkiss drive suspension, one or more torque arms may be added to provide supplementary wheel control, particularly for vehicles with strong torque such as drag racers
12.
Control arm
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In automotive suspension, a control arm, also known as an A-arm, is a hinged suspension link between the chassis and the suspension upright or hub that carries the wheel. The inboard end of an arm is attached by a single pivot. It can thus control the position of the end in only a single degree of freedom. Although not deliberately free to move, the single bushing does not control the arm from moving back and forth and this is in contrast to the wishbone. Wishbones are triangular and have two widely spaced inboard bearings and these constrain the outboard end of the wishbone from moving back and forth, controlling two degrees of freedom, and without requiring additional links. Most control arms form the link of a suspension. A few designs use them as the link, usually with a lower wishbone. The additional radius rod is attached to the upper arm. Control arms are most commonly encountered as part of the MacPherson strut independent front suspension, the control arms are perpendicular to the axis of the vehicle and are termed track control arms. A diagonal radius rod constrains the strut from moving forward and back, in MacPhersons original design, an anti-roll bar also acted as the radius rod. This requires the bar to be attached through a ball joint, in most contemporary designs, still commonly termed MacPherson struts, the radius rod and anti-roll bar are now separate, with the anti-roll bar mounted in a sliding bush. A control arm may be used to carry the suspension load, torsion bar suspension commonly does this, with the outboard end of the torsion bar attached to the inboard bearing of the control arm
13.
Coilover
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A coilover is an automobile suspension device. Coilover is short for coil spring over shock and it consists of a shock absorber with a coil spring encircling it. The shock absorber and spring are assembled as a prior to installation. This provides damping without torsional loads, some coilovers allow adjustment of ride height and preload, using a simple threaded spring perch similar to a nut. More advanced adjustable coilover systems use a threaded body, along with an adjustable lower mount for ride height adjustment. Stiffness is changed by switching the spring for one with a different spring rate, the coilover style of spring placement is a component of the MacPherson strut suspension system, which uses a design of anti-roll bar as a longitudinal constraint. Coilovers are different from struts or independently mounted shock absorbers, there are two types of coilovers, full coilovers and slip on coilovers
14.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
15.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
16.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
17.
Scuderia Serenissima
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Scuderia Serenissima and Scuderia SSS Republica di Venezia were names used by Giovanni Volpi to enter his own cars in Formula One and sports car racing in the early 1960s. Scuderia Serenissima was an auto racing team in the early 1960s. Funded by Giovanni Volpi, Serenissima used Ferraris to much success until the founder financed the exiled Ferrari company, thereafter, Enzo Ferrari would no longer sell his cars to Serenissima, so the company turned to De Tomaso, ATS, and Maserati. Volpi, and thus Serenissima, halted operations in 1970. In 1961, Scuderia Serenissima entered the Formula One World Championship and they first entered a Cooper T51 for Maurice Trintignant at the 1961 Monaco Grand Prix, where he finished seventh. In Belgium, Trintignant retired on lap 23 with a gearbox after having qualified his car in 19th place. At the 1961 French Grand Prix, Scuderia Serenissima entered two cars, again the Cooper for Trintignant and a De Tomaso for Giorgio Scarlatti. Trintignant finished in 13th place while Scarlatti retired on lap 15 when his engine broke down, at the German Grand Prix Trintignant retired on lap 12 when his engine broke down. In the 1961 Italian Grand Prix, Scuderia Serenissima again entered two cars, the Cooper for Trintignant and a De Tomaso for Nino Vaccarella, Trintignant finished the race in ninth place and Vaccarella retired on lap 13 when his engine broke down. In 1962, now called Scuderia SSS Republica di Venezia, they entered cars for Nino Vaccarella, in Monaco, Vaccarella failed to qualify for the race. Three races later in Germany, Vaccarella finished in 15th place, at the last race for the Scuderia in Italy Vaccarella finished in 9th place. In 1966 Serenissima supplied engines to McLaren, and at the 1966 British Grand Prix Bruce McLaren finished in sixth place, scoring one World Championship point. In 1963, Volpi began developing his own prototype GT car and it used a new V8 engine, designed by Alberto Massimino, with closed bodywork by Francesco Salomone. A later open version was built by Fantuzzi, history of the Serenissima Ghia Coupé
18.
Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, a RMR or Rear Mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one in which the rear wheels are driven by an engine placed just in front of them, behind the passenger compartment. In contrast to the rear-engined RR layout, the center of mass of the engine is in front of the rear axle and this layout is typically chosen for its low moment of inertia and relatively favorable weight distribution. The layout has a tendency toward being heavier in the rear than the front, however, since there is little weight over the front wheels, under acceleration, the front of the car is prone to lift and cause understeer. Most rear-engine layouts have historically used in smaller vehicles, because the weight of the engine at the rear has an adverse effect on a larger cars handling, making it tail-heavy. It is felt that the low polar inertia is crucial in selection of this layout, the mid-engined layout also uses up central space, making it impractical for any but two-seater sports cars. However, some use this layout, with a small. This makes it possible to move the right to the front of the vehicle. In modern racing cars, RMR is the configuration and is usually synonymous with mid engine. Due to its distribution and resulting favorable vehicle dynamics, this layout is heavily employed in open-wheel Formula racing cars as well as purpose-built sports racing cars. This configuration was also common in very small engined 1950s microcars, because of successes in racing, the RMR platform has been popular for road-going sports cars despite the inherent challenges of design, maintenance and lack of cargo space. The 1900 NW Rennzweier was one of the first race cars with mid-engine, other known historical examples include the 1923 Benz Tropfenwagen. It was based on a design named the Rumpler Tropfenwagen in 1921 made by Edmund von Rumpler. The Benz Tropfenwagen was designed by Ferdinand Porsche along with Willy Walb and it raced in 1923 and 1924 and was most successful in the Italian Grand Prix in Monza where it stood fourth. Later, Ferdinand Porsche used mid-engine design concept towards the Auto Union Grand Prix cars of the 1930s which became the first winning RMR racers and they were decades before their time, although MR Miller Specials raced a few times at Indianapolis between 1939 and 1947. The 718 followed similarly in 1958, but it was not until the late 1950s that RMR reappeared in Grand Prix races in the form of the Cooper-Climax, soon followed by cars from BRM and Lotus. Ferrari and Porsche soon made Grand Prix RMR attempts with less initial success, the mid-engined layout was brought back to Indianapolis in 1961 by the Cooper Car Company with Jack Brabham running as high as third and finishing ninth. Cooper did not return, but from 1963 on British built mid-engined cars from constructors like Brabham, Lotus and Lola competed regularly and in 1965 Lotus won Indy with their Type 38. The first rear mid-engined road car was the 1962 Bonnet / Matra Djet, nearly 1700 were built until 1967
19.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
20.
ZF Friedrichshafen
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ZF Friedrichshafen AG, also known as ZF Group, and commonly abbreviated to ZF, is a German car parts maker headquartered in Friedrichshafen, in the south-west German region of Baden-Württemberg. Specialising in engineering, it is known for its design, research and development. It is a supplier of driveline and chassis technology for cars and commercial vehicles. It is also involved in rail, marine, defence and aviation industries, ZF has 230 production locations in 40 countries with approximately 138,000 employees. The company was founded in 1915 in Friedrichshafen, Germany by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH, to produce gears for Zeppelins, Zeppelin was unable to otherwise obtain gears for his airships. The German Zahnradfabrik translates to gear factory in English, by 1919, ZF had moved into the automobile market, a move consolidated by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Some of the most important milestones that followed,1920, Patent application submitted for the Soden pre-selector transmission,1929, A thriving auto industry warrants the series production of the innovative helical ZF Aphon transmission for cars and commercial vehicles. 1932, Launch of steering systems production under license,1944, On 3 August, the Zahnradfabrik was bombed by the Fifteenth Air Force as a secondary target. As early as 20 September 1942, Albert Speer had warned Hitler of how important the Friedrichshafen tank engine production,1953, Market launch of the first fully synchronised transmission for commercial vehicles worldwide. 1961, Development of an automatic transmission for passenger cars. With series production beginning in 1969, and later proving highly popular, the 1960s sees ZF supplying transmissions to major German automakers as well as Peugeot and Alfa Romeo. 1977, Start of volume production for automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles, worldwide subsidiaries and factories were opened in the 1970s, and the company moved into India and South Korea. 1980s, ZF started operating in Asia in the mid 80s 1984, Majority shareholding gained in Lemförder Metallwaren AG,1986, Start of USA transmission production in Gainesville, Georgia, for pickup trucks. ZF became a supplier to Ford in the 1980s. 1991, The 5HP18 was the first 5-speed automatic transmission for passenger cars, introduced in 1991 on the BMW E36 320i/325i and E345 Series 1994, Development of an automatic transmission system for heavy commercial vehicles. The company expanded into China in the 1990s,1999, World premiere for the first automatic 6-speed transmission. Series production begins in 2001, with the BMW7 Series as the first client, today, ZF produces around one million six-speed automatic transmissions annually. 2001, Acquisition of Mannesmann Sachs AG,2001, Active Roll Stabilization premiere on BMW7 Series 2002, Presentation of the worlds first 4-point link – a newly developed chassis module for trucks and buses
21.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
22.
Transaxle
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Many mid- and rear-engined vehicles use a transverse engine and transaxle, similar to a front wheel drive unit. Front-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles tend to have the transmission up front just after the engine and this is generally done for reasons of weight distribution, and is therefore common on sports cars. Another advantage is that as the spins at engine speed it only has to endure the torque of the engine. This design was pioneered in the 1934 Škoda Popular, and then in the 1950 Lancia Aurelia, since this placement of the gearbox is unsuitable for a live axle, the rear suspension is either independent, or uses a de Dion tube. Rare exceptions to this rule were the Bugatti T46 and T50 which had a three speed gearbox on a live axle and this is mounted immediately behind the front-mounted engine and contains the gearbox, along with both the centre differential, and the front differential and final drive unit. Hybrid Synergy Drive Axle Transmission Differential Powertrain Drivetrain Transfer case
23.
Tire
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A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped vehicle component that covers the wheels rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance. Most tires, such as those for automobiles and bicycles, provide traction between the vehicle and the road providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock. The materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with carbon black. They consist of a tread and a body, the tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first versions of tires were bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are used on locomotives and railcars, and solid rubber tires are still used in various non-automotive applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers. The etymology of tire is that the word is a form of attire. The spelling tyre does not appear until the 1840s when the English began shrink fitting railway car wheels with malleable iron, nevertheless, traditional publishers continued using tire. The Times newspaper in Britain was still using tire as late as 1905, the spelling tyre began to be commonly used in the 19th century for pneumatic tires in the UK. However, over the course of the 20th century, tyre became established as the standard British spelling, the earliest tires were bands of leather, then iron, placed on wooden wheels, used on carts and wagons. The tire would be heated in a fire, placed over the wheel and quenched, causing the metal to contract. A skilled worker, known as a wheelwright, carried out this work, the outer ring served to tie the wheel segments together for use, providing also a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word tire thus emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the bands used to tie wheels. The first patent for what appears to be a standard pneumatic tire appeared in 1847 lodged by the Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson, however, this never went into production. The first practical pneumatic tire was made in 1888 on May Street, Belfast, by Scots-born John Boyd Dunlop and it was an effort to prevent the headaches of his 10-year-old son Johnnie, while riding his tricycle on rough pavements. His doctor, John, later Sir John Fagan, had prescribed cycling as an exercise for the boy, Fagan participated in designing the first pneumatic tires. In Dunlops tire patent specification dated 31 October 1888, his interest is only in its use in cycles, in September 1890, he was made aware of an earlier development but the company kept the information to itself
24.
Firestone Tire and Rubber Company
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Firestone soon saw the huge potential for marketing tires for automobiles. The company was a pioneer in the production of tires. Harvey Firestone had a friendship with Henry Ford, Firestone used this relationship to become the original equipment supplier of Ford Motor Company automobiles, and was also active in the replacement market. In 1988, the company was sold to the Japanese Bridgestone Corporation, Firestone was originally based in Akron, Ohio, also the hometown of its archrival, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, and another two mid-sized competitors, General Tire and Rubber and BF Goodrich. Founded on August 3,1900, the company initiated operations with 12 employees, together, Firestone and Goodyear were the largest suppliers of automotive tires in North America for over 75 years. In 1906 Henry Ford chose Firestone for Model T original equipment tires, in 1918, Firestone Tire and Rubber Company of Canada was incorporated in Hamilton, Ontario and in 1922, the first Canadian-made tire rolled off the line on September 15. During the 1920s, Firestone produced the Oldfield tire, named for racing driver Barney Oldfield, in 1926, the company opened one of the worlds biggest rubber plantations in Liberia, West Africa, spanning more than 1 million acres. 1926 was also the year that the company opened its first Firestone Complete Auto Care store, in 1927, Henry Ford and tire maven Harvey Firestone took a trip to Los Angeles to select locations for their new factories. Friends say Ford wanted to be near the ocean and picked Long Beach and suggested Firestone go to South Gate, the tiny community southeast of Downtown was mostly agriculture at the time and Firestone found 40 acres of beanfield to house his new manufacturing plant. A year after the plant opened in 1928 it doubled in size, by 1954, when they added the Corporal guided missile to their offerings, the plant was nearly a million square feet. The town grew around Firestone, they named the main boulevard through town after Harvey, by the mid-1970s Ford and GM had massive layoffs as Firestone and other manufacturers opened new plants in non-union locales like Wilson, North Carolina. After much downsizing the end came in 1980 when 1,300 workers were laid off, east Los Angeles College has proposed a new satellite campus at the site. In 1928 the company built a factory in Brentford, England, in 1936 the company opened a plant in Memphis, Tennessee. With a work force exceeding 3,000 employees, the Memphis plant was the largest tire manufacturer in the companys worldwide operation, on July 1,1963, the company celebrated the production of 100 million tires in Memphis. The plant was closed in 1982, during World War II the company was called on by the U. S. Government to make artillery shells, aluminum kegs for food transport and rubberized military products. Firestone ranked 55th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, in the 1940s, Firestone was given a defense contract to produce plastic helmet liners. While outproduced by Westinghouse Electric they still made a fair amount for the M1 Helmet, in 1951, Firestone was given the defense contract for the MGM-5 Corporal missile. Firestone was given a total of US$6,888,796 for the first 200 Missiles and this missile was known as the Embryo of the Army and was a surface-to-surface guided missile which could deliver a high-explosive warhead up to 75 nautical miles
25.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
26.
Bruce McLaren
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Bruce Leslie McLaren was a New Zealand race-car designer, driver, engineer and inventor. Born in Auckland, New Zealand, Bruce McLaren attended Meadowbank Primary School, as a nine-year-old, he was diagnosed with Perthes disease in his hip that left his left leg shorter than the right. Bruce spent all of his free hours hanging around the workshop, les McLaren restored an aging Austin 7 Ulster, which 14-year-old Bruce used in 1952 when he entered his first competition, a hillclimb. Two years later, he took part in his first real race and he moved up from the Austin to a Ford 10 special and an Austin-Healey, then an F2 Cooper-Climax sports. He immediately began to modify and improve — and master — it, McLaren founded McLaren Automotive in 1963. His performance in the New Zealand Grand Prix in 1958 was noticed by Australian driver Jack Brabham, McLaren was the first recipient, to be followed by others later including Denny Hulme. McLaren went to Cooper and stayed seven years and he raced in F2 and was entered in the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring in which F2 and F1 cars competed together. He astounded the motor racing fraternity by being first F2, and fifth overall, in a field of the best drivers in the world. McLaren joined the Cooper factory F1 team alongside Jack Brabham in 1959 and won the 1959 United States Grand Prix at age 22 years 104 days, becoming the youngest ever GP winner up to that time. He followed that with a win in the Argentine Grand Prix, the first race of the 1960 Formula One season, McLaren won the 1962 Monaco Grand Prix, eventually finishing a fine third in the championship that year. The next year, he founded Bruce McLaren Motor Racing Ltd, McLaren continued to race and win in Coopers. McLaren left Cooper at the end of 1965, and announced his own GP racing team, with co-driver, Amon left in 1967 to drive for Ferrari. In 1968, McLaren was joined by another fellow Kiwi Denny Hulme, McLaren took his fourth career win racing his own McLaren car at Spa in 1968, achieving the teams first Grand Prix win. Hulme won twice in the McLaren-Ford, the 1969 championship was also a success, with McLaren finishing third in the standings despite taking no wins. In tribute to his homeland, McLarens cars featured the speedy Kiwi logo, McLarens design flair and ingenuity were graphically demonstrated in powerful sports car racing. Just as the Can-Am began to very popular with fans in Canada and the U. S. the new McLaren cars finished second twice. In 1967, they won five of six races and in 1968, the following year, McLarens proved unbeatable, winning all 11 races. In two races, they finished 1-2-3, in 1966, McLaren and co-driver Chris Amon won the prestigious 24 Hour Race at Le Mans in a Ford GT40
27.
1966 Monaco Grand Prix
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The 1966 Monaco Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Circuit de Monaco on May 22,1966. It was the 24th Monaco Grand Prix, the race was won by British driver Jackie Stewart driving a BRM P261. He took a victory over the Ferrari 246 of Italian driver Lorenzo Bandini. It was Stewarts second Grand Prix victory after winning the Italian Grand Prix the previous year, Stewarts team mate, fellow Briton Graham Hill finished a lap down in third position in his BRM P261. The only other driver to be classified as a finisher was American driver Bob Bondurant driving a BRM P261 entered privately by Team Chamaco Collect, the first race of the new 3-litre engine series began in Monaco. Few teams were ready for the new regulations with several teams starting the race with 1965 engines still in place, some sessions were filmed for the movie Grand Prix. It was the race of the McLaren racing team. John Surtees, still recovering from a crash at Mosport Park led for 14 laps from Jackie Stewart, Jochen Rindt and Denny Hulme until his differential broke, Hulme retired whilst Graham Hill and Jim Clark disputed third place before Clarks suspension gave out. Meanwhile, Lorenzo Bandini was smashing the lap record before having to ease off to prevent the front brakes wearing out, Stewart won from Bandini with Graham Hill third and Bob Bondurant fourth the only other car past the line in a race of extreme attrition. To this day, this holds the record for having the fewest classified finishers in a single race in Formula One history. John Surtees, Jackie Stewart Notes, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
28.
Pole position
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In motorsport the pole position is the position at the inside of the front row at the start of a racing event. This position is given to the vehicle and driver with the best qualifying time in the trials before the race. This number-one qualifying driver is referred to as the pole sitter, historically, the fastest qualifier was not necessarily the designated pole-sitter. Different sanctioning bodies in motor sport employ different qualifying formats in designating who starts from pole position, often, a starting grid is derived either by current rank in the championship, or based on finishing position of a previous race. In contrast to contemporary motorsport, where only a participant is designated pole-sitter, prior to World War II. The term has its origins in horse racing, in which the fastest qualifying horse would be placed on the part of the course. Originally in Grand Prix racing, grid positions, including pole, were determined by lottery among the drivers, prior to the inception of the Formula 1 World Championship, the first instance of grid positions being determined by qualifying times was at the 1933 Monaco Grand Prix. Since then, the FIA have introduced many different qualifying systems to F1, between 1996 and 2006, the FIA made 6 significant changes to the qualifying procedure, each with the intention of making the battle for pole more interesting to an F1 viewer at home. Traditionally, pole was always occupied by the fastest driver due to low-fuel qualifying, the race-fuel qualifying era between 2003 and 2009 briefly changed this. Despite the changing formats, drivers attempting pole were required between 2003 and 2009 to do qualifying laps with the fuel they would use to start the race the next day. An underfuelled slower car and driver would therefore be able to take pole ahead of a better, in this situation, pole was not always advantageous to have in the race as the under-fueled driver would have to pit for more fuel before their rivals. With the race refueling ban introduced, low-fuel qualifying returned and these decisions are no longer in play. Since the reintroduction of the rule in 2011, this applies to the quickest first session time. Since 2014, the FIA has awarded a trophy to the driver who wins the most pole positions in the season, indicates that the driver won the World Championship in the same season. IndyCar uses four formats for qualifying, one for most oval tracks, one for Iowa Speedway, one for the Indianapolis 500, and another for road and street circuits. Oval qualifying is almost like the Indianapolis 500, with two laps, instead of four, averaged together with one attempt, although with just one session. At Iowa, each car takes one qualifying lap, and the top six cars advance to the race for the pole position. The result of the race determines positions 1–10
29.
1966 Formula One season
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The 1966 Formula One season was the 20th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. The season also included a number of races for Formula One cars. The season was the first of the 3 litre formula, which saw maximum engine capacity doubled from the previous season, British constructors were forced to look elsewhere after Climaxs withdrawal from racing. Ferrari appeared to be as prepared as in 1961, but John Surtees, after winning the Belgian Grand Prix. Under new regulations, cars completing less than 90% of the distance were not classified and did not receive points. Jack Brabham took his third and final Drivers Championship, this time in a car of his own manufacture with an Australian engineered Repco V8 engine. In winning the championship in his own car, Australian Brabham became the first and it is also the first time in the history of the World Championship dating back to 1950 that a non European or British car had won the championship. Black Jack finished fourth in Belgium, before winning his first race since the 1960 Portuguese Grand Prix by winning the French Grand Prix at Reims. He then won the next three Grands Prix in Britain, Holland and Germany to make it four wins in succession, bruce McLaren and Dan Gurney emulated Brabham by building their own cars, though with little initial success. BRM and Lotus used 2 litre engines for much of the season, bRMs new H16 engine was largely unsuccessful, though Jim Clark used one in his Lotus 43 to win at Watkins Glen. 1964 World Champion John Surtees was the only driver other than Jack Brabham who won more than one race in the season and he won the second round at Spa-Francorchamps for Ferrari, before later winning the final round in Mexico City driving a Cooper-Maserati V12. Ferraris Italian driver Ludovico Scarfiotti gave the Tifosi something to cheer about when he drove his Ferrari 312 to victory in the Italian Grand Prix at Monza. Ferrari had a celebration at Monza as Scarfiottis teammate Mike Parkes finished 5.8 seconds behind in second place. During the Belgian Grand Prix at the 14.120 km, wet Spa-Francorchamps circuit, Stewart lay trapped under his car in a pool of leaking fuel for 25 minutes as both Graham Hill and Bob Bondurant borrowed a spectators toolkit to free the Scotsman. Jack Brabhams third Drivers Championship saw him move into a second place behind legendary five-time champion Juan Manuel Fangio on the list of Drivers Champions. He would remain the only winner until Jackie Stewart, who won championships in 1969 and 1971, won his third. The following teams and drivers competed in the 1966 FIA World Championship, pink background denotes F2 entrants to the German Grand Prix Points towards the 1966 World Championship of Drivers were awarded on a 9–6–4–3–2–1 basis for the first six places at each race. Only the best five results could be retained by each driver
30.
1966 British Grand Prix
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The 1966 British Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Brands Hatch on 16 July 1966. It was the round of the 1966 World Championship. It was the 21st British Grand Prix and the second to be held at Brands Hatch and it was held over 80 laps of the four kilometre circuit for a race distance of 341 kilometres. New Zealand driver Denny Hulme finished second in his Brabham BT20, the pair finished a lap ahead of third placed British driver Graham Hill in his BRM P261. Brabhams win ended a streak of 4 consecutive wins by Jim Clark at the British Grand Prix, brabhams win put him ten points clear in the championship chase over Austrian Cooper racer Jochen Rindt with Hulme and Ferraris Lorenzo Bandini a point further back. Brabham and Hill duelled at the start, until rain storms arrived on the circuit. Whilst Brabham maintained his lead, Rindt who had changed to rain tyres was catching him rapidly, whilst John Surtees in the Cooper was in third, Hill and Jim Clark then battled for second and third until Clark pitted and then Hulme took over second place. As the rain dried, Rindt fell back, Surtees and Hill retired with mechanical problems, leaving Clark in fourth. Brabham duly led home team-mate Hulme, Hill, Clark, Rindt, ferrari did not participate this grand prix weekend to honor a metalworkers strike in Italy. First points for McLaren Last race, Brabham BT7 Notes, Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
31.
1966 United States Grand Prix
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The 1966 United States Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on October 2,1966, at the Watkins Glen Grand Prix Race Course in Watkins Glen, New York. It was the eighth and penultimate round of the 1966 World Championship, the race was the ninth United States Grand Prix. It was the sixth to be held at Watkins Glen, the race was held over 108 laps of the 3. 78-kilometre circuit for a total race distance of 408 kilometres. The race was won by British driver Jim Clark driving a Lotus 43 for Team Lotus, Clark lapped the field to claim his 20th World Championship win by over a lap. The podium places were filled by Cooper Car Company team mates, Austrian driver Jochen Rindt and this gave Jack Brabham a unique double, World Drivers and Constructors championships in a car of his own make. With most of the teams struggling to come to grips with the new 3-liter formula in 1966, Jack Brabham won the World Championship with a neat, simple and lightweight chassis, the Brabham BT19. It was the Australians third Drivers title, and the first by a driver in a car of his own manufacture, but it was Jim Clarks Lotus, with the powerful, normally unreliable, BRM H16 engine, that crossed the line first at Watkins Glen. Inheriting the lead when Lorenzo Bandini and Brabham retired, Clark finished a lap ahead of Austrian Jochen Rindt. This was the year the Watkins Glen Grand Prix Corporation departed from the starting money system. The total purse of $102,400 was easily the richest in the World Championship, $100,000 was a magic number at the time, said race director Cameron Argetsinger. It was a number that spelled big league to American sport fans, the enthusiastic acceptance of this arrangement by the European team managers and owners marked a huge philosophical change for the Grand Prix establishment in how to promote a race meeting. With the prize money system, finishing was doubly important and Clark intended to use the more reliable two-liter Climax engine until he discovered how quick the H16 could be. Bandinis Ferrari was the first to break the 120-mph barrier at The Glen, John Surtees, now in a Cooper after leaving the Ferrari team in mid-season, and Graham Hill were the only other drivers under 1,09 on Friday. In the closing minutes of Saturdays session, Brabham grabbed the pole at 1,08.42, immediately after recording his best time, Clark heard a thud behind his back, and when he stopped in the pits, there was oil dripping from the H16s exhaust. The BRM team offered a much-used spare H16 engine, and the Lotus mechanics worked into the night fitting it into Clarks race car, an hour before the start, Clark was still unsure which car to use in the race. He finally chose the Type 43 with BRMs spare H16, and it, too, was leaking oil on the grid before the crew tightened it up. At the flag, Bandini jumped from the row into the lead, ahead of Clark, Richie Ginther, Brabham, Surtees, Jackie Stewart, Hill. Ginther immediately began dropping back, while Brabham found his rhythm and moved up, taking Clark in The 90 on lap four, Surtees also got around Clark for third spot and had attached himself to the leading pair when they came upon Peter Arundells Lotus on lap 16
32.
Cooper Car Company
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The Cooper Car Company was founded in December 1947 by Charles Cooper and his son John Cooper. Together with Johns boyhood friend, Eric Brandon, they began by building racing cars in Charless small garage in Surbiton, Surrey, England, in 1946. The first cars built by the Coopers were single-seat 500-cc Formula Three racing cars driven by John Cooper and Eric Brandon, since materials were in short supply immediately after World War II, the prototypes were constructed by joining two old Fiat Topolino front-ends together. According to John Cooper, the stroke of genius that would make the Coopers an automotive legend—the location of the engine behind the driver—was merely a matter at the time. Because the car was powered by an engine, they believed it was more convenient to have the engine in the back. In fact there was nothing new about mid engined racing cars, Cooper built up to 300 single-and twin-cylinder cars during the 1940s and 1950s, and dominated the F3 category, winning 64 of 78 major races between 1951 and 1954. Though Schell retired in the first lap, this marked the first appearance of a racer at a Grand Prix event since the end of WWII. The front-engined Formula Two Cooper Bristol model was introduced in 1952, until the company began building rear-engined sports cars in 1955, they really had not become aware of the benefits of having the engine behind the driver. Based on the 500-cc cars and powered by a modified Coventry Climax fire-pump engine, jack Brabham raised some eyebrows when he took sixth place at the 1957 Monaco Grand Prix in a rear-engined Formula 1 Cooper. The next year,1959, Brabham and the Cooper works team became the first to win the Formula One World Championship in a rear-engined car, both team and driver repeated the feat in 1960, and every World Champion since has been sitting in front of his engine. The little-known designer behind the car was Owen Maddock, who was employed by Cooper Car Company, Maddock was known as The Beard by his workmates, and Whiskers to Charles Cooper. Describing how the revolutionary rear-engined Cooper chassis came to be, Maddock explained and he kept saying Nah, Whiskers, thats not it, try again. Finally, I got so fed up I sketched a frame in which every tube was bent, meant just as a joke, I showed it to Charlie and to my astonishment he grabbed it and said, Thats it. Maddock later pioneered one of the first designs for a monocoque stressed skin composite chassis. Arriving at the Speedway 5 May 1961, the little car from Europe was mocked by the other teams. It took a few years, but the Indianapolis establishment gradually realized the writing was on the wall, beginning with Jim Clark, who drove a rear-engined Lotus in 1965, every winner of the Indianapolis 500 has had the engine in the back. The revolution begun by the little chain-driven Cooper 500 was complete, the Cooper teams decline was accelerated when John Cooper was seriously injured in a road accident in 1963 driving a twin-engined Mini, and Charles Cooper died in 1964. After the death of his father, John Cooper sold the Cooper Formula One team to the Chipstead Motor Group in April 1965
33.
Open-wheel car
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An open-wheel car is a car with the wheels outside the cars main body, and usually having only one seat. Open-wheel cars contrast with street cars, sports cars, stock cars, and touring cars, open-wheel cars are usually built specifically for racing, frequently with a higher degree of technological sophistication than in other forms of motor sport. Open-wheel street cars, such as the Ariel Atom, are scarce as they are often impractical for everyday use. American racecar driver and constructor Ray Harroun was a pioneer of the concept of a lightweight single-seater. After working as a mechanic in the industry, Harroun began competitive professional racing in 1906. He was then hired by the Marmon Motor Car Company as chief engineer, charged with building a racecar intended to race at the very first Indianapolis 500 and he developed a revolutionary concept which would become the originator and forefather of the single-seater racecar design. A typical open-wheeler has a minimal cockpit sufficient only to enclose the drivers body, in the Whelen Modified Tour and other short track modified series, the drivers head is contained in the car. Some major races, such as the Singapore Grand Prix, Monaco Grand Prix, however, most open-wheel races are on dedicated road courses, such as Watkins Glen International in the US, Nürburgring in Germany, Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium and Silverstone in Great Britain. The Whelen Modified Tour is the only opened wheeled race car series endorsed by NASCAR and this series races on most of NASCARs most famous tracks in the United States. Other asphalt modified series race on tracks in the United States and Canada. Open-wheeled racing is among the fastest in the world, Formula 1 cars can reach speeds in excess of 360 kilometres per hour. At Autodromo Nazionale Monza, Antônio Pizzonia of BMW Williams F1 team recorded a top speed of 369.9 kilometres per hour in the 2004 Italian Grand Prix. Since the end of the V10 era in 2006 speeds like this have not been reached, with contemporary machinery reaching around 360 kilometres per hour. It is difficult to give precise figures for the top speeds of Formula 1 cars, as the cars do not have speedometers as such. The speed traps on fast circuits such as Monza give a good indication, speeds on ovals can range in constant excess of 210–220 miles per hour, and at Indianapolis in excess of 230 miles per hour. Some sources claim that in 1996, Paul Tracy recorded a speed of 256.948 miles per hour at Michigan International Speedway. In 2000, Gil de Ferran set the qualifying record of 241.428 miles per hour at California Speedway. Even on tight non-oval street circuits such as the Grand Prix of Toronto, driving an open-wheel car is substantially different from driving a car with fenders
34.
Tasman Series
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The Tasman Series was a motor racing competition held annually from 1964 to 1975 over a series of races in New Zealand and Australia. It was named after the Tasman Sea which lies between the two countries, from 1964 to 1969, the Tasman Formula specified open-wheel single-seater racing cars similar to Formula One cars, yet retaining F1 engine rules that were in effect until 1960. Thus, engines of 2500 cm³ that were obsolete for the contemporary Formula One class were eligible for the Tasman Formula, after F1 upgraded to 3000 cm³ in 1966, the Tasman Formula regulations continued to specify a 2500 cm³ limit for another four years. Usually, the chassis of the previous F1 season were fitted with Tasman engines, piers Courage strongly challenged the work teams in a Frank Williams Cosworth 2.5 BT24 Brabham which beat the Lotus and Ferrari teams at Teretonga in New Zealand. In an attempt to reduce costs, the Tasman Formula was extended to incorporate Formula 5000 cars from 1970, even these changes failed to contain spiralling costs and at the end of the 1975 event the series folded. The four Australian former Tasman races became the Rothmans International Series from 1976 to 1979, the four New Zealand races became the Peter Stuyvesant Series and after 1976 changed to Formula Pacific cars. For two brief years beginning in 1999 the Tasman Series was revived as a series for Formula Holden racing cars with Simon Wills, the Tasman Series is planned to be revived as part of the new Formula Thunder 5000 series. Note, values in parentheses include the results from all races, Tasman racing in New Zealand Tasman Series history 1967–1969 Tasman Series history 1970–1976
35.
Sports car racing
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Sports car racing is a form of circuit auto racing with sports cars that have two seats and enclosed wheels. They may be purpose-built or related to road-going models, a type of hybrid between the purism of open-wheelers and the familiarity of touring car racing, this style is often associated with the annual Le Mans 24 Hours endurance race. First run in 1923, Le Mans is one of the oldest motor races still in existence, other classic but now defunct sports car races include the Italian classics, the Targa Florio and Mille Miglia, and the Mexican Carrera Panamericana. Most top class sports car races emphasize endurance, reliability, and strategy, longer races usually involve complex pit strategy and regular driver changes. These makers top road cars have often very similar both in engineering and styling to those raced. This close association with the nature of the cars serves as a useful distinction between sports car racing and touring cars. The 12 Hours of Sebring,24 Hours of Daytona, and 24 Hours of Le Mans were once considered the trifecta of sports car racing. In the 1920s, the used in endurance racing and Grand Prix were still basically identical, with fenders. Cars such as the Bugatti Type 35 were almost equally at home in Grands Prix and endurance events, but specialisation gradually started to differentiate the sports-racer from the Grand Prix car. As mainly Italian cars and races defined the genre, the category was called Gran Turismo, as long distances had to be travelled, reliability and some basic comfort were necessary in order to endure the task. After the Second World War, sports car racing emerged as a form of racing with its own classic races. Top Grand Prix drivers also competed regularly in sports car racing, from 1962 sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars with the FIA replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers. The US scene tended to feature small MG and Porsche cars in the smaller classes, the combination of mostly British chassis and American V8 engines gave rise to the popular and spectacular Can-Am series in the 1960s and 1970s. Clubmans provided much entertainment at club-racing level from the 1960s into the 1990s, after a relative period of decline in the 1980s a British GT Championship emerged in the mid-90s. Road races such as the Mille Miglia included everything from stock touring cars to World Championship contenders, the Mille Miglia was the largest sporting event in Italy until a fatal accident caused its demise in 1957. The Targa Florio, another road race, remained part of the world championship until the 1970s. Between the late 1960s and late 1970s, Matra and Renault made significant, the competition at Le Mans even made it to the movie screens, with Steve McQueens film Le Mans. This era was seen by many as the highpoint of sports car racing, with the technology, a peculiarly American form of sports car racing was the Can-Am series, in which virtually unlimited sports prototypes competed in relatively short races
36.
Concorde
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Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde is a British-French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner that was operated until 2003. It had a speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04. First flown in 1969, Concorde entered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 years and it is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially, the other is the Soviet-built Tupolev Tu-144, which was operated for a much shorter period. Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation under an Anglo-French treaty, twenty aircraft were built, including six prototypes and development aircraft. Air France and British Airways were the airlines to purchase. The aircraft was used by wealthy passengers who could afford to pay a high price in exchange for Concordes speed. In the UK, any or all of the type are known simply as Concorde, the type was retired in 2003 after the crash of Air France Flight 4590, in which all passengers and crew were killed. The general downturn in the aviation industry after the September 11 attacks in 2001. The group met for the first time in February 1954 and delivered their first report in April 1955, at the time it was known that the drag at supersonic speeds was strongly related to the span of the wing. The team outlined a baseline configuration that looked like an enlarged Avro 730 and this same short span produced very little lift at low speed, which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and frighteningly high landing speeds. In an SST design, this would have required enormous engine power to lift off from existing runways, based on this, the group considered the concept of an SST infeasible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies into supersonic aerodynamics. Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann at the RAE published a series of reports on a new wing planform, the vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier, notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, Weber suggested that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be deliberately used to improve low speed performance. Küchemanns and Webers papers changed the nature of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the delta had already used on aircraft prior to this point. Such a layout would still have good supersonic performance inherent to the span, while also offering reasonable take-off. It would also need to have landing gear to produce the required angle of attack while still on the runway. Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Morgan was also present, test pilot Eric Brown recalls Morgans reaction to the presentation, saying that he immediately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem
37.
Oldsmobile
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Oldsmobile was a brand of American automobiles produced for most of its existence by General Motors. Olds Motor Vehicle Co. was founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897, in its 107-year history, it produced 35.2 million cars, including at least 14 million built at its Lansing, Michigan factory. When it was phased out in 2004, Oldsmobile was the oldest surviving American automobile marque, though it was discontinued in 2004, it still remains an active trademark of the General Motors Company. The closing of the Oldsmobile division presaged a larger consolidation of GM brands, Oldsmobiles were first manufactured by the Olds Motor Vehicle Co. in Lansing, Michigan, a company founded by Ransom E. Olds in 1897. In 1901, the company produced 425 cars, making it the first high-volume gasoline-powered automobile manufacturer, Oldsmobile became the top selling car company in the United States for a few years around 1903-4. Ransom Olds left the company in 1904 because of a dispute, the 1901 to 1904 Oldsmobile Curved Dash was the first mass-produced car, made from the first automotive assembly line, an invention that is often miscredited to Henry Ford and the Ford Motor Company. By March 1901, the company had a line of models ready for mass production. However, a mistake by a worker caused the factory to catch fire, the only car that survived the fire was a Curved Dash prototype, which was wheeled out of the factory by two workers while escaping the fire. A new factory was built in Lansing, and production of the Curved Dash commenced, officially, the cars were called Olds automobiles, but were colloquially referred to as Oldsmobiles. It was this moniker, as applied especially to the Curved Dash Olds, the last Oldsmobile Curved Dash was made in 1907. General Motors purchased the company in 1908, the 1910 Limited Touring was a high point for the company. Riding atop 42-inch wheels, and equipped with white tires. The Limited retailed for US$4,600, an amount greater than the purchase of a new, buyers received goatskin upholstery, a 60 hp 707 CID straight-six engine, Bosch Magneto starter, running boards and room for five. Options included a speedometer, clock, and a glass windshield. A limousine version was priced at $5,800, in 1926, the Oldsmobile Six came in five body styles, and ushered in a new GM bodystyle platform called the GM B platform, shared with Buick products. In 1929, as part of General Motors companion make program, Oldsmobile introduced the higher standard Viking brand, Viking was discontinued already at the end of the 1930 model year although an additional 353 cars were marketed as 1931 models. This transmission features a conventional clutch pedal, which the driver presses before selecting either low or high range, in low, the car shifts between first and second gears. In high, the car shifts among first, third and fourth gears, for the 1940 model, Oldsmobile was the first auto manufacturer to offer a fully automatic transmission, called the Hydramatic, which features four forward speeds
38.
Colnbrook
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Colnbrook is a village in the unitary authority of Slough in Berkshire, England. It was formerly in the county of Buckinghamshire. It straddles the Colne Brook and Wraysbury River which join on its southwest border and it is centred 3 miles southeast of Slough,8 km east of Windsor and 18 miles west of central London. Colnbrook forms the part of the civil parish of Colnbrook with Poyle. Junctions of the M4 and M25 are near the village, to the east is Longford, London, and Bedfont and Stanwell which abut the south of London Heathrow Airport. Colnbrook with Poyle is a parish with significant industrial units, logistical premises. The parish was created on 1 April 1995 as an amalgamation of Colnbrook from Iver to the north, at the 2011 census the whole civil parish had a population of 6,157 living in 2,533 homes. Mentioned in William the Conquerors Domesday Book, Colnbrook is on the Colne Brook, coaching inns were the villages main industry. In 1106 the first one was founded by Milo Crispin, named the Hospice, by 1577 Colnbrook had no fewer than ten coaching inns. Colnbrooks High Street was on the main London to Bath road, one 14th-century landlord, Jarman of the Ostrich Inn, installed a large trap door under the bed in the best bedroom located immediately above the inns kitchen. In this way more than 60 of his guests were murdered silently. Their bodies were disposed of in the River Colne. The murder of a clothier, Olde Cole or Thomas of Reading, proved to be Jarmans undoing in that he failed to get rid of Coles horse. Jarman and his wife were hanged for robbery and murder, the inn is reportedly haunted and has been subject to investigations by the Sussex Paranormal Research Group and Most Haunted. On an episode of Ghosthunters International that aired on 21 July 2010, Colnbrook is also the place where Richard Cox, in 1825, first grafted the Coxs Orange Pippin apple at his orchard named The Lawns. A traditional coaching history has led to no fewer than four inns or public houses remaining, Colnbrook has a complicated administrative history. The village was divided by the Colne Brook between the ancient parish of Stanwell in Middlesex in the east, and the parishes of Horton. The parish vestries provided traditional poor relief and road maintenance but lay in the 19th century in different Poor Law Unions, Stanwell became part of Staines Rural District in 1894 and Staines Urban District in 1930
39.
Goodwood Circuit
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Goodwood Circuit is a historic venue for both two- and four-wheeled motorsport in the United Kingdom. The 3.8 kilometres circuit is situated near Chichester, West Sussex, close to the south coast of England, on the estate of Goodwood House, and completely encircles Chichester/Goodwood Airport. This is the racing circuit dating from 1948, not to be confused with the separate hillclimb course located at Goodwood House, the racing circuit began life as the perimeter track of RAF Westhampnett airfield, which was constructed during World War II as a relief airfield for RAF Tangmere. The first race meeting took place on 18 September 1948, organised by the Junior Car Club and sanctioned by the Duke of Richmond, the winner of the first race was P. de F. C. Stirling Moss won the 500cc race, followed by Eric Brandon and Curly Dryden, the cars that raced in those events can be seen recreating the endurance races at the Goodwood Revival each year in the Sussex trophy and the Royal Automobile Club Tourist Trophy. The accident that ended Stirling Mosss International career happened at St. Marys Corner in 1962, the car was a 30-foot-long Bristol Siddeley turbine-powered 4,500 hp streamliner, with a theoretical top speed of 450 to 500 miles per hour. The laps of Goodwood were effectively at tick-over speed, because the car had four degrees of steering lock. Goodwood saw its last race meeting for over 30 years in 1966, the last event was a club meeting organised by the British Automobile Racing Club on 2 July 1966. The circuit claimed the life of McLaren-founder Bruce McLaren in an accident on 2 June 1970. Goodwood is noted for its annual Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival events, the Goodwood Festival of Speed is an annual hill climb, held in late June or early July not on the circuit, but in the nearby grounds of Goodwood House. It features historic and modern motor-racing vehicles, in 2010, the event had over 176,000 visitors over four days. Following the success of the Festival of Speed hill climb, racing returned to the Goodwood circuit in 1998, the Goodwood Revival is a three-day festival held each September for the types of cars and motorcycles that would have competed during the circuits original period, 1948–1966. Historic aircraft help to complete the vintage feel, in 2008, a crowd of 68,000 people attended the event on the main Sunday -9,000 more than in 2007. The track is now used for races, track days. Nearly everyone dresses up in vintage outfit from mods and rockers to racing drivers, in 2009, the Mongol Rally, a charity fundraising car rally to Mongolia, moved its starting point from Hyde Park, London to Goodwood. Entrants are on show to the public in the paddock before beginning the rally with a lap of the circuit. The National Finals of the Greenpower schools electric car racing takes place at Goodwood each year. The Greenpower challenge is a series of electric vehicle endurance races for schools
40.
Mid-engine design
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A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an automobile engine between the rear and front axles. The mid-engine layout makes ABS brakes and traction control systems work better, the mid-engine layout may make a vehicle safer, since an accident can occur if a vehicle cannot stay in its own lane around a curve or is unable to stop quickly enough. This balance is harder to achieve when the weight of the engine is located far to the front or far to the rear of the vehicle. Some automobile designs strive to balance the fore and aft weight distribution by means, such as putting the engine in the front. Another benefit comes when the mass of the engine is located close to the back of the seats. It makes it easier for the suspension to absorb the force of bumps so the riders feel a smoother ride, but in sports cars the engine position is once again used to increase performance and the potentially smoother ride is usually more than offset by stiffer shock absorbers. The largest drawback of mid-engine cars is restricted rear passenger space, the engine in effect pushes the passenger compartment forward towards the front axle. The mid-engine layout was common in buses in the 1950s and 1960s. The Ferrari Mondial is to date the only example of a true mid-engined convertible with seating for 4. A version of the Lotus Evora with a roof panel is anticipated. Like any layout where the engine is not front-mounted and facing the wind and this has been a problem in some cars, but this issue seems to have been largely solved in newer designs. For example, the Saleen S7 employs large engine-compartment vents on the sides, mid engined cars are more dangerous than front-engined cars if the driver loses control - although this may be initially harder to provoke due to the superior balance - and the car begins to spin. Conversely, a car is more likely to break away in a progressive. The term mid-engine has usually been applied to cars having the engine located between the driver and the drive axles. This layout is referred to here as RMR layout, sports and racing cars typically have this mid-engine layout, as these vehicles handling characteristics are more important than other features, such as capacity. Additionally the mechanical layout and packaging of an RMR car is substantially different from that of a front engine or rear engine car, in handling and vehicle layout FMR is substantially the same as FR. Some vehicles could be classified as FR or FMR depending on the installed engine. Historically most classical FR cars such as the Ford Models T and A would qualify as a FMR engine car, not all manufacturers use the Front-Mid designation
41.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
Bruce McLaren
