1.
Canton of Bern
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The canton of Bern is the second largest of the 26 Swiss cantons by both surface area and population. Located in west-central Switzerland, it borders the canton of Jura, to the west lie the canton of Neuchâtel, the canton of Fribourg and Vaud. To the south lies the canton of Valais, east of the canton of Bern lie the cantons of Uri, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Lucerne and Aargau. The canton of Bern is bilingual and has a population of 1,017,483, as of 2007, the population included 119,930 foreigners. The cantonal capital, also the capital of Switzerland, is Bern. Bern joined the Swiss Confederation in 1353 and was between 1803 and 1814 one of the six directorial cantons of the Napoleonic Swiss Confederation and these caves were used at various times during the last ice age. The first open-air settlement in the area is an upper paleolithic settlement at Moosbühl in Moosseedorf, during the warmer climate of the mesolithic period, increasing forest cover restricted the movement of hunters, fishers and gatherers. Their temporary settlements were built along lake and marsh edges, which remained free of trees due to fluctuations in water level, important mesolithic sites in the Canton are at Pieterlenmoos and Burgäschisee lake along with alpine valleys at Diemtig and Simmental. During the neolithic period, there were a number of settlements on the shores of Lake Biel, several of these sites are part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. One of the best explored neolithic sites is at Twann, in the Twannbach delta there were about 25 Cortaillod culture and Horgen culture villages that existed between 3800 and 2950 BC. One of the oldest examples of bread from Switzerland, a sourdough from 3560–3530 BC, simple copper objects were already in use in the 4th millennium BC, including a copper pin from Lattrigen from 3170 BC and a knife blade from Twann. Shortly before 2000 BC bronze production entered the area and brought about a surge in development, settlements began to spread into the pre-Alpine and Alpine areas. The area between Lake Thun and the Niedersimmental were densely settled, Late Bronze Age settlements along Lake Biel have yielded up a wealth of items. During the early Iron Age changes in climate forced them to settlements along many waterways and in the valley floors and move to the plateaus. With increased trade contacts across the Alps, the influence of the Mediterranean grew in the area. Evidence of this include a hydria which was discovered in Grächwil. Burial rituals and social classes became more developed during this time, the so-called princely graves became more common, many of the burial mounds were over 30 m in diameter and 4 m high and richly outfitted with grave goods. In a grave mound in Bützberg the first burial in the mound was followed by later burials
2.
Kirchlindach
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Kirchlindach is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. The name Lindenacho first appeared in writing on 2 October 1185, a number of Hallstatt grave mounds, a La Tène period grave with jewelry and a stone bowl all indicate prehistoric settlements in the area. During the Roman era there was a Roman estate near Muri-Alchenmatte between Oberlindach and Buchsacker, during the Middle Ages the most important land owner was the Lords of Bremgarten. In 1185, they granted some of their land in Kirchlindach to St. Johannsen Abbey in Erlach, by 1300, the Lords of Bremgarten lost the remainder of their lands and wealthy families in Bern became the main land owners. The low court was administered by Bern through the court of Herrenschwanden while the high court for Kirchlindach was held in the district capital of Zollikofen. Kirchlindach was home to large country estates that were built by Bernese patricians. In the 12th or 13th century the stone late-Romanesque country estate of Heimenhaus was built in the village, in the 18th century Werdt Matthey bought the old estate and remodeled and expanded it. Nüchtern estate was built at the beginning of the 18th century, in 1891 it became a health resort and in the late 20th century, a social therapy center. Sacker estate was built in 1727 and is now a farm house, the village church of St. George was built around 1200 and was first mentioned in 1275. It was built above a couple of earlier, high medieval churches including an 8th-century wooden building, the building was renovated and rebuilt several times during its history. The tower was rebuilt in the 13th century, followed by the chancel in the 14th century, in 1766 the main hall of the church was renovated. The 14th- and 15th-century wall paintings were restored in 1907 and the building was renovated in 1978-79. During the Middle Ages, Kirchlindach, Niederlindach, Oberlindach, Jetzikofen, Heimenhaus, beginning in the 18th century, the local farms switched from growing grain for local consumption to producing hay, milk, vegetables and fruit for the weekly market in Bern. The village was located on the Bern-Aarberg highway after 1467, when the Neubrücke was built over the Aare river, starting in the 1950s, the population grew in the villages surrounding Bern. However, in Kirchlindach, the old village remained mostly intact. In Herrenschwanden several pioneering large housing developments were built between 1957 and the 1970s and these Holistic Building designs featured integrated offices, studios and gardens in a compact mixed residential and commercial development. The first project was Halen above the Halen bridge and this was followed in the 1970s by the Hostalen, Thalmatt and Möslimatt projects. The area around Halen is both a Swiss heritage site of significance and on the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites
3.
Seedorf, Bern
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Seedorf is a municipality in the Seeland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. Seedorf is first mentioned around 1173-80 as Sedorf, the area around Seedorf was home to a number of prehistoric settlements. The oldest may be the settlement at Lobsigensee from the half of the 4th millennium BC. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, other prehistoric sites include, a Hallstatt burial mound at Einschlag, a La Tene skeleton near the Seedorf school house and an early and high medieval settlement near the church. Except for the village of Frieswil, the entire Seedorf parish belonged to Count Udelhard of Saugern, in 1131, he granted the entire parish to what would become Frienisberg Abbey. Initially he granted his land at Frienisberg to the Cistercian Lützel Abbey, in 1138, the Lützel Abbey sent settlers to Frienisberg to found a new abbey. The new abbey remained small and struggled until the first half of the 13th century, in 1233 it owned land in Frienisberg, Allenwil, Ried, Tedlingen, Niederwiler, Werd, Gäserz bei Ins and Montils bei Nugerol. In the second half of the 13th century, the founded the nunneries of Fraubrunnen, Steinen and Tedlingen. In 1267, Udelhards descendant, the Counts of Thierstein, sold their estates, court, the village church was first mentioned in 1131 and in 1320 it was incorporated into the Abbey. In 1386, the Abbey tied itself closely to Bern, when it accepted Bernese citizenship for its monks and this close connection with Bern led to the Abbeys downfall. When Bern embraced the Protestant Reformation, many Bernese monasteries, including Frienisberg, were secularized, the last abbot, Urs Hirsinger, fled to Hauterive in the Canton of Fribourg rather than remain in Bern. In 1534, the church was demolished. The former convent building was converted into a hospital in 1533, the bailiff administered the Frienisberg bailiwick, which included Seedorf and Meikirch. Starting around 1850, many of the farms shifted from growing crops to raising livestock, however, the swamps of the Seedorfmoos limited the available land. In multiple stages between 1858 and 1957, the Seedorfmoos was drained, which opened up additional land, while Seedorf was on the old Bern-Neuchatel-Aarberg road, it was bypassed by the Bern-Aarberg road in 1850 and the later railroad and highway. Therefore, the economy has remained rooted in agriculture and small businesses. Beginning in 1920, agriculture became increasingly mechanized and required fewer farm workers, due to a lack of jobs the population declined for almost 50 years after that time. In the 1970s the population stabilized as commuters and businesses moved from the nearby cities, in 1834 the Abbey was converted into a home for the deaf-mute
4.
Wohlen bei Bern
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Wohlen bei Bern is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. Wohlen bei Bern is first mentioned in 1275 as Wolun, there were several prehistoric settlements near Wohlen. The earliest evidence includes several neolithic stone axes, Bronze Age axes and Hallstatt, during the Roman era a settlement spread across much of the current municipality. Based on the bricks and tiles, it appears that there was a brick works in the area. A Roman graveyard has been discovered at Uettligen with about 30-40 burials, the next trace of a settlement is a 7th-century graveyard in Hinterkappelen. During the High Middle Ages there were wooden castles at Ballmoos, Sandbühl, Heugraben and Aspitanne, between 1410 and 1412 the entire bailiwick of Oltigen was acquired by Bern. Bern controlled the low courts at Säriswil and Frieswil, but not the private Herrschafts of Illiswil, Dettigen was owned by a number of Bernese patrician families. In 1748, they sold the court and rights over the village to Bern, during the 19th century, Illiswil and Dettigen were gradually incorporated into the political municipality. Illiswil was first mentioned in 1269 as Igliswile, the seat of the former Herrschaft is located on the right bank of the river Aare. The Herrschaft was not part of the bailiwick of Oltigen, by 1351, Illiswil was owned by a Bernese patrician family. Through marriages and inheritances the Herrschaft was divided into shares which were owned by several families at once. For example, in 1550 the Willading and May families shared Illiswil, in 1719, Hieronymus von Erlach acquired the shares from the heirs of Johann Rudolf Bucher and thereby became the only owner of Illiswil. He then traded Illiswil to the city of Bern in 1721, Hinterkapplen village was first mentioned in 1479 as Cappellen and after the 17th century it was known as Hinder Cappellen. An Augustinian priory was mentioned at Hinterkappelen in 1281, while the priory buildings no longer exist, it is likely that the priory chapel led to the Cappellen name. It was part of the Herrschaft of Illiswil, since the Middle Ages, it was an important stopping point on the Bern-Aarberg road. During the 1960s, the character of the village changed with the large Kappelenring housing development which added about 1,200 apartments. Kappelenring was followed by the Hintere and Vordere Aumatt, Bennenboden, Reitenrain, Wyhalen and Schlossmatte housing projects, in 1960, the population of the village was about 600 while in 2003 it was 4,323. Wohlen bei Bern has an area of 36.29 km2, of this area,19.81 km2 or 54. 6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 11.84 km2 or 32. 6% is forested
5.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
6.
Hallstatt culture
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It is commonly associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic populations in the Western Hallstatt zone and with Illyrians in the eastern Hallstatt zone. Parts of Britain and Iberia are included in the expansion of the culture. Social distinctions became increasingly important, with emerging elite classes of chieftains and warriors, society was organized on a tribal basis, though very little is known about this. Only a few of the largest settlements, like Heuneburg in the south of Germany, were rather than villages by modern standards. In 1846, Johann Georg Ramsauer discovered a prehistoric cemetery near Hallstatt, Austria. Eventually the excavation would yield 1,045 burials, although no settlement has yet been found and this may be covered by the later village, which has long occupied the whole narrow strip between the steep hillsides and the lake. Some 1,300 burials have been found, including around 2,000 individuals, with women and children, nor is there a princely burial, as often found near large settlements. The community at Hallstatt was untypical of the wider, mainly agricultural, culture and these had been worked from time to time since the Neolithic period, and in this period were extensively mined with a peak from the 8th to 5th centuries BC. The style and decoration of the goods found in the cemetery are very distinctive. Finds at Hallstatt extend from about 1200 BC until around 500 BC, in this period, people were cremated and buried in simple graves. In phase B, tumulus burial becomes common, and cremation predominates, little is known about this period in which the typical Celtic elements have not yet distinguished themselves from the earlier Villanova-culture. The Hallstatt period proper is restricted to HaC and HaD, corresponding to the early European Iron Age, Hallstatt lies in the area where the western and eastern zones of the Hallstatt culture meet, which is reflected in the finds from there. Hallstatt D is succeeded by the La Tène culture, Hallstatt C is characterized by the first appearance of iron swords mixed amongst the bronze ones. For the final phase, Hallstatt D, daggers, almost to the exclusion of swords, are found in western zone graves ranging from c, there are also differences in the pottery and brooches. Halstatt D has been divided into the sub-phases D1-D3, relating only to the western zone. Major activity at the site appears to have finished about 500 BC, many Hallstatt graves were robbed, probably at this time. There was widespread throughout the western Hallstatt zone, and the salt workings had by then become very deep. By then the focus of mining had shifted to the nearby Hallein Salt Mine, with graves at Dürrnberg nearby where there are significant finds from the late Hallstatt
7.
Bolligen
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Bolligen is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district of the canton of Bern, Switzerland. In the historical center is a church, with a benefice barn. Bolligen is first mentioned in 1180 as Bollingin, traces of a neolithic settlement were discovered in Burech. There are traces of a fort of an indeterminate age above Flugbrunnen, along with medieval earthen forts at Grauholz. Bolligen, Muri bei Bern, Stettlen and Vechigen were the first villages to come under Berns control as Bern began its expansion into a city-state, during the 13th and 14th centuries, representatives of Bern and the Kyburg Counts often met in Bolligen for negotiations. After the extinction of the Knights of Gerenstein, their castle, Gerenstein Castle, the castle and farm passed through the hands of a number of wealthy Bernese citizens and several monasteries, including Interlaken Abbey and Thorberg Charterhouse. The city of Bern also continued to acquire rights around Bolligen, in 1345 it bought Habstetten from Berchtold of Thornberg. Following the Protestant Reformation in 1528, Bern secularized a number of monasteries around the Canton, from the Thorberg Chapterhouse they acquired the low court in Bolligen and from Interlaken Abbey the rights over Bolligens church. The Grauholz-Sädelbach woods near Bolligen became a summer retreat for Berns patrician families. An early example of these was the Wegmühle house which was built in 1600 and it was followed by the Hubelgut house in Habstetten in 1670 and in 1720 by the Lindeburg house. The village church of St. Niklaus was first mentioned in 1180 and it was probably the family church of the Gerenstein family. The current church was built in the 12th or 13th century, in 1792-95 it was renovated and repaired. In 1274 Ulrich of Stein gave the patronage over the church to Interlaken Abbey, after the secularization of the Abbey in 1528, the churchs patronage fell to Bern, who made it the parish church for Habstetten. The parish grew to include 30 villages, hamlets and farms with a population of 1,771 in 1764, in 1834, the political municipality was created from this large parish. Beginning in the 18th century, farmers in Bolligen began to grow hay in addition to the traditional grain, the hay was sold to provide food during winter for the many dairy and cattle farms that were developing in the surrounding area. Also in the 18th century large industrial operations opened and these included, the quarries in Stockeren and the paper mill in the Wegmühle which opened in 1787 and converted into a grain mill in 1855. The municipality remained a rural town until the agglomeration of Bern spread into Bolligen in 1950s transforming it. Agricultural land was replaced by shopping centers and housing developments, many of the residents of the municipality commute to Bern for work and by 1990, over three-fourths of the workers were commuters
8.
Aarberg
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Aarberg is a historic town and a municipality in the Seeland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. Aarberg lies 20 kilometers from Bern above the river Aare, with an area of 7.93 km2, Aarberg borders Bargen, Kappelen, Lyss, Radelfingen and Seedorf. Aarberg is not to be confused with Aarburg in Aargau or with Aarbergen in Germany, the town was once located on an island with the Aare and Little Aare flowing around it. The old town grew up around the edge of the island with an open plaza in the middle. In addition to the old town, Aarberg also includes the new quarter. The official language of Aarberg is German, but the spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Where Aarberg now stands was once an island surrounded by the Aare, by 1138 there was a small pilgrim home and hospital with a bridge, the Bargenbrügg, over the Aare. This bridge was a key river crossing from Bern to Büren an der Aare, the town itself was founded between 1220 and 1225 by count Ulrich III of Neuchâtel. The count had recently acquired the rulership over this region and needed a location from which to rule. The island and the key bridge was a location for a town. Aarberg is first mentioned in 1236 as Arberc, in 1267 it was mentioned as opidum de Arberch. By the 14th century, Aarberg lay along the most important of the three roads in the region. The old Roman roads that connected Solothurn, Aarberg and Murten as well as southern Germany with Lyon, the oldest official seal of citizenship in the town dates from 1249. Ulrich IV reaffirmed the privileges in 1271. Initially the town was unwalled with two rows of houses around a central narrow plaza. Following fires in 1419 and 1477 the town was rebuilt in stone and set back about 10 m creating the current, the town was besieged in 1339,1382 and 1386 but not taken. In 1358 the Graf Peter von Aarberg was in financial difficulties, after years of unsuccessful attempts, in 1377-79 he was able to sell the town and his rights as ruler to Bern. The Bernese bailiff took up residence in Aarberg Castle in 1379, in 1414, the toll on the bridges over the Aar as well as the expensive construction and repair on the bridges, was given to Bern
9.
Bern
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The city of Bern or Berne is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their Bundesstadt, or federal city. With a population of 141,762, Bern is the fourth-most populous city in Switzerland, the Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000, Bern is also the capital of the canton of Bern, the second-most populous of Switzerlands cantons. The official language in Bern is German, but the language is an Alemannic Swiss German dialect. In 1983, the old town in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bern is ranked among the top ten cities for the best quality of life. The etymology of the name Bern is uncertain and it has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona, which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German. As a result of the find of the Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin. The bear was the animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates a settlement on the site of city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC, during the Roman era, a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has the name Brenodor, in the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz, now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, according to 14th-century historiography, Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern was made an imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the eight cantons of the period of 1353 to 1481. The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare, the Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was, in turn, succeeded by the Christoffelturm until 1622, during the time of the Thirty Years War, two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula
10.
Early Middle Ages
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The Early Middle Ages marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE. The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Early Middle Ages largely overlap with Late Antiquity. The term Late Antiquity is used to emphasize elements of continuity with the Roman Empire, the period saw a continuation of trends begun during late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, and increased immigration. The period has been labelled the Dark Ages, a characterization highlighting the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time, especially in Northwestern Europe. However, the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to survive, many of these trends were reversed later in the period. In 800 the title of emperor was revived in Western Europe by Charlemagne, whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure, Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system, which introduced such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plow. Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe, although Northern Europe was greatly affected by the Viking expansion, starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including urbanization, seaborne commerce, and population. Archaeologists have identified only 40 percent as many Mediterranean shipwrecks from the 3rd century as from the first, estimates of the population of the Roman Empire during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 percent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the Dark Ages Cold Period, Early in the 3rd century Germanic peoples migrated south from Scandinavia and reached the Black Sea, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local Sarmatians. In Dacia and on the north of the Black Sea the Goths. The arrival of the Huns in 372–375 ended the history of these kingdoms, the Huns, a confederation of central Asian tribes, founded an empire with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy. They had mastered the art of shooting composite recurve bows from horseback. The Goths sought refuge in Roman territory, agreeing to enter the Empire as unarmed settlers, however many bribed the Danube border-guards into allowing them to bring their weapons. The discipline and organization of a Roman legion made it a fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empires taxable income, in the Gothic War, the Goths revolted and confronted the main Roman army in the Battle of Adrianople. The general decline in discipline also led to the use of smaller shields, not wanting to share the glory, Eastern Emperor Valens ordered an attack on the Therving infantry under Fritigern without waiting for Western Emperor Gratian, who was on the way with reinforcements
11.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
12.
Zollikofen
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Zollikofen is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. It is a suburb of the capital of Bern and it is home to the Swiss College of Agriculture. Zollikofen has an area of 5.39 km2, of this area,2.39 km2 or 44. 3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.68 km2 or 12. 6% is forested. Of the rest of the land,2.27 km2 or 42. 1% is settled,0.07 km2 or 1. 3% is either rivers or lakes. Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 4. 1% of the area while housing and buildings made up 27. 1%. While parks, green belts and sports made up 2. 2%. Out of the land,11. 3% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1. 3% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land,33. 2% is used for growing crops and 10. 4% is pastures, all the water in the municipality is flowing water. On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Bern, the former district, was dissolved. On the following day,1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland, Zollikofen has a population of 10,217. As of 2010,18. 4% of the population are resident foreign nationals, over the last 10 years the population has changed at a rate of 6. 1%. Migration accounted for 5. 6%, while births and deaths accounted for 2. 1%, most of the population speaks German as their first language, Italian is the second most common and French is the third. There are 13 people who speak Romansh, as of 2008, the population was 48. 6% male and 51. 4% female. The population was made up of 3,820 Swiss men and 956 non-Swiss men, there were 4,203 Swiss women and 852 non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality,1,646 or about 17. 4% were born in Zollikofen and lived there in 2000. There were 3,892 or 41. 2% who were born in the canton, while 1,909 or 20. 2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland. As of 2010, children and teenagers make up 19. 1% of the population, while adults make up 60. 4%, as of 2000, there were 3,784 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 4,558 married individuals,561 widows or widowers and 534 individuals who are divorced, as of 2000, there were 1,501 households that consist of only one person and 162 households with five or more people
