1.
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
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The biome includes several types of forests, Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests, commonly known as tropical rainforests, are forests which receive high rainfall throughout the year. These forests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo basin of central Africa, some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season. These forests are found in parts of South America, in Central America and around the Caribbean, in coastal West Africa, parts of the Indian subcontinent, montane rain forests, are found in cooler-climate mountainous areas. Those with elevations high enough to regularly encounter low-level cloud cover are known as cloud forests, flooded forests, including freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests. In contrast to TSMF, tropical forest regions with lower levels of rainfall are home to tropical dry broadleaf forests, temperate rain forests also occur in certain humid temperate coastal regions. Rainforests now cover less than 6% of Earths land surface, scientists estimate that more than half of all the worlds plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests
2.
Ecoregion
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An ecoregion is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are less or greater than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, the biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches, firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible, secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges, rather, ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome, biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers. Some physical, some climatic and some ocean chemical related, the history of the term is somewhat vague as it was used in many contexts, forest classifications, biome classifications, biogeographic classifications, etc. The concept of ecoregion of Bailey gives more importance to ecological criteria, while the WWF concept gives more importance to biogeography, there is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Such transition zones are called ecotones, Ecoregions can be categorized using an algorithmic approach or a holistic, “weight-of-evidence” approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the approach is Robert Bailey’s work for the U. S. The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used, according to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth, the use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and it is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for conservation, Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context, terrestrial is used to mean of land, WWF ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions. The WWF effort is a synthesis of previous efforts to define. Many consider this classification to be decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The eight terrestrial ecozones follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, ecozone boundaries generally follow continental boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Khasi and Jaintia Hills
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The Khasi and Jaintia Hills are a mountainous region that was mainly part of Assam and meghalaya. The Jaintia Hills are located further to the east from the Khasi Hills and his winter capital is now in Bangladesh, with his summer residence shifted from Sutnga to Nartiang, also a palace in the commercial center Borghat. The Jaintia Hills used to be a part of the Jaintia Hills District, the district has been bifurcated into two separate districts, namely, East Jaintia Hills and West Jaintia Hills on 31 July 2012. The Khasi Hills are located east of the Garo Hills, map of the Khasi states The Khasis by R. R. T. Gurdon, part 2
5.
Meghalaya
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Meghalaya is a state in northeast India. The name means the abode of clouds in Sanskrit, the population of Meghalaya as of 2016 is estimated to be 3,211,474. Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,430 square kilometers, the state is bounded to the south by the Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and east by Indias State of Assam. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong, during the British occupation of India, the British imperialist authorities nicknamed it the Scotland of the East. Meghalaya was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, English is the official language of Meghalaya. The other principal languages spoken include Khasi, Pnar, Hajong, Rabha, Garo, the state is the wettest region of India, recording an average of 12,000 mm of rains a year. About 70% of the state is forested, the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state, its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, Meghalaya has predominantly an agrarian economy with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, pineapples, bananas, papayas, spices, the service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalayas gross state product for 2012 was estimated at ₹16,173 crore in current prices. The state is rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries. The state has about 1,170 km of national highways and it is also a major logistical center for trade with Bangladesh. Ancient Meghalaya, along with neighboring Indian states, have been of archeological interest, people have lived here since neolithic era. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation such as in Khasi Hills, Garo Hills, here neolithic style jhum or shifting cultivation is practiced even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods, the importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history through domestication of rice. The limited archeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times, modern history Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam, the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Before attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given semi-autonomous status in 1970, the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835, the region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown
6.
Assam
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Assam (English pronunciation, /əˈsæm/ listen is a state in northeastern India. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, along with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya, is one of the Seven Sister States. Geographically, Assam and these states are connected to the rest of India via a 22 kilometres strip of land in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or Chickens Neck. Assam shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh, and its culture, people. Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk, the first oil well in Asia was drilled here. The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger. It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant, the Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism, centred around Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park which are World Heritage Sites. Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, Assam receives more rainfall compared to most parts of India. This rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment, the precise etymology of Assam came from Ahom Dynasty. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, in medieval times the Mughals used Asham and Kamrup, and during British colonialism, the English used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama was the root, which has been rejected by Kakati, among possible origins are Tai and Bodo. Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1, 500–2,000 feet were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making. According to a text, Kalika Purana, the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna, narakas son Bhagadatta became the king, who fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Samudraguptas 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa and Davaka as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire, ruled by three dynasties Varmanas, Mlechchha dynasty and Kamarupa-Palas, from their capitals in present-day Guwahati, Tezpur and North Gauhati respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta, in the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman, the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels
7.
Biodiversity
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
8.
Mawsynram
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Mawsynram is a village in the East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya state in north-eastern India,65 kilometres from Shillong. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Mawsynram received 26,000 millimetres of rainfall in 1985. Mawsynram is located at 25° 18′ N, 91° 35′ E, at an altitude of about 1,400 metres,16 km west of Cherrapunji, in the Khasi Hills in the state of Meghalaya. The name of the village contains Maw, a Khasi word meaning stone, Khasi Hills are rich with such megaliths. Under the Köppen climate classification, Mawsynram features a subtropical climate with an extraordinarily showery and long monsoonal season. Based on the data of a recent few decades, it appears to be the wettest place in the world, Mawsynram receives nearly 10,000 millimeters of rain in an average year, and the vast majority of rain it falls during the monsoon months. A comparison of rainfalls for Cherrapunji and Mawsynram for some years is given in Table 1, primarily due to the high altitude, it seldom gets truly hot in Mawsynram. Average monthly temperatures range from around 11°C in January to just above 20°C in August, the village also experiences a brief but noticeably drier season from December until February, when monthly precipitation on average does not exceed 30 millimetres. The little precipitation during the village’s “low sun” season is something that is shared by many areas with this type of climate, Table 1, Comparison of rainfalls for Cherrapunji and Mawsynram from 1970. The alignment of the Khasi Hills places them directly in the path of the airflow from the Bay of Bengal, located in Mawsynram, is a cave named Mawjymbuin, known for its stalagmites. Inside this cave is a pair of notable speleothems - breast-shaped stalactite over a massive stalagmite, the area is known for its many caves, commercialised and non-commercialised, which contain remnants of a past that tells us of the history of the plateau that was once under water. The Tribune - The dispute between Mawsynram and Cherrapunji for the title of wettest place on earth
9.
Cherrapunji
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Cherrapunji is a subdivisional town in the East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya. It is the capital of the Nongkhlaw hima known as Sohra or Churra. Cherrapunji is credited as being the wettest place on Earth, the original name for this town was Sohra, which was pronounced Churra by the British. This name eventually evolved into the current name, Cherrapunji, meaning land of oranges, despite perennial rainfall, Cherrapunji faces an acute water shortage and the inhabitants often have to trek very long distances to obtain potable water. Irrigation is also hampered due to rain washing away the topsoil as a result of human encroachment into the forests. The Meghalaya state government has renamed Cherrapunjee back to its original name, there is a monument to David Scott in the Cherrapunji cemetery. The history of the Khasi people – native inhabitants of Cherrapunji – may be traced from the part of the 16th century. Between the 16th and 18th centuries these people were ruled by theor tribal Syiems of Khyriem in the Khasi Hills, the Khasis hills came under British authority in 1883 with the submission of the last of the important Syiems, Tirot Sing. The main pivot on which the superstructure of Khasi society rests is the matrilineal system. Sohra or Cherrapunji is located at 25. 30°N91. 70°E /25.30,91.70 and it has an average elevation of 1,484 metres and sits on a plateau in the southern part of the Khasi Hills, facing the plains of Bangladesh. The plateau rises 600 meters above the surrounding valleys, soils on the plateau are poor owing to deforestation and washout caused by heavy rainfall. Owing to winter droughts, the vegetation in this location is even xerophytic in spite of the fame of Cherrapunji as a wet place. Additional pressure on local ecosystems is created by the increase of the population — from a Sohra-area population of 7,000 in 1960. Valleys around Cherrapunji, however, are covered with lush and very diverse vegetation, containing numerous species of plants. Although there is heavy rainfall in Cherrapunji, there is a scarcity of clean water. The Shillong Plateau is an uplifted horst-like feature, bounded by the E-W Main Boundary Thrust to the North, the N-S Jamuna fault in the west, Sohra or Cherrapunji has a mild subtropical highland climate, with monsoonal influences typical of India. The citys yearly rainfall average stands at 11,777 millimetres and this figure places it behind only nearby Mawsynram, Meghalaya, whose average is 11,873 millimetres. Cherrapunji receives both the southwest and northeast monsoonal winds, giving it a single monsoon season and it lies on the windward side of the Khasi Hills, so the resulting orographic lift enhances precipitation
10.
Magnolia
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Magnolia is a large genus of about 210 flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae. It is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol, appearing before bees did, the flowers are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles. To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of Magnolia flowers are extremely tough, fossilised specimens of M. acuminata have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. Magnolia shares the characteristic with several other flowering plants near the base of the flowering plant lineage such as Amborella. As with all Magnoliaceae, the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in 3 or more whorls, the flowers are bisexual with numerous adnate carpels and stamens are arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated receptacle. The fruit dehisces along their dorsal sutures, the pollen is monocolpate, and the embryo development is of the Polygonium type. The name Magnolia first appeared in 1703 in the Genera of Charles Plumier, english botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name Magnolia. He was at least responsible for the part of Johann Jacob Dilleniuss Hortus Elthamensis and of Mark Catesbys Natural History of Carolina, Florida. These were the first works after Plumiers Genera that used the name Magnolia, Carl Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumiers Genera, adopted the genus name Magnolia in 1735 in his first edition of Systema Naturae, without a description, but with a reference to Plumiers work. In 1753, he took up Plumiers Magnolia in the first edition of Species Plantarum, there he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being Magnolia virginiana. He placed it in the synonymy of Magnolia virginiana var. fœtida, under Magnolia virginiana Linnaeus described five varieties. In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae, he merged grisea with glauca, by the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the Magnolia species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were Magnolia denudata and Magnolia liliiflora, soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described Magnolia obovata from Japan and at roughly the same time Magnolia kobus was also first collected. With the number of increasing, the genus was divided into the two subgenera Magnolia and Yulania. Magnolia contains the American evergreen species M. grandiflora, which is of importance, especially in the southeastern United States, and M. virginiana. Yulania contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as M. denudata and M. kobus, classified in Yulania, is also the American deciduous M. acuminata, which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower colour in many new hybrids. Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time, because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events, its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, to create divisions in the family, solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a nearly impossible task
11.
Michelia
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Michelia is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the Magnolia family. The genus includes about 50 species of trees and shrubs, native to tropical and subtropical south and southeast Asia. The Magnoliaceae are an ancient family, fossil plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date back 95 million years, a primitive aspect of the Magnolia family is that their large, cup-shaped flowers lack distinct petals or sepals. The large non-specialized flower parts, resembling petals, are called tepals, the leaves, flowers, and form of Michelia resemble Magnolia, but the blossoms of Michelia generally form clusters among the leaves, rather than singly at the branch ends as Magnolia does. Several of the species are locally important sources of timber. Some species, including the Champak and M. doltsopa are grown for their flowers, Champak flowers are also used to produce an essential oil for perfume. A few species have been introduced to gardens or as street trees outside of the Indomalaya region, including Michelia figo, M. doltsopa, the genus is named after the Florentine botanist Pietro Antonio Micheli. Morphological data and molecular data showed that the genus Michelia is very closely related to subgenus Yulania of genus Magnolia. Many botanists now treat the genus Michelia accordingly, new combinations of names have been provided for. For further information see under genus Magnolia, wu Michelia cavaleriei Finet & Gagnep. Native to India, Java, and the Philippines, a tree or shrub which grows from 3 to 6 meters high and wide. Glossy bright green leaves to 16 cm, produces fragrant orange, yellow, or creamy white flowers in the spring. The flowers of this plant produce an oil that is used in perfume. Michelia chapensis Dandy Michelia compressa Sarg, Michelia coriacea Chang & Chen Michelia crassipes Y. -W. Large shrubs and trees, growing to 30 meters, native to the eastern Himalayas and Meghalaya subtropical forests. Varies in form from bushy to narrow and upright, leathery dark-green leaves,6 to 17 cm in length. Clusters of creamy white flowers in winter, growing in popularity as a street tree in coastal California. Wu Michelia elliptilimba Chen & Noot, a slow growing shrub or small tree that can grow up to 5 meters high and nearly as wide
12.
Elaeocarpaceae
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Elaeaocarpaceae is a family of flowering plants. The family contains approximately 615 species of trees and shrubs in 12 genera, the largest genera are Elaeocarpus, with about 350 species, and Sloanea, with about 150. The species of Elaeocarpaceae are mostly tropical and subtropical, with a few temperate-zone species and they are found in Madagascar, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, West Indies, and South America. The plants are hermaphrodite or dioecious and bear flowers clustered in inflorescences, a phylogeny of the family, based on DNA sequences was published in 2006
13.
Elaeagnaceae
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The family has about 60 species in three genera. They are commonly thorny, with leaves often coated with tiny scales or hairs. Most of the species are xerophytes, several are also halophytes, the Elaeagnaceae often harbor nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes of the genus Frankia in their roots, making them useful for soil reclamation. This characteristic, together with their production of seeds, often results in the Eleagnaceae being viewed as weeds
14.
Orchidaceae
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The Orchidaceae are a diverse and widespread family of flowering plants, with blooms that are often colourful and often fragrant, commonly known as the orchid family. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering plants, the Orchidaceae have about 28,000 currently accepted species, distributed in about 763 genera. The determination of which family is larger is still under debate, regardless, the number of orchid species nearly equals the number of bony fishes and is more than twice the number of bird species, and about four times the number of mammal species. The family also encompasses about 6–11% of all seed plants, the largest genera are Bulbophyllum, Epidendrum, Dendrobium and Pleurothallis. The family also includes Vanilla, Orchis, and many cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis. Moreover, since the introduction of species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids. Orchids are easily distinguished from plants, as they share some very evident, shared derived characteristics. Among these are, bilateral symmetry of the flower, many flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal, fused stamens and carpels. All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure and they can grow according to two patterns, Monopodial, The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda, Sympodial, Sympodial orchids have a front and a back. The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a size, bloom. Sympodial orchids grow laterally rather than vertically, following the surface of their support, the growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called eye, Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil. Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers, the root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots, one is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs, epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis and it is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, the cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support
15.
Pitcher plant
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Pitcher plants are several different carnivorous plants which have modified leaves known as pitfall traps—a prey-trapping mechanism featuring a deep cavity filled with digestive fluid liquid. The traps of what are considered to be true pitcher plants are created from modified leaves, however they are not simply folded into a tube, the families Nepenthaceae and Sarraceniaceae are the most species-rich families of pitcher plants. The Nepenthaceae contains a genus, Nepenthes, containing over 100 species and numerous hybrids. In these Old World pitcher plants, the pitchers are borne at the end of tendrils that extend from the midrib of an otherwise unexceptional leaf. Old world pitcher plants are characterized as having reduced and symmetrical pitchers with a comprehensive waxy coating on the surface of the inner pitcher wall. The plants themselves are often climbers, accessing plants, which three genera, are ground-dwelling herbs whose pitchers arise from a horizontal rhizome. In this family, the leaf forms the pitcher, as opposed to Nepenthaceae where the pitcher arises from the terminal portion of the leaf. The species of the genus Heliamphora, which are known as marsh pitchers, have a simple rolled-leaf pitcher. They are restricted to areas of rainfall in South America. The species in the genus Sarracenia readily hybridise, making their classification a complex matter, the Cephalotaceae is a monotypic family with but one genus and species, Cephalotus follicularis. This species has a small pitcher similar in form to those of Nepenthes and it occurs in only one location in southwestern Australia. A few species of bromeliads, such as Brocchinia reducta and Catopsis berteroniana, are known or suspected to be carnivorous, the purple pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea, is the floral emblem of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Foraging, flying or crawling insects such as flies are attracted to the cavity formed by the leaf, often by visual lures such as anthocyanin pigments. The rim of the pitcher is slippery, when moistened by condensation or nectar, the small bodies of liquid contained within the pitcher traps are called phytotelmata. They drown the insect, and the body of it is gradually dissolved and this may occur by bacterial action or by enzymes secreted by the plant itself. Furthermore, some pitcher plants contain mutualistic insect larvae, which feed on trapped prey, whatever the mechanism of digestion, the prey items are converted into a solution of amino acids, peptides, phosphates, ammonium and urea, from which the plant obtains its mineral nutrition. Like all carnivorous plants, they all grow in locations where the soil is too poor in minerals and/or too acidic for most plants to survive, rather than relying on photosynthetic glucose to survive, pitcher plants supplement available nutrients and minerals with the constituents of their insect prey. Mature plants of Nepenthes lowii attract tree shrews, which feed on nectar that the plant produces but also defecate into the pitcher, providing nitrates, the plant and tree shrew have a symbiotic relationship
16.
Nepenthes khasiana
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Nepenthes khasiana is a tropical pitcher plant of the genus Nepenthes. It is the only Nepenthes species native to India and it is thought to attract prey by means of blue fluorescence. The species has a very localised distribution and is rare in the wild, nevertheless, N. khasiana exhibits considerable genetic diversity. The Khasi people call the plant tiew-rakot, which means demon-flower or devouring-plant, the Jaintias call it kset phare, which is roughly translated as lidded fly net. Nepenthes khasiana is a species, classified as Endangered, and is on CITES Appendix I along with N. rajah. Threats to wild populations include habitat destruction, acid mine drainage associated with coal mining, and collection for medicinal and ornamental uses. In 2010, the Rare Nepenthes Collection was established with the aim of conserving 4 of the most threatened Nepenthes species, N. aristolochioides, N. clipeata, N. khasiana, the specific epithet khasiana is spelled khasyana in some older texts. This spelling actually predates that under which the species was published in Joseph Dalton Hookers 1873 monograph, Nepenthaceae. Masters in the April 20,1872 issue of The Gardeners Chronicle, in the horticultural trade of the late 19th century, N. khasiana was often confused with N. distillatoria of Sri Lanka
17.
Endemism
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The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution. An alternative term for a species that is endemic is precinctive, the word endemic is from New Latin endēmicus, from Greek ενδήμος, endēmos, native. Endēmos is formed of en meaning in, and dēmos meaning the people, the term, precinctive, has been suggested by some scientists, and was first used in botany by MacCaughey in 1917. It is the equivalent of endemism, precinction was perhaps first used by Frank and McCoy. That definition excludes artificial confinement of examples by humans in far-off botanical gardens or zoological parks, physical, climatic, and biological factors can contribute to endemism. The orange-breasted sunbird is found in the fynbos vegetation zone of southwestern South Africa. The glacier bear is found only in limited places in Southeast Alaska, political factors can play a part if a species is protected, or actively hunted, in one jurisdiction but not another. There are two subcategories of endemism, paleoendemism and neoendemism, paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread but are now restricted to a smaller area. Neoendemism refers to species that have arisen, such as through divergence and reproductive isolation or through hybridization. Endemics can easily become endangered or extinct if their restricted habitat changes, particularly—but not only—due to human actions, there were millions of both Bermuda petrels and Bermuda cedars in Bermuda when it was settled at the start of the seventeenth century. By the end of the century, the petrels were thought extinct, cedars, already ravaged by centuries of shipbuilding, were driven nearly to extinction in the twentieth century by the introduction of a parasite. Bermuda petrels and cedars are now rare, as are species endemic to Bermuda
18.
Tiger
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The tiger is the largest cat species, most recognisable for their pattern of dark vertical stripes on reddish-orange fur with a lighter underside. The species is classified in the genus Panthera with the lion, leopard, jaguar, Tigers are apex predators, primarily preying on ungulates such as deer and bovids. They are territorial and generally solitary but social animals, often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support their prey requirements and this, coupled with the fact that they are indigenous to some of the more densely populated places on Earth, has caused significant conflicts with humans. Tigers once ranged widely across eastern Eurasia, from the Black Sea in the west, to the Indian Ocean in the south, today, they range from the Siberian taiga to open grasslands and tropical mangrove swamps. The remaining six tiger subspecies have been classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a 2016 global census estimated the population of wild tigers at approximately 3,890 individuals. Major reasons for decline include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation. The extent of area occupied by tigers is estimated at less than 1,184,911 km2, in 2016, wildlife conservation group at WWF declared that worlds count of wild tigers has risen for the first time in a century. Tigers are among the most recognisable and popular of the charismatic megafauna. They have featured prominently in ancient mythology and folklore, and continue to be depicted in modern films and they appear on many flags, coats of arms, and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the animal of Bangladesh, India, Malaysia. In 1758, Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae, in 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris. The derivation from Greek pan- and ther may be folk etymology, the specific epithet, tigris, as well as the common name, tiger, come from the Middle English tigre and the Old English tigras, both used for the animal. These derive from the Old French tigre, itself a derivative of the Latin word tigris and the Greek word tigris. The original source may have been the Persian tigra meaning pointed or sharp, the tigers closest living relatives were previously thought to be the lion, leopard and jaguar, all of which are classified under the genus Panthera. The oldest remains of an extinct relative, called Panthera zdanskyi or the Longdan tiger, have been found in the Gansu province of northwestern China. This species is considered to be a taxon to the extant tiger and lived about 2 million years ago. It was smaller than the tiger, being the size of a jaguar. Despite being considered more primitive, the Longdan tiger was functionally and possibly ecologically similar to its modern cousin, as Panthera zdanskyi lived in northwestern China, that may have been where the tiger lineage originated
19.
Clouded leopard
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The clouded leopard is a wild cat occurring from the Himalayan foothills through mainland Southeast Asia into China. Since 2008, it is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and its total population is suspected to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend, and no single population numbering more than 1,000 adults. The scientific name of the leopard is Neofelis nebulosa. It is one of two members of the genus Neofelis, and is classified under the family Felidae and it was first described by the British zoologist Edward Griffith in 1821. The other member of this genus is the Sunda clouded leopard, the clouded leopard is part of the Panthera lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae. This lineage comprises the species of Panthera and Neofelis, the Neofelis species diverged first from the lineage, followed by the snow leopard. Subsequent branching in the lineage is disputed, broadly, two different cladograms have been proposed for the Panthera lineage. The clouded leopard is considered to form a link between the big cats and the small cats. It represents the smallest of the big cats, but despite its name, the fur of clouded leopards is of a dark grey or ochreous ground-colour, often largely obliterated by black and dark dusky-grey blotched pattern. There are black spots on the head, and the ears are black, partly fused or broken-up stripes run from the corner of the eyes over the cheek, from the corner of the mouth to the neck, and along the nape to the shoulders. Elongated blotches continue down the spine and form a single median stripe on the loins, two large blotches of dark dusky-grey hair on the side of the shoulders are each emphasized posteriorly by a dark stripe, which passes on to the foreleg and breaks up into irregular spots. The flanks are marked by dark dusky-grey irregular blotches bordered behind by long, oblique and these blotches yielding the clouded pattern suggest the English name of the cat. The underparts and legs are spotted, and the tail is marked by large, irregular, females are slightly smaller than males. Their irises are usually either greyish-green or brownish-yellow in color and their legs are short and stout, with broad paws. They have rather short compared to the other big cats. Their ulnae and radii are not fused, which contributes to a greater range of motion when climbing trees. Clouded leopards weigh between 11.5 and 23 kg, females vary in head-to-body length from 68.6 to 94 cm, with a tail 61 to 82 cm long. Males are larger at 81 to 108 cm with a tail 74 to 91 cm long and their shoulder height varies from 50 to 55 cm
20.
Asian elephant
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The Asian or Asiatic elephant is the only living species of the genus Elephas and is distributed in Southeast Asia from India in the west to Borneo in the east. M. maximus from Sri Lanka, the E. m. indicus from mainland Asia, Asian elephants are the largest living land animals in Asia. Since 1986, E. Asian elephants are threatened by degradation, fragmentation, loss of habitat. In 2003, the population was estimated at between 41,410 and 52,345 individuals. Female captive elephants have lived beyond 60 years when kept in semi-natural surroundings, in zoos, elephants die at a much younger age and are declining due to a low birth and high death rate. The genus Elephas originated in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Pliocene, the earliest indications of captive use of Asian elephants are engravings on seals of the Indus Valley civilization dated to the third millennium BC. Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Elephas and an elephant from Ceylon under the binomial Elephas maximus in 1758, in 1798, Georges Cuvier first described the Indian elephant under the binomial Elephas indicus. In 1847, Coenraad Jacob Temminck first described the Sumatran elephant under the binomial Elephas sumatranus, frederick Nutter Chasen classified all three as subspecies of the Asian elephant in 1940. Three subspecies are recognised, the Sri Lankan elephant, the Indian elephant. E. m. borneensis lives in northern Borneo and is smaller than all the subspecies, but with larger ears, a longer tail. Results of genetic analysis indicate that its ancestors separated from the population about 300,000 years ago. The population in Vietnam and Laos was tested to determine if it is a subspecies as well and this research is considered vital, as less than 1,300 wild Asian elephants remain in Laos. In addition, two subspecies are considered to have existed, The Chinese elephant is sometimes separated as E. m. rubridens. The Syrian elephant, the westernmost and the largest subspecies of the Asian elephant and this population, along with the Indian elephant, was considered the best war elephant in antiquity, and was found superior to the smallish North African elephant used by the armies of Carthage. In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the African elephant and has the highest body point on the head, the back is convex or level. The ears are small with dorsal borders folded laterally and it has up to 20 pairs of ribs and 34 caudal vertebrae. The feet have more nail-like structures than those of African elephants—five on each forefoot, and four on each hind foot. Average shoulder height of females is 2.4 m, and average weight is 2.7 t, while shoulder height of males is 2.75 m
21.
Dhole
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The dhole is a canid native to Central, South and Southeast Asia. Other English names for the species include Asiatic wild dog, Indian wild dog, whistling dog, red wolf, red dog, and mountain wolf. During the Pleistocene, the dhole ranged throughout Asia, Europe and North America, the dhole is a highly social animal, living in large clans without rigid dominance hierarchies and containing multiple breeding females. Such clans usually consist of 12 individuals, but groups of over 40 are known and it is a diurnal pack hunter which preferentially targets medium and large sized ungulates. In tropical forests, the dhole competes with tigers and leopards, targeting somewhat different prey species and it is listed as Endangered by the IUCN, as populations are decreasing and estimated at fewer than 2,500 adults. Factors contributing to this decline include loss, loss of prey, competition with other species, persecution due to livestock predation. The etymology of dhole is unclear, the possible earliest written use of the word in English occurred in 1808 by soldier Thomas Williamson, who encountered the animal in Ramghur district. He stated that dhole was a local name for the species. In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith claimed that it was derived from a language spoken in parts of the East. Richard Lydekker wrote nearly 80 years later that the word was not used by the living within the species range. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary theorises that it may have come from the Kannada, the species was first described in literature in 1794 by an explorer named Pesteref, who encountered dholes during his travels in far eastern Russia. He described the animal as being a pack hunter of Alpine ibex. This northern Russian range reported by this nearly impeccable author Pallas, the British naturalist Brian Hodgson gave the dhole the binomial name Canis primaevus and proposed that it was the progenitor of the domestic dog. Hodgson later took note of the dholes physical distinctiveness from the genus Canis, the first study on the origins of the species was conducted by paleontologist Erich Thenius, who concluded that the dhole was a post-Pleistocene descendant of a golden jackal-like ancestor. The earliest known member of the genus Cuon is the Chinese Cuon majori of the Villafranchian period and it resembled Canis in its physical form more than the modern species, which has greatly reduced molars, whose cusps have developed into sharply trenchant points. By the Middle Pleistocene, C. majori had lost the last lower molar altogether, C. alpinus itself arose during the late Middle Pleistocene, by which point the transformation of the lower molar into a single cusped, slicing tooth had been completed. Late Middle Pleistocene dholes were virtually indistinguishable from their descendants, save for their greater size. The dhole became extinct in much of Europe during the late Würm period, the fossil record indicates that the species also occurred in North America, with remains being found in Beringia and Mexico
22.
Sun bear
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The sun bear is a bear found in tropical forest habitats of Southeast Asia. The global population is thought to have declined by more than 30% over the past three bear generations, the Malayan sun bear is also known as the honey bear, which refers to its voracious appetite for honeycombs and honey. However, honey bear can also refer to a kinkajou, which is a member of the Procyonidae. The sun bears fur is usually jet-black, short, and sleek with some under-wool, two whirls occur on the shoulders, from where the hair radiates in all directions. A crest is seen on the sides of the neck and a whorl occurs in the centre of the breast patch. Always, a more or less crescent-shaped pale patch is found on the breast that varies individually in colour ranging from buff, cream, the skin is naked on the upper lip. The tongue is long and protrusible, the ears are small and round, broad at the base, and capable of very little movement. The front legs are somewhat bowed with the paws turned inwards, the sun bear is the smallest of the bears. Adults are about 120–150 cm long and weigh 27–80 kg, males are 10–20% larger than females. The muzzle is short and light coloured, and in most cases the area extends above the eyes. The paws are large, and the soles are naked, which is thought to be an adaptation for climbing trees, the claws are large, curved, and pointed. They are sickle-shaped, the front paw claws are long and heavy, the tail is 30–70 mm long. During feeding, the sun bear can extend the long tongue 20–25 cm to extract insects. The entire head is large, broad, and heavy in proportion to the body. The overall morphology of this bear indicates adaptation for extensive climbing and they now occur very patchily through much of their former range, and have been extirpated from many areas, especially in mainland Southeast Asia. Their current distribution in eastern Myanmar and most of Yunnan is unknown, the bear’s habitat is associated with tropical evergreen forests H. m. malayanus — inhabits Asian mainland and Sumatra, H. m. euryspilus — occurs only on the island of Borneo. Helarctos anmamiticus described by Heude in 1901 from Annam is not considered a distinct species, as sun bears occur in tropical regions with year-round available foods, they do not hibernate. Except for females with their offspring, they are usually solitary, male sun bears are primarily diurnal, but some are active at night for short periods
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Sloth bear
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The sloth bear, also known as the labiated bear, is a nocturnal insectivorous bear species native to the Indian subcontinent. The sloth bear evolved from ancestral brown bears during the Pleistocene, the population isolated in Sri Lanka is considered a subspecies. Sloth bears breed during spring and early summer and give birth near the beginning of winter and they feed on termites, honeybee colonies, and fruits. Sloth bears sometimes attack humans who encroach on their territories, historically, humans have drastically reduced their habitat and diminished their population by hunting them for food and products such as their bacula and claws. These bears have been used as performing pets due to their tameable nature, the sloth bear is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to habitat loss and poaching. Meyer identified it as a bear and called it Melursus lybius, iliger called it Prochilus hirsutus, the Greek genus name indicating long lips, while the specific name noted its long and coarse hair. Fischer called it Chondrorhynchus hirsutus, while Tiedemann called it Ursus longirostris, a fragment of fossilized humerus from the Pleistocene, found in Andhra Pradeshs Kurnool Basin is identical to the humerus of a modern sloth bear. M. Sloth bears probably arose during the mid-Pliocene and evolved in the Indian subcontinent, the sloth bear shows evidence of having undergone a convergent evolution similar to that of other ant-eating mammals. Sloth bears are distinguished from Asian black bears by their lankier builds, longer, shaggier coats, pale muzzles, and white claws. Adults are medium-sized bears weighing around 130 kg on average, though weight can range variously from 55 to 124 kg in females and they are 60–90 cm high at the shoulder, and have a body length of 1. 4–1.9 m. Females are smaller males, and have more fur between their shoulders. Sloth bear muzzles are thick and long, with small jaws and they have long lower lips which can be stretched over the outer edge of their noses, and lack upper incisors, thus allowing them to suck up large numbers of insects. The premolars and molars are smaller than in other bears, as they do not chew as much vegetation, in adults, the teeth are usually in poor condition, due to the amount of soil they suck up and chew when feeding on insects. The back of the palate is long and broad, as is typical in other ant-eating mammals, the paws are disproportionately large, and have highly developed, sickle-shaped, blunt claws which measure 10 cm in length. Their toe pads are connected by a hairless web and they have the longest tail in the bear family, which can grow to 15–18 cm. Their back legs are not very strong, though they are knee-jointed, the ears are very large and floppy. The sloth bear is the bear with long hair on its ears. Sloth bear fur is black, save for a whitish Y- or V-shaped mark on the chest
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Smooth-coated otter
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The smooth-coated otter is a species of otter, the only extant representative of the genus Lutrogale. The species is found in most of the Indian Subcontinent and eastwards to Southeast Asia, as its name indicates, the fur of this species is smoother and shorter than that of other otters. Smooth-coated otters are relatively large for otters, from 7 to 11 kg in weight and 59 to 64 cm in length, with a tail 37 to 43 cm long. They may be distinguished from species of otters by a more rounded head. The tail is flattened, in contrast to the more rounded tails of other species, the legs are short and strong, with large webbed feet bearing strong claws. As their name suggests, they have short and sleek fur. Females have two pairs of teats, Smooth-coated otters occur throughout much of the Indian Subcontinent and contiguous regions of Southeast Asia, in the Indomalaya ecozone. An isolated population of the species is found in the marshes of Iraq. Smooth-coated otters are found in areas where water is plentiful — wetlands and seasonal swamps, rivers, lakes. They have adapted to life in a habitat, but are nonetheless comfortable on land. Although they are found in saltwater near the coast, especially on smaller islands. Two fossil species, a form, L. robusta, and the more recent L. palaeoleptonyx, are known. Smooth-coated otters are social and hunt in groups and they are mainly diurnal, and have a short lull in activity during midday. They spend the night in dens dug in dense vegetation, under tree roots and they use scent to communicate both within the otter species, and with other animals. Each otter possesses a pair of scent glands at the base of the tail which are used to land or objects, such as rocks or vegetation. They also communicate through vocalisations such as whistles, chirps, some may construct permanent holts near water, in a layout similar to that of a beaver dam, with an underwater entrance and a tunnel that leads to a nest above the water. Fish comprise over 70% of their diet, but they also eat reptiles, frogs, insects, crustaceans, especially in areas where other species of otter are also found, they prefer larger fish, typically between 5 and 30 cm in length. They sometimes hunt in groups of up to 11 individuals, in the Kuala Selangor Nature Park, an otter group was observed hunting
25.
Large Indian civet
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The large Indian civet is a civet native to South and Southeast Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, the global population is considered decreasing mainly because of trapping-driven declines in heavily hunted and fragmented areas, notably in China, and the heavy trade as wild meat. The large Indian civet is grey or tawny and has a black stripe running from behind the shoulders to the root of the tail. The front of the muzzle has a whitish patch emphasized by blackish behind on each side, the chin and fore throat are blackish. The sides and lower surface of the neck are banded with black stripes, the tail has a variable number of complete black and white rings. The soles of the feet are hairy and its head-and-body length ranges from 50 to 95 cm with a 38 to 59 cm long tail. The hind foot measures 9 to 14.5 cm and its weight ranges from 3.4 to 9.2 kg. The large Indian civet ranges from Nepal, northeast India, Bhutan, Bangladesh to Myanmar, Thailand, in Nepal, large Indian civet was recorded up to 2,250 m in the Himalayas, which constitutes the highest altitudinal record in this country. The Large Indian civet is solitary and nocturnal and it spends most of the time on the ground. Its diet includes fish, birds, lizards, frogs, insects, scorpions and other arthropods, crabs, as well as poultry, little is known about its breeding behaviour. It is thought that it breeds throughout the year and has two litters per year, with two to four young per litter, radio-tracked large Indian civets in Thailand had home ranges of 2.7 to 8.8 km2. Viverra zibetha is totally protected in Malaysia under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, China listed it as ‘Endangered’ under criteria A2acd, and it is a class II protected State species. It is protected in Thailand, Vietnam and Myanmar and it is found in several protected areas throughout its range. The population of India is listed on CITES Appendix III, in Assamese it is called Gendera or Johamol. In Bengali it is called Baghdas, Bham or Bham Biral, biral= cat, Gandho= smell or scent. Gokul= the place of Lord Krishna, in Bengal there is a delicate variety of sweet and pleasant smelling rice known as Govindabhog rice. The secretion from prene gland of civet cat smells like that variety of rice, in Malay language it is called Musang kasturi, due to its musky smell. In Thai, it is called chamot phaeng hang plong In Lao, in Malayalam it is called Veruku
26.
Chinese pangolin
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The Chinese pangolin is a pangolin found in northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, northern Indochina, through most of Taiwan, and southern China. The Chinese pangolin is one of eight species of pangolins, although these species are difficult to observe due to their elusive and solitary habits, all eight are believed to be on the decline. Asian pangolin species, especially the Chinese pangolin and the Sunda pangolin, are the most endangered of all the pangolin species, the IUCN reports that the number of Chinese pangolins has declined greatly over the past 15 years. Despite being listed as endangered by the IUCN and being protected by CITES. Deforestation has also contributed to their depletion, the Chinese pangolin has the appearance of a scaly anteater. Its head and body measure about 40–58 cm and its tail measures about 25–38 cm, a mature Chinese pangolin weighs from 2 to 7 kilograms. It has 18 rows of overlapping scales accompanied by hair, a combination in mammals. It has a small, narrow mouth and a little, pointed head, also its claws grow in as it grows older. The female gives birth to a single offspring at a time, a newborn pangolin weighs about 93 g, its length is about 45 cm. The Chinese pangolin reproduces in April and May when the weather warms, the young also have scales, however, they remain very soft for at least two days, then harden. Although the young pangolin can walk on its first day, the carries it on her back or tail. If the mother feels threatened, she immediately folds her baby onto her belly with the help of her tail, male pangolins have been observed allowing the female and baby to share his burrow. Chinese pangolins are rather secretive, nocturnal creatures and they move very slowly and are known for their nonaggressive behavior. Their hard scales work as a cover from predators. For further defense, they can climb trees, although this is uncommon and they mainly eat insects, particularly termites and ants. They dig into ant nests and termite mounds with their fore claws and extract their prey with their long. In Vietnam and Hong Kong, Chinese pangolins are considered a delicacy and they are hunted on a wide scale for human consumption. Factors such as destruction and hunting constantly challenge their survival
27.
Indian pangolin
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The Indian pangolin, thick-tailed pangolin, or scaly anteater is a pangolin found in the plains and hills of India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. It is not common anywhere in its range, like other pangolins, it has large, overlapping scales on its body which act as armour. It can also curl itself into a ball as self-defence against predators such as the tiger, the colour of its scales varies depending on the colour of the earth in its surroundings. It is an insectivore that feeds on ants and termites, digging out of mounds and logs using its long claws. It is nocturnal and rests in burrows during the day. The Indian pangolin is endangered by hunting for its meat and for body parts used in traditional medicine. Within its range it is known as saal khapri, polusu pandi or nela chepa, eenampechi, azhungu or alangu, bajrakapta, kaballewa. The Indian pangolin is a solitary, shy, slow-moving, nocturnal mammal and it is about 84–122 cm long from head to tail, the tail usually being 33–47 cm long, and weighs 10–16 kg. Females are generally smaller than the males and have one pair of mammae, the pangolin possesses a cone-shaped head with small, dark eyes, and a long muzzle with a nose pad similar in color, or darker than, its pinkish-brown skin. It has powerful limbs, tipped with sharp, clawed digits and it is an almost exclusive insectivore and principally subsists on ants and termites, which it catches with a specially adapted long, sticky tongue. The pangolin has no teeth, but has strong stomach muscles to aid in digestion, the most noticeable characteristic of the pangolin is its massive, scaled armour, which covers its upper face and its whole body with the exception of the belly and the inside of the legs. These protective scales are rigid and made of keratin and it has 160-200 scales in total, about 40-46% of which are located on the tail. Scales can be 6. 5–7 cm long,8.5 cm wide, the skin and scales make up about one-fourth to one-third of the total body mass of this species. The Indian pangolin has been recorded from various forest types, including Sri Lankan rainforest and plains to middle hill levels. The animal can be found in grasslands and secondary forests, and is adapted to desert regions as it is believed to have a tolerance to dry areas. It is distributed throughout India, Pakistan, and South Asia, occurring in Sialkot, Jehlum, Gujrat, districts northwest of Punjab, Kohat, Attock, Khyber, Sidh, and Baluchistan. This pangolin species may sometimes reach high elevations, and has been sighted in Sri Lanka at 1100 meters. It prefers soft and semi-sandy soil conditions suitable for digging burrows, pangolin burrows fall into one of two categories, feeding and living burrows
28.
Assamese macaque
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The Assam macaque is a macaque of the Old World monkey family native to South and Southeast Asia. Since 2008, the species has listed as Near Threatened by IUCN, as it is experiencing significant declines due to hunting. The Assam macaque has a yellowish-grey to dark brown pelage, the facial skin is dark brownish to purplish. The head has a fringe of hair on the cheeks directed backwards to the ears. The hair on the crown is parted in the middle, the shoulders, head and arms tend to be paler than the hindquarters, which are greyish. The tail is well-haired and short, head-to-body-length measures 51 to 73.5 cm, and the tail is 15 to 30 cm long. Adult weight is 5 to 10 kg, a. a. pelops, is found from central Nepal through Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam and northernmost West Bengal in northern India, into central Bhutan and the Sundarbans in Bangladesh. They are apparently absent from areas west of the Kaligandaki River, in India, they live in tropical and subtropical semievergreen forests, dry deciduous and montane forests, from the sea level to altitudes of 4,000 metres. They usually inhabit areas above 1,000 m, but in the wetter east they may occur even in the lowlands. In Laos and Vietnam, they prefer high altitudes, usually above 500 m, in forests on limestone karst, they occur in much lower elevations. Assam macaques are diurnal, and at times both arboreal and terrestrial and they are omnivorous and feed on fruits, leaves, invertebrates and cereals. In Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh,15 groups were recorded in 2002 comprising 209 individuals, the population had a group density of 1.11 individuals per 1 km2, and an average group size of 13.93 individuals. During a survey in Nepals Langtang National Park in 2007, a total of 213 Assamese macaques were encountered in 9 groups in the area of 113 km2. Troop sizes varied between 13 and 35 individuals, with a mean size of 23.66 individuals, and comprised 31% adult females, 16% adult males. They preferred maize kernals, followed by tubers, but also raided fields with wheat, buckwheat. Additionally, hybridization with adjacent species poses a threat to some populations, macaca assamensis is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is legally protected in all countries of occurrence, for the populations in India, the species is listed under Schedule II, part I of the Indian Wildlife Act
29.
Stump-tailed macaque
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The stump-tailed macaque, also called the bear macaque, is a species of macaque found in South Asia. In India, it is found in south of the Brahmaputra River and its range in India extends from Assam and Meghalaya to eastern Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. It is primarily frugivorous, but eats many types of vegetation, such as seeds, leaves and roots, but also hunts freshwater crabs, frogs, bird eggs and insects. The stump-tailed macaque has long, thick, dark brown fur covering its body, but its face and its short tail, infants are born white and darken as they mature. As they age, their pink or red faces darken to brown or nearly black. Males are larger than females, measuring 51. 7–65 cm long and weighing 9. 7-10.2 kg, while females measure 48. 5-58.5 cm and weigh 7. 5-9.1 kg. Males canine teeth, which are important for establishing dominance within social groups, are more elongated than those of the females, like all macaques, this species has cheek pouches to store food for short periods of time. This Old World monkey travels quadrupedally, usually on the ground and it is generally found in subtropical and tropical broadleaf evergreen forests, in different elevations depending on the amount of rainfall in the area. With its thick fur, the stump-tailed macaque can live in cold climates and it is distributed from northeastern India and southern China into the northwest tip of West Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula. It is also found in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, a study population was introduced to Tanaxpillo, an uninhabited island in Lake Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico in 1974, where it ranges in seminatural conditions. Most information on the species comes from the population on Tanaxpillo and other captive settings. Britches - an infant stump-tailed macaque used in experiments, which was stolen from the laboratory by the Animal Liberation Front. List of endangered and protected species of China
30.
Capped langur
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The capped langur is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, India and its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. It is threatened by habitat loss, leaves contributed nearly 60% of the diet and they foraged on as many as 43 different plant species
31.
Hoolock gibbon
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The hoolock gibbons are three primate species of genus Hoolock in the gibbon family, Hylobatidae, native to eastern Bangladesh, Northeast India and Southwest China. Hoolocks are the second-largest of the gibbons, after the siamang and they reach a size of 60 to 90 cm and weigh 6 to 9 kg. White rings around their eyes and mouths give their faces a mask-like appearance, the Oxford English Dictionary says that the name Hoolock is from the Assamese or related languages. In northeast India, the hoolock is found south of Brahmaputra and its range extends into seven states covering Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura. Like the other gibbons, they are diurnal and arboreal, brachiating through the trees with their long arms and they live together in monogamous pairs, which stake out a territory. Their calls serve to locate family members and ward off other gibbons from their territory and their diet consists mainly of fruits, insects and leaves. Young hoolocks are born after a seven-month gestation, with white or buff-colored hair. After about six months, the hair of males will darken and turn black, after eight to 9 years, they are fully mature and their fur reaches its final coloration. Their life expectancy in the wild is about 25 years, the classification of this gibbon has changed several times in the past few years. Classically, all gibbons were classified in the genus Hylobates, with the exception of the siamang, after some studies, the genus was divided into three subgenera, and then into four. These four subgenera were elevated to genus status. However, the species for Bunopithecus is Bunopithecus sericus, an extinct gibbon or gibbon-like ape from Sichuan. Very recent investigations have shown the hoolocks are not closely related to B. sericus, so have been placed in their own genus, in the process, the two subspecies of hoolocks have been raised to species level. A new subspecies has been described recently from northeastern India, which has been named Mishmi Hills hoolock, Hoolock hoolock mishmiensis, a further new species, Hoolock tianxing, with an estimated population of about 200 in China, was discovered in southwest China in 2017
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Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
