1.
McLibel (film)
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McLibel is a documentary film directed by Franny Armstrong and Ken Loach for Spanner Films about the McLibel case. The film was first completed, as a 52-minute television version, in 1997 and it was then extended with new footage to 85-minute feature length in 2005, after the McLibel defendants took their case to the European Court of Human Rights. The 1997/52 minute version was shown at festivals worldwide. The 2005/85 minute version was released theatrically in the UK, USA, Australia and other countries and sold to TV round the world, notably to BBC2 and CBC in Canada. The film features reconstructions of the trial directed by notable UK film director Ken Loach. It also features interviews with Eric Schlosser, Morgan Spurlock, Keir Starmer, McLibel was broadcast on BBC2 in 2005, to an estimated 1 million viewers. It was then also broadcast on TV in 15 countries – including Australia, Canada, McLibel was released in cinemas and DVD stores in the USA in summer 2005 and this was followed in the UK in 2006. As of August 2004, the estimate that more than 25 million people have seen the film. The film has a 100% positive rating on the aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes. Metacritic gave the film a rating of 81% based on 4 reviews, dennis Harvey of Variety magazine describes it as an alarming if ultimately inspiring David-and-Goliath parable for today. Wendy Ide in The Times described McLibel as “a very watchable little film about a big battle”, the Seattle Times said “An irresistible David and Goliath tale… you can’t help but cheer along”, and The Sydney Morning Herald called it “An extraordinary example of independent filmmaking”. A Time Out London reviewer said “a radical screen full that will satisfy both head and heart”, McLibel was nominated for numerous awards, including the Grierson Documentary Award and the British Independent Film Awards. It was picked for the British Film Institutes prestigious series, Ten Documentaries which Changed the World, the DVD version was released in 2005 and features more than six hours of extras, including a spoof McDonalds commentary track from comedian Rob Newman. McLibel McLibel at the Internet Movie Database McLibel, at Free Movies & Documentaries
2.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
3.
McDonald's
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McDonalds is an American hamburger and fast food restaurant chain. It was founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard. In 1948, they reorganized their business as a hamburger stand, the first McDonalds franchise using the arches logo opened in Phoenix, Arizona in 1953. Businessman Ray Kroc joined the company as an agent in 1955. Based in Oak Brook, Illinois, McDonalds confirmed plans to move its headquarters to Chicago by early 2018. Today, McDonalds is one of the worlds largest restaurant chains, McDonalds primarily sells hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken products, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes, wraps, and desserts. In response to changing tastes, the company has expanded its menu to include salads, fish, wraps, smoothies. A McDonalds restaurant is operated by either a franchisee, an affiliate, the McDonalds Corporation revenues come from the rent, royalties, and fees paid by the franchisees, as well as sales in company-operated restaurants. According to a BBC report published in 2012, McDonalds is the second largest private employer,1.5 million of whom work for franchises. The business began in 1940, with a restaurant opened by brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald at 1398 North E Street at West 14th Street in San Bernardino, the first McDonalds with the arches opened in Phoenix, Arizona in March 1953. The original mascot of McDonalds was a man with a hat on top of a hamburger-shaped head whose name was Speedee. In 1962, the Golden Arches replaced Speedee as the company symbol, a new mascot, Ronald McDonald was introduced in 1965. The clown-like man having puffed out costume legs served advertising aimed at children. On May 4,1961, McDonalds first filed for a U. S. trademark on the name McDonalds with the description Drive-In Restaurant Services, on September 13,1961, the company filed for a trademark on a new logo—an overlapping, double-arched M symbol. By September 6,1962, this M-symbol was temporarily disfavored, although the Golden Arches logo appeared in various forms, the present version as a letter M did not appear until November 18,1968, when the company applied for a U. S. trademark. Kroc later purchased the McDonald brothers equity in the company and led its expansion. Kroc was also noted for aggressive business practices, compelling the McDonald brothers to leave the fast-food industry, Kroc and the McDonald brothers feuded over control of the business, as documented in Krocs autobiography. The San Bernardino restaurant was demolished in 1976 and the site was sold to the Juan Pollo restaurant chain and this area now serves as headquarters for the Juan Pollo chain, as well as a McDonalds and Route 66 museum
4.
Environmentalism
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While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. ‘Ecologism’ is more used in continental European languages while ‘environmentalism’ is more commonly used in English. For this reason, concepts such as an ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are represented by the color green. Environmentalism denotes a movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism. The word was first coined in 1922, an environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behavior. In various ways, environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, in its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, for example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem. The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, at the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes. The origins of the movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution, typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs and it was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke, financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives, or for those who preferred, to burn coke instead which produces minimal smoke. Smoke control areas were introduced in some towns and cities in which only smokeless fuels could be burnt, the act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism, and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to peoples quality of life
5.
Hearing (law)
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In law, a hearing is a proceeding before a court or other decision-making body or officer, such as a government agency or a Parliamentary committee. A hearing is generally distinguished from a trial in that it is usually shorter, limited evidence and testimony may also be presented in hearings to supplement the legal arguments. In the United States, one aspect of the due process revolution is that administrative decisions that were once made much less formally must now be preceded by a hearing. An important step in development was the Supreme Court decision in Goldberg v. Kelly,397 U. S.254. There the Court held that an agency could not terminate a recipients welfare benefits without a pre-termination hearing, the decision also illustrated that what constitutes a hearing can depend on the context. Congressional hearing Preliminary hearing Unofficial hearing Continuance Due process Jury trial Lawsuit Right to a fair trial Rule of law Trial by ordeal
6.
Goliath
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Post-Classical Jewish traditions stressed Goliaths status as the representative of paganism, in contrast to David, the champion of the God of Israel. Saul and the Israelites are facing the Philistines in the Valley of Elah, David, bringing food for his elder brothers, hears that Goliath had defied the armies of God and of the reward from Saul to the one that defeats him, and accepts the challenge. Saul reluctantly agrees and offers his armor, which David declines, taking only his staff, sling, David and Goliath confront each other, Goliath with his armor and javelin, David with his staff and sling. David hurls a stone from his sling with all his might and hits Goliath in the center of his forehead, Goliath falls on his face to the ground, the Philistines flee and are pursued by the Israelites as far as Gath and the gates of Ekron. David puts the armor of Goliath in his own tent and takes the head to Jerusalem, the king asks whose son he is, and David answers, I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite. The first edition of the history was written at the court of Judahs King Josiah. These signs indicate that the Goliath story is made up of base-narrative with numerous additions made probably after the exile, the biblical account describes Goliath as falling on his face after he is struck by a stone that sank into his forehead. British rabbi Jonathan Magonet has discussed some of the difficulties this raises. In the first place, he notes that archaeological information suggests that Philistine helmets generally had a forehead covering, why should David aim at such an impenetrable spot. And why should Goliath fall forward when struck by something heavy enough to stop him, an answer to both questions, Magonet suggests, lies in the Hebrew word meitzach, normally translated forehead. A word almost identical with it appears earlier in the passage—the word mitzchat, then David removed the head of Goliath to show all that the giant was killed. A Goliath makes another appearance in 2 Samuel 21,19, which tells how Goliath the Gittite was killed by Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, the Bethlehemite. The King James Bible translators adopted this into their translation of 2 Samuel 21, 18–19, most likely, storytellers displaced the deed from the otherwise obscure Elhanan onto the more famous character, David. Tell es-Safi, the biblical Gath and traditional home of Goliath, has been the subject of excavations by Israels Bar-Ilan University. The archaeologists have established that this was one of the largest of the Philistine cities until destroyed in the ninth century BC, a potsherd discovered at the site, and reliably dated to the tenth to mid-ninth centuries BC, is inscribed with the two names alwt and wlt. The name Goliath itself is non-Semitic and has linked with the Lydian king Alyattes. The underlying purpose of the story of Goliath is to show that Saul is not fit to be king. Saul was chosen to lead the Israelites against their enemies, but when faced with Goliath he refuses to do so, Goliath is a giant, and Saul is a very tall man
7.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
8.
European Court of Human Rights
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The European Court of Human Rights is a supra-national or international court established by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention. An application can be lodged by an individual, a group of individuals or one or more of the contracting states, and, besides judgments. The Convention was adopted within the context of the Council of Europe, the Court is based in Strasbourg, France. The jurisdiction of the Court has been recognised to date by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe. In 1998, the Court became an institution and the European Commission of Human Rights. The accession of new states to the European Convention on Human Rights following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 led to a increase in applications filed in the Court. The efficiency of the Court was threatened seriously by the number of pending applications. In 19998,400 applications were allocated to be heard, in 200327,200 cases were filed and the number of pending applications rose to approximately 65,000. In 2005, the Court opened 45,500 case files, in 200957,200 applications were allocated, with the number of pending applications rose to 119,300. Protocol 14 entered into force on 1 June 2010, three months after it was ratified by all 47 contracting states to the Convention, between 2006 and 2010, Russia was the only contracting state to refuse to ratify Protocol 14. In 2010, Russia ended its opposition to the protocol, in exchange for a guarantee that Russian judges would be involved in reviewing complaints against Russia. Protocol 14 amended the Convention so that judges would be elected for a term of nine years. Amendments were also made so that a judge could reject plainly inadmissible applications. In cases of doubt, the single judge refers the applications to the Committee of the Court, a single judge may not examine applications against the state which nominated him. The three judge committee has jurisdiction to declare applications admissible and decide on the merits of the if it was clearly well founded and based on well established case law. Protocol 14 also provides that when a three judge committee decides on the merits of a case, the elected to represent that state is no longer a compulsory member of this committee. The judge can be invited by the committee, to one of its members
9.
European Convention on Human Rights
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The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Drafted in 1950 by the newly formed Council of Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention, the Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights have been violated under the Convention by a party can take a case to the Court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the States concerned and they are obliged to execute them, the compensations imposed under ECHR can be rather large, in 2014 Russia agreed to pay in excess of $2 billion in damages to former shareholders of Yukos. The Convention has several protocols, which amend the convention framework, the European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness of Human Rights in Europe. The development of a system of human rights protection operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. Second, the Convention was a response to the growth of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and designed to protect the member states of the Council of Europe from communist subversion. The Convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after the Second World War in response to an issued by Europeans from all walks of life who had gathered at the Hague Congress. British MP and lawyer Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, the Chair of the Assemblys Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members, as a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand how international justice could be effectively applied. After extensive debates, the Assembly sent its proposal to the Councils Committee of Ministers. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system, the Convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the Convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights. Statements of principle are, from a point of view, not determinative. As amended by Protocol 11, the Convention consists of three parts, the main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II sets up the Court and its rules of operation, Section III contains various concluding provisions. Article 1 simply binds the parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention within their jurisdiction
10.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
11.
Franny Armstrong
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Franny Armstrong is a British documentary film director working for her own company, Spanner Films, and a former drummer with indie pop group The Band of Holy Joy. Armstrong pioneered the use of crowdfunding for independent films and developed a form of film distribution known as Indie Screenings. Her most recent project is the carbon reduction campaign 10,10 which she founded in the UK in September 2009 and her father is the pioneering TV producer Peter Armstrong. Armstrong read zoology at University College, London and her thesis was Is the human species suicidal, armstrongs first documentary, McLibel, is an account of the McDonalds libel trial, the longest-running court action in English legal history. It was well received by critics, with Time Out crediting Armstrong with gusto, the Guardian concluded that McLibel was absolutely unmissable McLibel was broadcast on television in 15 countries, and in cinemas in the USA in summer 2005 and this was followed in the UK in 2006. McLibel was nominated for awards, including the Grierson Documentary Award. Armstrongs second feature documentary, Drowned Out, follows an Indian family who chose to stay at home and it was nominated for Best Documentary at the British Independent Film Awards 2004 and was released theatrically in America and on DVD in 2006. Armstrong released The Age of Stupid in March 2009 and its a film that warns of the catastrophic effects of climate change using a mix of factual documentary and post-apocalyptic fictional styles. The films UK premiere was on 15 March 2009 in Londons Leicester Square, the screening was held in a solar-powered ‘cinema tent’ and conducted without use of mains electricity. An independent audit conducted by Carbon Accounting Systems found the carbon emissions to be 1% of those produced by a normal blockbuster premiere. Linked by satellite to 62 cinemas around the UK, the received a Guinness World Record for being the largest film premiere ever. The complete five year production of The Age of Stupid was made into a film and it was later broadcast on the UKs terrestrial TV network, The Community Channel. Through her company, Spanner Films, Armstrong pioneered the crowdfunding finance model, the Age of Stupid raised £900,000 from over 600 investors. Armstrong also developed the Indie Screenings distribution system, which lets anyone make a profit by holding screenings of independent films. At the UN Climate Summit in Copenhagen in December 2009, Armstrong presented a daily web TV show, The Stupid Show, which aimed to make sense of humankinds most important get-together. In September 2009 Armstrong founded the 10,10 climate campaign which aims to help all sectors of society to aim for a 10% cut 10% in their emissions in 12 months. The campaign has amassed huge cross-societal support including household names such as Adidas, Microsoft, the campaign launched globally in 2010 and is now active in over 50 countries. In October 2010, a film, written by Richard Curtis
12.
Ken Loach
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Kenneth Charles Ken Loach is an English director of television and independent film. He is known for his socially critical directing style and for his socialist ideals, Loachs film Kes was voted the seventh greatest British film of the 20th century in a poll by the British Film Institute. Two of his films, The Wind That Shakes the Barley and I, Daniel Blake received the Palme dOr at the Cannes Film Festival, Loach was born in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, the son of Vivien and John Loach. He attended King Edward VI Grammar School and went on to law at St Peters College. Loachs ten contributions to the BBCs Wednesday Play anthology series include the docudramas Up the Junction, Cathy Come Home and they portray working-class people in conflict with the authorities above them. Three of his plays are believed to be lost films. His 1965 play Three Clear Sundays dealt with capital punishment, and was broadcast at a time when the debate was at a height in the United Kingdom, in Two Minds, written by David Mercer, concerns a young schizophrenic womans experiences of the mental health system. Tony Garnett began to work as his producer in this period, during this period, he also directed the absurdist comedy The End of Arthurs Marriage, about which he later said that he was the wrong man for the job. Coinciding with his work for The Wednesday Play, Loach began to feature films for the cinema, with Poor Cow. The latter recounts the story of a boy and his kestrel. The British Film Institute named it No 7 in its list of best British films of the twentieth century, during the 1970s and 1980s, Loachs films were less successful, often suffering from poor distribution, lack of interest and political censorship. His documentary The Save the Children Fund Film was commissioned by the charity and it was only screened publicly for the first time on 1 September 2011, at the BFI Southbank. At the end of the 1980s, he directed some television advertisements for Tennents Lager to earn money, frank Chapple, leader of the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union, walked out of the interview and made a complaint to the Independent Broadcasting Authority. A separate complaint was made by Terry Duffy of the Amalgamated Engineering, the series was due to be broadcast during the Trade Union Congress conference in 1983, but Channel 4 decided against broadcasting the series following the complaints. The film was transmitted on Channel 4, but only after it won a prize at an Italian film festival. Three weeks after the end of the strike, the film End of the Battle, was broadcast by Channel 4 in its Diverse Strands series. This film argued that the Conservative Party had planned the destruction of the National Union of Mineworkers political power from the late 1970s. The play was due to run at the Royal Court Theatre in 1987 and he directed the Courtroom Drama reconstructions in the docu-film McLibel, concerning the longest libel trial in English history
13.
Greenpeace
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Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It uses direct action, lobbying, research, and ecotage to achieve its goals, the global organization does not accept funding from governments, corporations, or political parties, relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants. Greenpeace is known for its actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world. Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge, and influenced both the private and the public sector, in the late 1960s, the U. S. had plans for an underground nuclear weapon test in the tectonically unstable island of Amchitka in Alaska. Because of the 1964 Alaska earthquake, the plans raised concerns of the test triggering earthquakes. A1969 demonstration of 7,000 people blocked a major U. S. –Canada border crossing in British Columbia and its Your Fault If Our Fault Goes. The protests did not stop the U. S. from detonating the bomb, while no earthquake or tsunami followed the test, the opposition grew when the U. S. announced they would detonate a bomb five times more powerful than the first one. Among the opposers were Jim Bohlen, a veteran who had served in the U. S. Navy, and Irving Stowe and Dorothy Stowe, as members of the Sierra Club Canada, they were frustrated by the lack of action by the organization. From Irving Stowe, Jim Bohlen learned of a form of resistance, bearing witness. Jim Bohlens wife Marie came up with the idea to sail to Amchitka, the idea ended up in the press and was linked to The Sierra Club. The Sierra Club did not like this connection and in 1970 The Dont Make a Wave Committee was established for the protest, early meetings were held in the Shaughnessy home of Robert Hunter and his wife Bobbi Hunter. Subsequently, the Stowe home at 2775 Courtenay Street became the headquarters, as Rex Weyler put it in his chronology, Greenpeace, in 1969, Irving and Dorothy Stowes quiet home on Courtenay Street would soon become a hub of monumental, global significance. Some of the first Greenpeace meetings were held there, the first office was opened in a backroom, storefront on Cypress and West Broadway SE corner in Kitsilano, Vancouver. Within half a year Greenpeace would move in to share the office space with The Society Promoting Environmental Conservation at 4th. Irving Stowe arranged a concert that took place on October 16,1970 at the Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver. The concert created the basis for the first Greenpeace campaign. Amchitka, the 1970 concert that launched Greenpeace was published by Greenpeace in November 2009 on CD and is available as an mp3 download via the Amchitka concert website. Using the money raised with the concert, the Dont Make a Wave Committee chartered a ship, the ship was renamed Greenpeace for the protest after a term coined by activist Bill Darnell
14.
Channel 4
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Channel 4 is a British public-service television broadcaster that began transmission on 2 November 1982. With the conversion of the Wenvoe transmitter group in Wales to digital on 31 March 2010, before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services, BBC1, BBC2, and ITV. The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth, after some months of test broadcasts, it began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982. Indeed, television sets throughout the 1970s and early 1980s had a spare channel called ITV/IBA2. It was most likely politics which had the biggest impact in leading to a delay of almost three decades before the commercial channel became a reality. The campaign was taken so seriously by Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru, the result was that Channel 4 as seen by the rest of the United Kingdom would be replaced in Wales by Sianel Pedwar Cymru. Operated by a specially created authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh made by HTV, since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial has introduced Channel 4 to Welsh homes where it is now universally available. The first programme to air on the channel was the game show Countdown. The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley with Ted Moult being the second, the first woman on the channel, contrary to popular belief, was not Carol Vorderman and was a lexicographer only ever identified as Mary. Whiteley opened the show with the words, On its first day, Channel 4 also broadcast controversial soap opera Brookside, which ran until 2003. On its launch, Channel 4 committed itself to providing an alternative to the existing channels, Channel 4 co-commissioned Robert Ashleys ground-breaking television opera Perfect Lives, which it premiered over several episodes in 1984. The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of period, however. Channel 4 for many years had a poorer quality signal compared to other channels, Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant-Ivory docudrama The Courtesans of Bombay, during this time. In 1992, Channel 4 also faced its first libel case by Jani Allan, a South African journalist, who objected to her representation in the documentary The Leader, His Driver and the Drivers Wife. After control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993, instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time and it gave such shows as Friends and ER their UK premières. In the early 2000s, Channel 4 began broadcasting reality formats such as Big Brother and obtained the rights to broadcast mass appeal sporting events like cricket and this new direction increased ratings and revenues. In addition, the corporation launched a number of new channels through its new 4Ventures offshoot, including Film4, At the Races, E4
15.
Foodborne illness
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Symptoms vary depending on the cause, and are described below in this article. A few broad generalizations can be made, e. g, the incubation period ranges from hours to days, depending on the cause and on how much was consumed. The incubation period tends to cause sufferers to not associate the symptoms with the item consumed, symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, Foodborne illness usually arises from improper handling, preparation, or food storage. Good hygiene practices before, during, and after food preparation can reduce the chances of contracting an illness, there is a consensus in the public health community that regular hand-washing is one of the most effective defenses against the spread of foodborne illness. The action of monitoring food to ensure that it will not cause illness is known as food safety. Foodborne disease can also be caused by a variety of toxins that affect the environment. Foodborne illness can also be caused by pesticides or medicines in food, bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the United Kingdom during 2000, the bacteria involved were the following, Campylobacter jejuni 77. 3%, Salmonella 20. 9%, Escherichia coli O157, H71. 4%. In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply, as a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning. Most common bacterial foodborne pathogens are, Campylobacter jejuni which can lead to secondary Guillain–Barré syndrome and periodontitis Clostridium perfringens, enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom appearance varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset and this causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea, and staphylococcal enterotoxins are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated. The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States, many foodborne illnesses remain poorly understood. In August 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved Phage therapy which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria and this has raised concerns, because without mandatory labelling consumers would not be aware that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray. At home, prevention mainly consists of food safety practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented by cooking it sufficiently, many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment
16.
Recycling
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Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to conventional waste disposal that can save material, Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing, energy usage, air pollution, and water pollution. Recycling is a key component of waste reduction and is the third component of the Reduce, Reuse. There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO15270,2008 for plastics waste, recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste—such as food or garden waste—is also considered recycling, materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. However, this is difficult or too expensive, so recycling of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value. Recycling has been a practice for most of human history. In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of bronze and other metals being collected in Europe. Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when Japanese shops sold repulped paper, in Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was collected by dustmen and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into shoddy and mungo wool in Batley and this material combined recycled fibers with virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914. Industrialization spurred demand for materials, aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the steel and automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans, and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes. New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials (e. g. Bakelite and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials, new and better paths are opened to reach the goals desired. Recycling was a highlight throughout World War II, during the war, financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials
17.
Media circus
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Coverage that is sensationalistic can add to the perception the event is the subject of a media circus. The term is meant to critique the coverage of the event by comparing it to the spectacle, usage of the term in this sense became common in the 1970s. It can also be called a feeding frenzy or just media frenzy. Although the idea is older, the media circus began to appear around the mid-1970s. An early example is from the 1976 book by author Lynn Haney, in which she writes about a romance in which the athlete Chris Evert was involved, Their courtship, the term has become increasingly popular with time since the 1970s. Reasons for being critical of the media are as varied as the people who use the term. However, at the core of most criticism is that there may be a significant opportunity cost when other more important news issues get less attention as a result of coverage of the hyped issue. Media circuses make up the plot device in the 1951 movie Ace in the Hole about a self-interested reporter who, covering a mine disaster. It cynically examines the relationship between the media and the news they report, the movie was subsequently re-issued as The Big Carnival, with carnival referring to what we now call a circus. The movie was based on real-life Floyd Collins who in 1925 was trapped in a Kentucky cave drawing so much attention that it became the third largest media event between the two World Wars. Events described as a media circus include, The disappearance, and assumed death, the Azaria Chamberlain disappearance of 2-month-old baby in outback Australia. 2009 Violence against Indians in Australia controversy, conrad Black, business magnate of newspapers, convicted of fraud, embezzlement and corporate destruction, imprisoned in Florida. Toronto mayor Rob Fords life, including his usage of drugs, alcohol, elijah Marsh, a 3-year-old Toronto boy of black descent who wandered outside in February 2015 in just a diaper, shirt and boots and froze to death. The Death of Luis Andres Colmenares, the missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. Joran van der Sloot and the death of Stephany Flores Ramirez, disappearance and alleged murder of Elodia Ghinescu, especially on OTV, which aired a couple hundred episodes on the matter. Oscar Pistorius on trial for death of his girlfriend Reeva Steenkamp, mykola Melnychenkos involvement in the Cassette Scandal The life, death and funeral of Jade Goody. The News International phone hacking scandal, often overshadowed stories on the Libyan/Syrian civil wars, east-African famine, and economic crisis. The McLibel case Christine Jorgensen caused a sensation when she returned from Denmark to The U. S in 1952 after undergoing the worlds first sex change operation
18.
Health
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Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
19.
Cruelty to animals
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive
20.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
21.
Metropolitan Police
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As of March 2016, the Met employed 48,661 full-time personnel. This included 32,125 sworn police officers,9,521 police staff and this number excludes the 3,271 Special Constables, who work part-time and who have the same powers and uniform as their regular colleagues. This makes the Metropolitan Police the largest police force in the United Kingdom by a significant margin, the post of Commissioner was first held jointly by Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne. The post is occupied by the now-outgoing Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe. The Commissioners deputy, the Deputy Commissioner, is currently Craig Mackey, a number of informal names and abbreviations exists for the Metropolitan Police Service, the most common being the Met. In colloquial London, it is referred to as the Old Bill. The Met is also referred to by the metonym Scotland Yard after the location of its headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The Mets current headquarters is New Scotland Yard, in Victoria, the Metropolitan Police Service, whose officers became affectionately known as bobbies, was founded in 1829 by Robert Peel under the Metropolitan Police Act 1829. In 1839, the Marine Police Force, which had formed in 1798, was amalgamated into the Metropolitan Police. In 1837, it also incorporated with the Bow Street Horse Patrol that had organised in 1805. Since January 2012, the Mayor of London is responsible for the governance of the Metropolitan Police through the Mayors Office for Policing, the mayor is able to appoint someone to act on his behalf, the current office-holder is Deputy Mayor for Policing and Crime, Sophie Linden. The work of MOPAC is scrutinised by the Police and Crime Committee of the London Assembly, the area policed by the Metropolitan Police Service is known as the Metropolitan Police District. In terms of policing, the Met is divided into a number of Borough Operational Command Units. The City of London is a police area and is the responsibility of the separate City of London Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for policing of the network in the United Kingdom. Within London, they are responsible for the policing of the London Underground, Tramlink, The Emirates Air Line. There is also a park police force, the Kew Constabulary, responsible for the Royal Botanic Gardens. Officers also have limited powers in Scotland and Northern Ireland, within the MPD, the Met will take over the investigation of any serious crime from the British Transport Police and Ministry of Defence Police, if it is deemed appropriate
22.
Royal Courts of Justice
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The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in London which houses both the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic style built in the 1870s. It is one of the largest courts in Europe and it is located on the Strand within the City of Westminster, near the border with the City of London. It is surrounded by the four Inns of Court, Kings College London, the nearest London Underground stations are Chancery Lane and Temple. The courts within the building are open to the public, although there may be some restrictions depending upon the nature of the cases being heard and those in court who do not have legal representation may receive some assistance within the building. There is a citizens advice bureau based within the Main Hall which provides free, there is also a Personal Support Unit where litigants in person can receive emotional support and practical information about court proceedings. The search for a design for the Law Courts was by way of a competition, an approach to selecting a design. The competition ran from 1866-7 and the twelve architects competing for the contract each submitted designs for the site, in 1868 it was finally decided that George Edmund Street was the winner. Building was started in 1873 by Messrs Bull & Sons of Southampton, there was a serious strike of masons at an early stage which threatened to extend to the other trades and caused a temporary stoppage of the works. In consequence, foreign workmen were brought in – mostly Germans and this aroused bitter hostility on the part of the men on strike, and the newcomers had to be housed and fed within the building. However, these disputes were settled and the building took eight years to complete. Street died before the building was opened, overcome by the work, much of the preparatory legal work was completed by Edwin Wilkins Field including promotion of the Courts of Justice Building Act of 1865 and the Courts of Justice Concentration Act of 1865. A statue of Field stands in the building, parliament paid £1,453,000 for the 6-acre site upon which 450 houses had to be demolished. The building was paid for by cash accumulated in court from the estates of the intestate to the sum of £700,000. Oak work and fittings in the court cost a further £70,000 and with decoration, the dimensions of the building are,470 feet from east to west,460 feet from north to south,245 feet from the Strand level to the tip of the fleche. Entering through the gates on the Strand, one passes under two elaborately carved porches fitted with iron gates. The carving over the porch consists of heads of the most eminent judges. Also at the front, over the Judges entrance are a stone cat
23.
King's College London
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Kings College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Kings was established in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington, in 1836, Kings became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. Kings has five campuses, its main campus on the Strand in central London. In 2015/16, Kings had an income of £738.4 million, of which £193.2 million was from research grants and contracts and as of 2014/15. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres and research divisions. Kings is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a member of the Kings Health Partners academic health sciences centre, Francis Crick Institute. Kings College London, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the controversy surrounding the founding of London University in 1826. The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans. The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment, indeed, thus, the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment. Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of Kings College London in response to Wellingtons support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty, the letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with disgraceful and criminal motives in setting up Kings College London. The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel, Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose, Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology, duel Day is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year, marked by various events throughout Kings, including reenactments. Kings opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal, despite the attempts to make Kings Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely. William Howley, the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory. Kings was divided into a department and a junior department, also known as Kings College School
24.
Carcinogen
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A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
25.
Public interest
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Public interest, according to the Random House Dictionary, is 1. The welfare or well-being of the public, commonwealth. Appeal or relevance to the populace, a news story of public interest. This approach is ex ante, in the sense that the change is not evaluated after the fact and this approach follows the veil of ignorance approach, which was first proposed by John Harsanyi but popularized by John Rawls in his 1971 Theory of Justice. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales argues that applying a definition is likely to result in unintended consequences. Instead, each needs to be assessed based on criteria such as the relevant public, wants. The key to assessing any public interest decision is transparency of the decision-making process, “Public interest law” is a term that became widely adopted in the United States during and after the social turmoil of the 1960s. It built upon a tradition exemplified by Louis Brandeis, who before becoming a U. S. Supreme Court justice incorporated advocacy for the interests of the public into his legal practice. They defined themselves as public interest lawyers in order to themselves from the “corporate adjuncts” referred to by Brandeis. Public interest law does not describe a body of law or a legal field, instead of representing powerful economic interests, they chose to be advocates for otherwise underrepresented individuals. Consequently, a significant current in public interest lawyering has always emphasized the need to provide services to those living in poverty. Public interest has been considered as the core of democratic theories of government”, Public interest, convenience and necessity appeared for the first time in the Transportation Act of 1920 and also appeared in the Radio Act of 1927. After that, these three concepts became critical criteria for making policies and solving some related disputes. Cause lawyering Common good Condorcet paradox Convenience National interest Necessity Pareto optimality Radio Act of 1927 Telecommunications Act of 1996
26.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
27.
Government of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
28.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
29.
Judicial functions of the House of Lords
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The House of Lords, in addition to having a legislative function, historically also had a judicial function. It functioned as a court of first instance for the trials of peers, for impeachment cases, in the latter case the Houses jurisdiction was essentially limited to the hearing of appeals from the lower courts. Appeals were technically not to the House of Lords, but rather to the Queen-in-Parliament, during the 20th and early 21st centuries, the judicial functions were gradually removed. The final trial of a peer in the House of Lords was in 1935, and in 1948, in 2009 the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom assumed the functions as the new court of final appeal in the UK. Parliaments role in deciding litigation originated from the role of the Royal Court. Parliament grew out of the Court and took on many of its roles, Parliament originally did not hear appeals as a court might, rather, it heard petitions for the judgments of lower courts to be reversed. The House of Commons ceased considering such petitions in 1399, leaving the House of Lords, effectively, the Lords jurisdiction later began to decline, only five cases were heard between 1514 and 1589, and no cases between 1589 and 1621. In 1621, the House of Lords resumed its judicial role when King James I sent the petition of Edward Ewer, Petitions for the House of Lords to review the decisions of lower courts began to increase once again. After Ewer,13 further cases would be heard in 1621, the House of Lords appointed a Committee for Petitions. At first, the Clerk of the Parliaments would bring petitions to the House, as the number of petitions increased, the Committee gained the power to reject petitions itself. Petitions to the House of Lords did not have to seek reversal of lower court judgments, often, the practice of bringing cases directly to the Lords, however, ended with the case of Thomas Skinner v. East India Company. In 1667, the King, Charles II, referred the case to the Lords after failed attempts at arbitration, replying to Skinners petition, the East India Company objected that the case was one of first instance, and that the Lords therefore should not have accepted it. Notwithstanding the Companys protests, the House of Lords proceeded with the matter, though lawyers argued that the House could intervene only after the lower courts had failed to remedy the case, the Lords decided in Skinners favour in 1668. The East India Company then petitioned the House of Commons, arguing that the acceptance of a case in the first instance by the Lords was unusual and extraordinary. A famous dispute then broke out between the two Houses, the Commons ordered the imprisonment of Thomas Skinner and the Lords retaliated by ordering the imprisonment of the Company Chairman, in 1670, Charles II requested both Houses to abandon the case. When they refused, he ordered all references to the case be expunged from the Journals of both Houses and that neither body continue with the dispute. The House of Lords then ceased to hear petitions in the first instance, even after Skinners Case was resolved, the House of Lords and House of Commons clashed over jurisdiction in 1675. The House of Commons felt that the upper House had breached its privileges by considering cases in which members of the House of Commons were defendants, after the Lords considered Shirley v. Fagg, the Commons warned the Lords to have regard for their Privileges
30.
Solicitor
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A solicitor is a legal practitioner who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally-defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor, for example, in England and Wales a solicitor is admitted to practise under the provisions of the Solicitors Act 1974. With some exceptions, practising solicitors must possess a practising certificate, there are many more solicitors than barristers in England, they undertake the general aspects of giving legal advice and conducting legal proceedings. Some legal graduates will start off as one and then qualify as the other. Since the replacement of the aspect of the House of Lords with the Supreme Court the full title of a solicitor is Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England. The term attorney is still used under English law to refer to someone legally appointed or empowered to act for another person. Currently, the term is most commonly used to refer to someone so appointed under a power of attorney, practitioners in specialist professions, notably intellectual property, are also referred to as attorneys, for example Registered Patent Attorney or Registered Trade Mark Attorney. Minor criminal cases are tried in Magistrates Courts, which constitute by far the majority of courts, more serious criminal cases still start in the Magistrates Court and may then be transferred to a higher court. The majority of cases are tried in county courts and are almost always handled by solicitors. In the past, barristers did not deal with the public directly and this rigid separation no longer applies. Solicitor advocates with extended rights of audience may now act as advocates at all levels of the courts, conversely, the public may now hire and interact with a barrister directly in certain types of work without having to go to a solicitor first. Registered Patent Attorneys and Registered Trade Mark Attorneys also have rights of audience in intellectual property matters, Solicitors in England and Wales who wish to practise must pay an annual fee to obtain a Practising Certificate. This fee is paid to the Law Society of England and Wales, the Solicitors Regulation Authority, though funded by these fees, acts independently of the Law Society. Together, the two make up the complete system of professional regulation for solicitors. Complaints about solicitors if not satisfactorily resolved by the firm may be made to the Legal Ombudsman. The training and qualification required to enter the profession by being admitted as a solicitor is regulated by the Solicitors Regulation Authority, there are two graduate routes of entry into the profession. Prospective solicitors holding a law degree proceed to enroll with the Law Society as a student member. Those holding a degree but one which is a qualifying degree must in addition have completed a conversion course prior to enrolling on the Legal Practice Course
31.
Mark Stephens (solicitor)
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Mark Howard Stephens CBE is an English solicitor specialising in media law, intellectual property rights and human rights with the firm Howard Kennedy LLP. Stephens studied law at North East London Polytechnic, graduating in 1978, after further study in Brussels he was admitted as a solicitor in 1982. Stephens started his career as a lawyer providing advice to artists, in 1987 Stephens helped defend the American artist J. S. G. Boggs from a counterfeiting charge. During the 1990s Stephens worked on cases arising from the occupation of the Brent Spar oil platform and he also provided advice to the McLibel two, activists who were being sued by McDonalds. In 1999, his law firm merged with Finers to form Finers Stephens Innocent, with Stephens becoming the head of the international and media department, during the next decade he was involved in several cases defending the publishers of online material against charges of libel bought against them. The Times in 2008, described him as both a supporter of human rights and one of the best advocates for freedom of expression. In 2010, he represented Julian Assange, the founder of the website, WikiLeaks. Stephens has sat on many charitable, regulatory, government and academic committees including those related to art, education, media law, libel law. The University of East London awarded him a doctorate in law in 2001. In 2009, Stephens was appointed the Chairman of the Governors at that university and he has also assisted politicians in their drafting of legislation, in the UK in the 1990s regarding the regulation of the press and in Romania in 2005 regarding freedom of information laws. Stephens frequently appears in the UK media, in the 1990s he was a legal correspondent for Sky TV and he has featured regularly in both print and on television during his career. He has also contributed to two books and is on the editorial board of three legal journals. Stephens was born in Old Windsor, Berkshire, on 7 April 1957 to very, very poor parents and his father was an artist and his mother a secretary and later a social worker. As a boy he was quite sporty and swam for his county and he attended St Pauls Secondary Modern School and Strodes Grammar School, followed by the Cambridge Manor Academy for Dramatic Arts, before going on to study law at North East London Polytechnic. He says that he was tricked into studying law by his father. He married Donna Coote in 1982 and they have three daughters, in the 1990s, he taught scuba diving, a hobby he began in his teens, and built up a collection of art and sculptures. Stephens is licensed to practise before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and has made several legal interventions in the European Court of Human Rights. Stephens began his career as a lawyer at ArtLaw, the first legal advice centre for artists
32.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
33.
Keir Starmer
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Sir Keir Starmer, KCB, QC is a British politician and barrister. Since the 2015 general election, he has been the Labour Member of Parliament for Holborn and he was the Director of Public Prosecutions and the Head of the Crown Prosecution Service from 2008 to 2013. He has prosecuted in cases for the CPS during his career. Starmer was the second of four children of a toolmaker and a nurse and he was named after former Labour Party leader and socialist Keir Hardie. He passed the 11-Plus examination and gained entry to Reigate Grammar School and he studied law at the University of Leeds and graduated with a first class Bachelor of Laws degree in 1985. He then undertook studies at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. Starmer became a barrister in 1987 and he advised Helen Steel and David Morris in the McLibel case, which went to court in 1997. He was also interviewed for McLibel, the documentary about the directed by Franny Armstrong. He worked with lawyers in African countries towards the same end, in 2005 he persuaded the House of Lords that evidence obtained by torture should be inadmissible in court. In 2007 he represented two alleged terrorists in a case in the House of Lords in which he challenged their control orders on human rights grounds. He was a human rights advisor to the Northern Ireland Policing Board and he is a member of the Foreign Secretarys Death Penalty Advisory Panel. In 2007 he was named QC of the Year, while in office he was widely viewed to be favourable towards the Labour Party. On 25 July 2008, the Attorney General, Patricia Scotland, named Starmer as the head of the CPS, to take over from Sir Ken Macdonald. Macdonald, himself a former lawyer, welcomed the appointment. Huhne became the first Cabinet minister in British history to be compelled to resign as a result of criminal proceedings, Starmer had previously stated in relation to the case that here there is sufficient evidence we do not shy away from prosecuting politicians. In the case known as the Twitter Joke Trial Chambers had been convicted of sending an electronic message that was grossly offensive or of an indecent. The trial and conviction provoked widespread protest by free-speech activists, and he left office on 1 November 2013 and was replaced by Alison Saunders. In December 2013, the Labour Party announced that Starmer would lead an enquiry into changing the law to give protection to victims in cases of rape
34.
Defamation Act 2013
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The Defamation Act 2013 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which reformed English defamation law on issues of the right to freedom of expression and the protection of reputation. It also comprised a response to perceptions that the law as it stood was giving rise to libel tourism, however, it did not quite codify defamation law into a single statute. The Act changed a number of Defamation procedures, such cases are referred through a Defamation Recognition Commission to a new Independent Regulatory Board, to provide arbitration services. The courts should take account, when awarding costs and damages. A successful party is required to pay all of the proceedings costs, judgment awards of exemplary damages, where a defendant is guilty of breach of a defendant’s rights, can take into account whether either party refused to use, or join the arbitration service. Courts should take into account whether defendant first sought advice from the IRB before publication, the common law defence of justification is abolished, as such section 5 of the Defamation Act 1952 is repealed. The common law defence of fair comment is abolished, as such, the common law defence known as the Reynolds defence is abolished. Section 8 of the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 is amended, the Slander of Women Act 1891 is repealed. Requirement of serious harm, A statement is not defamatory unless its publication has caused or is likely to cause harm to the reputation of the claimant. Truth, It is a defence for defamation to show the imputation in the statement complained of is substantially true. If one or more of the imputations is not true, the defence does not fail if the imputations not shown to be true do not seriously harm the claimant’s reputation. The common law defence of justification is abolished, as such section 5 of the Defamation Act 1952 is repealed, the defence is defeated if the claimant shows the defendant did not hold the opinion. The common law defence of fair comment is abolished, as such, public interest, It is a defence to show the statement complained of was, or formed part of, a matter of public interest, and a publication was reasonably believed to be in the public interest. In determining a reasonable belief of public interest, the court must make allowance for editorial judgment, for the avoidance of doubt, the defence may be relied upon irrespective of whether it is a statement of fact or a statement of opinion. The common law known as the Reynolds defence is abolished. Where the statement is privileged, any assessment, extract or summary of the merit is also privileged. A publication is not privileged if it is shown to be made with malice and this defence is not to be construed as protecting the publication of matter prohibited by law. Operators of websites, In an action against a website operator, on a statement posted on the website, a claimant can “identify” a person only if they have sufficient information to bring proceedings against the person
35.
Streisand effect
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It is an example of psychological reactance, wherein once people are aware something is being kept from them, their motivation to access and spread the information is increased. It is named after American entertainer Barbra Streisand, whose 2003 attempt to suppress photographs of her residence in Malibu, California, similar attempts have been made, for example, in cease-and-desist letters to suppress numbers, files, and websites. Mike Masnick of Techdirt coined the term in 2005 in relation to a holiday resort issuing a notice to urinal. net over use of the resorts name. Lets call it the Streisand Effect, the term invoked Barbra Streisand who had sued photographer Kenneth Adelman and Pictopia. com for violation of privacy. The US$50 million lawsuit endeavored to remove an aerial photograph of Streisands mansion from the available collection of 12,000 California coastline photographs. Adelman photographed the beachfront property to document coastal erosion as part of the California Coastal Records Project, before Streisand filed her lawsuit, Image 3850 had been downloaded from Adelmans website only six times, two of those downloads were by Streisands attorneys. As a result of the case, public knowledge of the picture increased substantially, in November 2007, Tunisia blocked access to YouTube and Dailymotion after material was posted of Tunisian political prisoners. Activists and their supporters started to link the location of then-President Zine El Abidine Ben Alis palace on Google Earth to videos about civil liberties in general. The Economist said this turned a low-key human-rights story into a global campaign. A2013 libel suit by Theodore Katsanevas against a Greek Wikipedia editor resulted in members of the bringing the story to the attention of journalists. This led to the keys proliferation across other sites and chat rooms in various formats, with one commentator describing it as having become the most famous number on the Internet. Within a month, the key had been reprinted on over 280,000 pages, had printed on T-shirts and tattoos. Blogger Richard Wilson correctly identified the question as referring to the Trafigura waste dump scandal. Not long after, Trafigura began trending on Twitter, helped along by Stephen Frys retweeting the story to his followers, Twitter users soon tracked down all details of the case, and by October 16, the super-injunction had been lifted and the report published. In November 2012, Casey Movers, a Boston moving company threatened to sue a woman in Hingham District Court for libel in response to a negative Yelp review. The womans husband wrote a blog post about the situation, which was picked up by Techdirt. By the end of the week, the company was reviewed by the Better Business Bureau, in December 2013, YouTube user ghostlyrich uploaded video proof that his Samsung Galaxy S4 battery had spontaneously caught fire. Samsung had demanded proof before honoring its warranty, Samsung also demanded that a witness cosign the settlement proposal
36.
English tort law
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English tort law is the law governing implicit civil responsibilities that people have to one another, as opposed to those responsibilities laid out in contracts. It provides legal remedies, often the payment of money, to those who have been damaged by someone elses failure to meet these implicit responsibilities, other countries tort laws can work quite differently. It is to be distinguished from law, which is often thought of as dealing with an individuals responsibility to the state. The law of tort covers several areas such as negligence, each individual tort has an amount of requirements needed to be met. In English law, torts like other cases are generally tried in front a judge without a jury. Following Roman law, the English system has long been based on a system of nominate torts, such as trespass, battery. This is in contrast to continental legal systems, which have adopted more open systems of tortious liability. There are various categories of tort, which lead back to the system of separate causes of action, the tort of negligence is however increasing in importance over other types of tort, providing a wide scope of protection, especially since Donoghue v Stevenson. For liability under negligence a duty of care must be established owed to a group of persons to which the victim belongs, Liability for negligence arises when one person breaches a duty of care owed to another. The establishment of a duty of care is usually broken up into a three-step test, the first case to establish a general duty of care was Donoghue v Stevenson. Famously, Ms Donoghue claimed compensation for illness, after she consumed a ginger beer containing a snail, in a public house in Paisley. The bottle was opaque so Ms Donoghue, nor the shopkeeper, could see a snail, the House of Lords, by a majority held that the manufacturer, Mr Stevenson, was liable in tort. By contrast, Lord Macmillan suggested that the law should protect Ms Donoghue by incremental analogy to previous cases, nevertheless, Lord Atkins speech was widely followed, and understood to contain three main points for establishing a duty of care. This three step scheme however, did not crystallise until the case of Caparo Industries Plc v Dickman, a company called Caparo took over another company, by buying up a majority of its shares. It did this because it sneakily obtained word from an audit that the target was financially sound. The audit was prepared by a group of accountants and was intended for shareholders, once Caparo owned the company it found that the finances were in fact pretty shoddy, and so it sued the accountants for being negligent in its audit preparation. The House of Lords found against Caparo, and established the current threefold test, although it was reasonably foreseeable that outsiders might learn of the carelessly prepared information, it was not the case that Caparo and Dickman were in a relationship of proximity. This the court used as a term of art, to say that it should not be the case that absolutely anyone hearing something said that was stupid, the court was reacting to its concern that to allow a claim here might open the floodgates of litigation
37.
Gunns
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Gunns Limited was a major forestry enterprise located in Tasmania, Australia. It has operations in forest management, woodchipping, sawmilling and veneer production, the company was placed in liquidation in March 2013. Founded in 1875 by brothers John and Thomas Gunn, it is one of Australias oldest companies and it has over 900 square kilometres of plantations, mainly eucalyptus trees. It is Tasmania’s largest private land-owner, the move to expand its base into mainland operation began with the acquisition of Auspine in 2007. In September 2010, Gunns announced that it will end logging of old growth forests, in November 2011, the Gunns Mitre 10 stores were re-branded as Becks Home Timber and Hardware, owned by the Danks Brothers Hardware Group, subsidiary of Woolworths Limited. Gunns was placed into administration on 25 September 2012, after it was unable to raise further capital or restructure the business. In 2009, the company was awarded a contract to operate a new processing facility at Portland. The woodchipping mill was sold off to Australian Bluegum Plantations in 2012. In South Australia the company managed blue gum plantations on Kangaroo Island, in Jamestown Gunns was a major customer of Morgan Sawmill. Gunns bought the Tarpeena softwood sawmill from the now failed Forest Enterprises Australia, which was later sold onto Timberlink. Gunns operated sawmills across the state and it operated a total of three woodchipping mills in Tasmania alone in Longreach, near Bell Bay, Triabunna and Hampshire, near Burnie. The company was forced to close all three of these mills and most of its sawmills in 2011. After being placed into administration in 2012, the Longreach mill was reopened. In 2008, operations at a sawmill in Scottsdale were restructured, the sackings broke an agreement with the federal government, leading to the cancellation of substantial funding assistance. In the same year, around 135 workers at another Auspine sawmill at Tonganah lost their jobs after a softwood timber contract had gone to a competitor, Gunns operates three hardwood sawmills in Western Australia. Their nationwide product line of timber flooring includes the hardwood, Jarrah, the timber is reddish-brown when hewn and is, renowned for its beauty, warmth and durability. Their environmental initiatives include achieving certification under International standard ISO14001,2004, Gunns supplies local trade and retail markets from its distribution yard in Welshpool, near Perth. The company has been the focus of criticism from environmentalists, primarily for its four woodchip mills which produce 4 million tonnes of chips for export annually
