1.
Atnafu Abate
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Lieutenant Colonel Atnafu Abate was an Ethiopian military officer and a leading member of the Derg, the military junta which deposed Emperor Haile Selassie and ruled the country for several years. The Ottaways point out that Lt. Col. Atnafu was seen as A symbol of the rebellion of a conservative, nationalistic and he early projected the image of the officer devoted to the traditional values of motherland, flag and church. Atnafu was born near Bichena in Gojjam, and was educated at Holetta Military Academy, at the time of the Ethiopian Revolution, he was serving as a major in the Fourth Division, stationed in Addis Ababa. This second committee is known under its later name, the Derg. Colonel Alem Zewde fell from power at this time, losing control of his battalion after its defeat in a battle with radicals on 22 June. Within a month Tafara Teklaeb, whom Rene LaFort states was probably more than any other the father of the Derg, but Atnafu was the chairperson of the first meetings of the Derg. It was at point that one of the delegates from the Third Division, Major Mengistu Haile Mariam. Over the next few years, general opinion believed that the two officers—Atnafu and Mengistu—were engaged in a rivalry for control of the shadowy Derg. The relationship between the two vice-chairmen was always slightly mysterious, notes the Ottaways, the two were rumoured to be bitter enemies from the beginning, to the point of pulling guns on each other in meetings. Yet, Atnafu always seemed to be on Mengistus side at times of crisis within the Derg. However, when that effort, known as Operation Raza, ended with heavy losses and this coup left Atnafu the sole remaining Derg member with a measure of independence from Mengistu. Most experts believe that Atnafus days were numbered, and his execution that November was inevitable, the execution of Atnafu, observes historian Bahru Zewde, who more than anybody else symbolized the Darg from its early origins in February 1974, effectively marked the eclipse of that organization. However, LaFort presents an intriguing dissenting opinion on the dynamics linking these events, first he presents a portrait of Atnafu as having become exhausted with his responsibilities. LaFort elaborates, Three and a years of revolution had physically worn him to the bone. The man who had entered the books of the revolution with raised fist and contorted face had become one who simply asked
2.
Tafari Benti
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Brigadier General Tafari Benti was the Head of State of Ethiopia, and chairman of the Derg, the ruling junta. His official title was Chairman of the Provisional Military Administrative Council, Tafari Benti was born near Addis Ababa. He joined the Ethiopian army at the age of 20, graduated from the Holetta Military Academy, in 1967, he served as a military attaché in Washington, D. C. where he and several other Ethiopian colleagues suffered from racial discrimination. Mengistu Haile Mariam served as president until the Derg appointed Tafari Benti to the position. He had been serving as general in the Fourth Division. During his tenure Tafari presented himself as the face of the ruling junta. According to the Ottaways, while at first he was a neutral and powerless figure, in the end he was too colorless, soft-spoken, however, according to Rene LaForts account, Tafari offered some hints that he supported those opposed to Mengistu. He repeated this message in a speech on the first anniversary of the deposition of Emperor Haile Selassie, and behind this split was concern at Mengistus growing power. To end this split, the Derg set up a committee chaired by Captain Mogus Wolde Mikael to reform the Dergs structure. After nine of weeks of what LaFort describes as strenuous internal negotiations, on 29 December 1976 Tafari delivered a speech and his enemies had thought they had clipped Mengistus wings and had removed him as a threat. Despite this apparent setback, Mengistu proved to be far more resourceful than his opponents believed and he conspired with his longtime friend and ally Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Asfaw to round up Tafari Benti and other Derg members suspected of conspiring with the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Party. During a routine meeting on 3 February 1977, Tafari Benti, according to the memoirs of Fikre Selassie Wogderess, they were then led into a dark garage located in the compound and locked up. Fikre Selassie was also present at the meeting and was arrested along with Tafari. However, Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Asfaw arrived at the garage in time, later, in the evening, a shootout opened in the same compound by another suspected EPRP conspirator Major Yohannes Tiku, where he killed Lieutenant Colonel Daniel and Senay Likke. Major Yohannes Tiku was also killed in the shootout, shortly afterwards, Radio Ethiopia broadcast a charge by Mengistu that Tafari and his associates had been killed because they were secret supporters of the EPRP. Mengistu claimed he had discovered a 47-page master plan in Tafaris possession, which detailed how the EPRP would replace the scientific socialism of the Derg
3.
Aman Andom
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Aman Mikael Andom was the first post-imperial acting Head of State of Ethiopia. He was an Eritrean originally from the village of Tsazega in Hamassien province of Eritrea and he was appointed to this position following the coup détat that deposed Emperor Haile Selassie on 12 September 1974, and served until his death in a shootout with his former supporters. As commander of the Third Division, General Aman had been beating back the encroachments of the Somali army on the border with a zeal. There is some evidence indicates he had contacts with the officers of the junta as early as February and March 1974. Three days after the junta removed the Emperor from his palace to imprisonment at the headquarters of the Fourth Division, at the same time, this group of soldiers assumed the name Provisional Military Administrative Council, better known as the Derg. As an Eritrean, General Aman found himself fiercely at odds with the majority of the Derg and he wanted to negotiate a peaceful settlement, his opponents hoped to crush the ELF by military force. However, at the time the Derg had begun the task of eliminating opponents within the military. The three significant units were the Imperial Bodyguard, the Air Force, and the Corp of Engineers, so on 7 October soldiers loyal to the Derg stormed the Engineers camp, killing five, wounding several and detaining the rest. As Bahru Zewde observes, With that, the illusion that the revolution would remain bloodless was exploded, General Aman responded with a personal campaign to seek support outside the Derg, among the rest of the army and the country where he was popular. On 15 November he sent a message to all units that was highly critical of the Derg. But Mengistu managed to intercept these appeals, General Aman died in a battle with troops sent to his home to arrest him. The actual cause of his death remains unclear, whether he was killed or committed suicide and it appears that the general had outlived his usefulness, Bahru Zewde concludes, and was in fact becoming an obstacle to the Dergs exercise of power
4.
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
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The Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was the official name of Ethiopia from 1987 to 1991, as established by the Communist government of Mengistu Haile Mariam and the Workers Party of Ethiopia. Its creation led to the dissolution of the Derg, the military junta formerly in charge of the country, a Marxist-Leninist one-party state with the WPE as supreme authority took its place, though the WPEs leadership was dominated by the surviving members of the Derg. After five years of preparation, a socialist state was proclaimed in 1984. It was a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party modeled on its counterparts in Europe, the WPE was officially granted a monopoly of power as the leading force in the state and society. The government was highly centralized and for all intents and purposes acted as merely a transmission belt for the party, the PDRE came to an end in May 1991, when Mengistu fled Ethiopia and military units of the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front entered Addis Ababa. Following the demise of imperial rule, the socioeconomic structure was dismantled through a series of reforms which also affected educational development. The campaigns purposes were to land reform and improve agricultural production, health. Primary school enrollment increased from about 957,300 in 1974/75 to nearly 2,450,000 in 1985/86, there were still variations among regions in the number of students enrolled and a disparity in the enrollment of boys and girls. Nevertheless, while the enrollment of more than doubled, that of girls more than tripled. With most of the rebel controlled northern Ethiopia regions as well as parts of Somali and Oromo regions out of the governments control, the number of senior secondary schools almost doubled as well, with fourfold increases in Arsi, Bale, Gojjam, Gonder, and Wollo. The prerevolutionary distribution of schools had shown a concentration in the areas of a few administrative regions. In 1974/75 about 55 percent of secondary schools were in Eritrea and Shewa. In 1985/86 the figure was down to 40 percent, among the PDREs successes was the national literacy campaign. The literacy rate, under 10 percent during the imperial regime, in 1990/91 an adult literacy rate of just over 60 percent was still being reported in government as well as in some international reports. As with the 1984 data, it several wise to exercise caution with regard to the latest figure, officials originally conducted the literacy training in five languages, Amharic, Oromo, Tigrinya, Wolaytta, and Somali. The number of languages was later expanded to fifteen, which represented about 93 percent of the population, a number of countries were generous in helping the PDRE meet its health care needs. Cuba, the Soviet Union, and a number of East European countries provided medical assistance, in early 1980, nearly 300 Cuban medical technicians, including more than 100 physicians, supported local efforts to resolve public health problems. Western aid for development of Ethiopias health sector was modest, averaging about US$10 million annually
5.
Workers' Party of Ethiopia
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The Workers Party of Ethiopia was a communist party in Ethiopia that was, from 1984 to 1990, the only legal political party in the country. In 1975—a year after overthrowing Haile Selassie—the Derg declared itself Communist, soon afterward, the Soviet Union began to pressure the Derg to create a civilian-based vanguard party. Mengistu Haile Mariam, leader of the Derg and head of state of Ethiopia, argued against such a party, stating that the revolution had succeeded without one, in December 1979, Mengistu announced the creation of the Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia. A number of organisations, such as the Revolutionary Ethiopia Youth Association, were also established. It was hoped that these organisations would help lead to a party that would eliminate sectarianism. Membership in multiple mass organisations was encouraged, the 1980 congress unveiled the membership of the COPWEs Central Committee and Secretariat. The Secretariat, which controlled the more day to day aspects of the Central Committee business and was supervised by the top Derg leadership, was composed of mainly civilian ideologues, regional branches of the Secretariat coordinated by army officers helped complement the COPWEs central leadership. The organisation became more powerful in 1981 with the creation of offices for administrator. By 1983, there were about 50,000 COPWE members, by this time, the military and police had also become the majority in the membership of the Central Committee, with 79 of its 123 members being soldiers, twenty of whom were also Derg members. The Workers Party of Ethiopia was finally established on September 12,1984, the COPWE was dissolved and the WPE took its place. The Central Committee was expanded to 183 members, with party congresses every five years, the WPEs Politburo, which replaced the COPWEs Executive Committee as Ethiopias chief decision making body, had eleven members. Seven of them were the members of the Derg, while the other four were civilian ideologues. Generally, Mengistus wishes prevailed over any opposition, however, at regional and local levels, ethnicity and military service became less relevant, with large numbers of civilians and members of various ethnicities in positions of power. It was not enough to save the regime, Mengistu fled the country, the new government disbanded the WPE and most of its leaders were put in prison for alleged crimes they committed during the partys rule
6.
Wolayita Zone
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Wolayita is a Zone in the Ethiopian Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region. It is named for the Welayta people, whose homeland lies in this Zone, the administrative center of Wolayita is Sodo. Wolayita has 358 kilometers of roads and 425 kilometers of dry-weather roads. The highest point in this Zone is Mount Damota, originally Wolayita was part of the Semien Omo Zone, and the 1994 national census counted its inhabitants as part of that Zone. While 172,514 or 11. 49% are urban inhabitants, a total of 310,454 households were counted in this Zone, which results in an average of 4.84 persons to a household, and 297,981 housing units. The largest ethnic group reported in this Zone is the Welayta, Welayta is spoken as a first language by 96. 82% of the inhabitants, the remaining 3. 18% spoke all other primary languages reported. 71. 34% were Protestants, 21% of the said they practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. Wolayta is one of the 13 Zonal Administrations of the Southern Region In Ethiopia, Wolayta is limited north west by Tambaro, eastward by Bilate river which divides it from Arsi-Oromo, Southward by Lake Abaya and Kucha, westward by Omo River. The vegetation and very comfortable climate of the part of the region are conditioned by an overall elevation of between 1,500 and 1,800 meters above the sea level. There are, however, five higher than 2,000 meters. In the local view, there are two regions, the highlands and the lowlands. In the highlands, there are streams and small rivers. Several thermal hot springs are situated around Lake Abaya, with boiling and steaming water which is believed to cure diseases, the ajora waterfalls are a majestic scene of the wilderness, like damota precipices. The soil of the Wolayta is of red color which becomes brown and black during the rains and has the fragility. The dry period makes the hard as brick, one reason why people can plough. One can hardly find any stone except on the banks, whose soil is light. The layer of soil is very deep—an average of 30 meters—in both the plains and the hills, as verified during the drilling of wells, the soil is very fertile and produce two crops per year when the rains are regular. The climate is stable, with variation between 24 and 30 °C during the day and 16 to 20 °C at night, all year round
7.
Kaffa Province
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Kaffa was a province on the southwestern side of Ethiopia, its capital city was Jimma. It was named after the former Kingdom of Kaffa, the etymology of Kaffa is apparently from Arabic qahwah ‘a drink from berries’. For further see the entry Coffee, Kaffa was bordered on the west by Sudan, on the northwest by Illubabor, on the north by Walega, on the northeast by Shewa, on the east by Sidamo, and on the southeast by Gamu-Gofa. This province came into existence as a result of Proclamation 1943/1, with the adoption of the new constitution in 1995, Kaffa became part of the Oromia and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regions. Southern Ethiopia, including Sidamo, Kaffa, Arsi and Harar is the home of coffee which grows wild here in the mountain rain forests in countless varieties. All plants of the species Coffea arabica around the world are descendants of plants from southern Ethiopia, Coffee has long been the main source of income, but due to the sharply declining world prices for coffee, the residents increasingly have to grow other crops. By turning rain forests into new land, the structure of the region is heavily damaged. The rain forests that dominated the region of Kaffa earlier are reduced to only 3% of their original size, for some years there is a large rain forest conservation project, which relies on the use of the last wild stocks of coffee growing in the rain forest. Currently, some 30 cooperatives are harvesting and marketing this specialty coffee and have helped over 40,000 people to get income, in 2010, an area within the Kaffa province was recognised as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve as part of the Man and the Biosphere Programme. Officially named the Kafa Biosphere Reserve it is one of the first two biosphere reserves in Ethiopia and aims to protect the environment and foster sustainable development in the region. Lions were photographed in the reserve in 2012, the first documenting of that species in montane rainforest
8.
Italian East Africa
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Italian East Africa was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 through the merger of Italian Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, during the Second World War, Italian East Africa was occupied by a British-led force including colonial and Ethiopian units. After the war, Italian Somaliland and Eritrea came under British administration, in 1949, Italian Somaliland was reconstituted as the Trust Territory of Somaliland, which was administered by Italy from 1950 until its independence in 1960. When established in 1936, Italian East Africa consisted of the old Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa, Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, and the recently annexed Empire of Ethiopia. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of Emperor of Ethiopia, although having not been recognized by any other than Nazi Germany. Italian East Africa was briefly enlarged in 1940, as Italian forces conquered British Somaliland, however, the enlarged colony was dismembered only a year later, when in the course of the East African Campaign the colony was occupied by British forces. Italian East Africa, in Italian Africa Orientale Italiana, was acronymed in official documents as AOI, historians are still divided about the reasons for the Italian attack on Ethiopia in 1935. Other historians such as Pietro Pastorelli have argued that the invasion was launched as part of an expansionist program to make Italy the main power in the Red Sea area, Italys forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in air power, and they were soon victorious. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italian forces entering the city, Addis Ababa, to proclaim an empire by May 1936. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion, in the summer of 1940, Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of Africa. Hostilities began on 13 June 1940, with an Italian air raid on the base of 1 Squadron Southern Rhodesian Air Force at Wajir in the East Africa Protectorate, in August 1940, the protectorate of British Somaliland was occupied by Italian forces and absorbed into Italian East Africa. This occupation lasted around six months, by early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th Division, makonnen Endelkachew was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the duration, and in 1950, after 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as protectorates. British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, the Trust Territory of Somalia became independent on 1 July 1960, the colony was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian monarch. The dominion was divided for administrative purposes into six Governorates. Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic, Italys Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses
9.
Ge'ez script
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Geez is a script used as an abugida for several languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It originated as an abjad and was first used to write Geez, now the language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. In Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is often called fidäl, the Geez script has been adapted to write other, mostly Semitic, languages, particularly Amharic in Ethiopia, and Tigrinya in both Eritrea and Ethiopia. It is also used for Sebatbeit, Meen, and most other languages of Ethiopia, in Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it has traditionally been used for Blin, a Cushitic language. Tigre, spoken in western and northern Eritrea, is considered to resemble Geez more than do the other derivative languages, some other languages in the Horn of Africa, such as Oromo, used to be written using Geez, but have migrated to Latin-based orthographies. For the representation of sounds, this uses a system that is common among linguists who work on Ethiopian Semitic languages. This differs somewhat from the conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet, see the articles on the individual languages for information on the pronunciation. The earliest inscriptions of Semitic languages in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th century BC in Epigraphic South Arabian, after the 7th and 6th centuries BC, however, variants of the script arose, evolving in the direction of the Geez abugida. This evolution can be seen most clearly in evidence from inscriptions in Tigray region in northern Ethiopia, at least one of Wazebas coins from the late 3rd or early 4th century contains a vocalized letter, some 30 or so years before Ezana. It has been argued that the marking pattern of the script reflects a South Asian system. On the other hand, emphatic P̣ait ጰ, a Geez innovation, is a modification of Ṣädai ጸ, while Pesa ፐ is based on Tawe ተ. Thus, there are 24 correspondences of Geez and the South Arabian alphabet, Many of the names are cognate with those of Phoenician. Two alphabets were used to write the Geez language, an abjad and later an abugida. The abjad, used until c.330 AD, had 26 consonantal letters, h, l, ḥ, m, ś, r, s, ḳ, b, t, ḫ, n, ʾ, k, w, ʿ, z, y, d, g, ṭ, p̣, ṣ, ṣ́, f, p Vowels were not indicated. Modern Geez is written left to right. The Geez abugida developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding obligatory vocalic diacritics to the consonantal letters. The diacritics for the vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, were fused with the consonants in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, the original form of the consonant was used when the vowel was ä, the so-called inherent vowel. The resulting forms are shown below in their traditional order, for some consonants, there is an eighth form for the diphthong -wa or -oa, and a ninth for -yä
10.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
11.
Anti-imperialism
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A less common usage is by isolationists who oppose an interventionist foreign policy. The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War, some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, such as in Guevarism, while in Maoism, this was criticized as social imperialism. In the Arab and Muslim world, the term is used in the context of anti-Zionist nationalist. In the late 1870s, the term Imperialism was introduced to the English language by opponents of the imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. It was shortly appropriated by supporters of such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy, others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest, John A. Hobson and Lenin added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of imperialism. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes, the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically, J. A. Hobson said that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism. An early use of the term anti-imperialist occurred after the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898, most activists supported the war itself but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines. The Anti-Imperialist League was founded on June 15,1898 in Boston, in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, the anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated the credo of republicanism, especially the need for consent of the governed. British anti-imperialism emerged in the 1890s, especially in the Liberal Party, the key impetus around 1900 came from public disgust with the British failures and atrocities connected with the Second Boer War. The War was fought against the Afrikaners, who were Dutch immigrants who had built new nations in South Africa, opposition to the Second Boer War was modest when the war began, and was always less widespread than support for it, let alone the prevailing indifference. However, influential groups formed immediately and ineffectually against the war, including the South African Conciliation Committee, much of the opposition in Britain came from the Liberal party. Intellectuals and activists Britain based in the Socialist, labour, and Fabian movements generally oppose imperialism, and John Hobson, after the Boer war, opponents of imperialism turn their attention to the British colonies in Africa and Asia. By the 1920s, the government was sponsoring large-scale exhibits promoting imperialism, notably the 1924 British Empire Exhibition in London, some intellectuals use the opportunity to criticize imperialism as a policy. Moderately active anti-imperial movements emerged in Canada and Australia, the French-Canadians were hostile to the British expansion, while, in Australia it was the Irish Catholics who were opposed
12.
Anti-revisionism
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In the communist lexicon, anti-revisionism is opposition to attempts to revise, modify, or abandon the fundamentals of revolutionary theory and practice. In this view, reformism within communism is rejected as representing dangerous concessions to communisms adversaries, because different political trends trace the historical roots of revisionism to different eras and leaders, there is significant disagreement today as to what constitutes anti-revisionism. Therefore, modern groups which describe themselves as anti-revisionist fall into several categories, in addition, other groups uphold various less well-known historical leaders, such as Enver Hoxha. Historically, anti-revisionists presented a critique of the official Communist Parties from the left for having abandoned orthodox Marxism–Leninism, the terminological disagreement can be confusing because different versions of a left-right political spectrum are used. Anti-revisionists consider themselves the ultimate leftists on a spectrum from communism on the left to imperialist capitalism on the right, but Stalinism is often labeled rightist within the communist spectrum and left communism leftist. In the wake of Khrushchevs speech to the 20th Congress of the C. P. S. U, in the 1970s the anti-revisionist movement expanded and diversified to encompass those communists who rejected a pro-Soviet orientation for one aligned either with Chinese or Albanian positions. Self-proclaimed anti-revisionists firmly oppose the reforms initiated in Communist countries by leaders like Nikita Khrushchev in the Soviet Union and they generally refer to such reforms and states as state capitalist and social-imperialist. A short time later, anti-revisionist groups were divided by the Sino-Albanian split. Many such organizations may call themselves Maoist, Marxist–Leninist or even just simply revolutionary communist, however, many if not most Hoxhaists and Maoists are critically supportive of North Korea on grounds of Anti-imperialism. Anti-revisionists aligned with Enver Hoxha and the line of the Albanian party of labor argue that Mao Zedong thought is itself a form of revisionism, Hoxhaists also argue that the theory of New Democracy and Peoples War were revisionist and anti-scientific. The Hoxhaist camp came into existence during the Sino-Albanian split. S
13.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
14.
Communist state
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A communist state is a state that is usually administered and governed by a single party representing the proletariat, guided by Marxist–Leninist philosophy, with the aim of achieving communism. The term Communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists, Communist states can be administered by a single, centralised party apparatus, although countries such as the DPRK have several parties. These parties usually are Marxist–Leninist or some variation thereof, with the aim of achieving socialism. Marx saw that in his time, the new nation states were characterized by increasingly intensified class contradiction between the capitalist class and the working class it ruled over. The state ruled by the class during the transition into classless society is called the dictatorship of the proletariat. Vladimir Lenin created revolutionary vanguard theory in an attempt to expand on the concept, during the 20th century, the worlds first constitutionally socialist state was in Russia in 1917. In 1922, it joined other territories of the empire to become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. After World War II, the Soviet Army occupied much of Eastern Europe, most Communist states in Eastern Europe were allied with the USSR, except for Yugoslavia which declared itself non-aligned. In 1949, after a war against Japanese occupation and a war resulting in a Communist victory. Communist states were established in Cuba, Vietnam, Laos. A Communist state was established in North Korea, although it withdrew from the Communist movement. In 1989, the Communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed under pressure during a wave of non-violent movements which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Today, the existing Communist states in the world are in China, Cuba, Laos, Communist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the Communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large. When used within a party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism. When applied to a state, democratic centralism creates a one-party system. The constitutions of most socialist states describe their system as a form of democracy. Thus, they recognize the sovereignty of the people as embodied in a series of parliamentary institutions
15.
One-party state
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
16.
Popular front
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A popular front is a broad coalition of different political groupings, usually made up of leftists and centrists. Being very broad, they can sometimes include centrist and liberal forces as well as social-democratic, Popular fronts are larger in scope than united fronts. During this time in France, the front populaire referred to the alliance of political parties aimed at resisting Fascism, not all coalitions who use the term popular front meet the definition for popular fronts, and not all popular fronts use the term popular front in their name. The same applies to united fronts, the Popular Fronts thus formed proved to be successful in forming the government in France, and Spain, and also China. It was not a success elsewhere. The Popular Front policy of the Comintern was introduced in 1934, the new policy was signalled in a Pravda article of May 1934, which commented favourably on socialist-Communist collaboration. In June 1934, Léon Blums Socialist Party signed a pact of united action with the French Communist Party, in May 1935, France and the Soviet Union signed a defensive alliance and in August 1935, the 7th World Congress of the Comintern officially endorsed the Popular Front strategy. In the elections of May 1936, the Popular Front won a majority of parliamentary seats, in Italy, the Comintern advised an alliance between the Italian Communist Party and the Italian Socialist Party, but this was rejected by the Socialists. The CPUSA also offered support to Franklin Roosevelts New Deal in this period, the Popular Front period in the USA saw the CP taking a very patriotic and populist line, later called Browderism. Many Communist party members quit the party in disgust at this compromise between Hitler and Stalin, leon Trotsky and his far-left supporters roundly criticised the Popular Front strategy. Trotsky believed that only united fronts could ultimately be progressive, and this view is now common to most Trotskyist groups. Left communist groups also oppose popular fronts, but they came to oppose united fronts as well, in a book written in 1977, the Eurocommunist leader Santiago Carrillo offered a positive assessment of the Popular Front. For example, East Germany was ruled by a National Front of all anti-fascist parties, at legislative elections, voters were presented with a single list of candidates from all parties. In practice, however, only the Communist Party had any real power, by ensuring that Communists dominated the candidate lists, it effectively predetermined the composition of the legislature. All parties in the front had to accept the role of the Communist Party as a condition of being allowed to exist. By the 1950s, the non-Communist parties had pushed out their more courageous members and had taken over by fellow travelers willing to do the Communists bidding. The Peoples Republic of Chinas United Front is perhaps the best known example of a popular front in modern times. In the Republics of the Soviet Union, between around 1988 and 1992, the term Popular Front had quite a different meaning and it referred to movements led by members of the liberal-minded intelligentsia, in some republics small and peripheral, in others broad-based and influential
17.
Socialist patriotism
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Socialist patriotism refers to a form of civic patriotism promoted by Marxist–Leninist movements. Socialist patriotism is commonly advocated directly alongside proletarian internationalism, with communist parties regarding the two concepts as compatible with each other, the concept has been attributed by Soviet writers to Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. Lenin separated patriotism into what he defined as proletarian, socialist patriotism from bourgeois nationalism, Lenin believed that nations subjected to imperial rule had the right to seek national liberation from imperial rule. Socialist patriotism was promoted by Joseph Stalin, Stalinists claimed that socialist patriotism would serve both national interest and international socialist interest, while promoting socialist patriotism for the Soviet Union as a whole, Stalin repressed nationalist sentiments in fifteen republics of the Soviet Union. However, according to some academics Soviet patriotism had in practice Russian nationalist overtones, the Communist Party of China and the government of China advocate socialist patriotism. The Communist Party of China describes the policy of socialist patriotism as the following, at the first level, individuals should subordinate their personal interests to the interests of the state. At the second level, individuals should subordinate their personal destiny to the destiny of our socialist system, at the third level, individuals should subordinate their personal future to the future of our communist cause. The PRC portrays the Communist government as the embodiment of the will of the Chinese people, the constitution of China states that China is a multi-ethnic society and that the state is opposed to national chauvinism and specifies Han chauvinism in particular. The Socialist Unity Party of Germany officially had socialist patriotism within its party statutes, the SED expanded on this by emphasizing a socialist national consciousness involving a love for the GDR and pride in the achievements of socialism. The Derg and the Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu Haile Mariam advocated socialist patriotism, the Derg declared that socialist patriotism meant true love for ones motherland. free from all forms of chauvinism and racialism. Kim Il-sung promoted socialist patriotism while he condemned nationalism in claiming that it destroyed fraternal relations between people because of its exclusivism. In North Korea, socialist patriotism has been described as an ideology meant to serve its own people, be faithful to their working class, the Communist Party of Vietnam and the government of Vietnam advocate socialist patriotism of the Vietnamese people. After the collapse of the Indochinese Communist Party in 1941, the Vietnamese Communist movement since the 1940s fused the policies of proletarian internationalism, the incorporation of Vietnamese patriotism into the Communist Partys agenda fit in with the longstanding Vietnamese struggle against French colonial rule. He had studied in France as a youth where he became an adherent to Marxism-Leninism and he was inspired by the Wilsonian concept of national self-determination The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia endorsed socialist patriotism
18.
Socialist state
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A socialist state or socialist republic refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. Aside from the Communist states, a number of states have described their orientation as socialist in their constitutions. In such cases, the system and machinery of government is not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. The concept of a socialist state is related to state socialism. Specifically, the state would become an entity for production as opposed to a mechanism for political control. According to Friedrich Engels, Saint-Simon foreshadowed the classical Marxist notion of the development of the state in a socialist society, karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in any mode of production. This transitional stage would involve working-class interests dominating government policy, in the manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Karl Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a government of the future. Friedrich Engels noted that all officials, high or low, were only the wages received by other workers. In this way an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up, such a state would be a temporary affair, Engels argued. A new generation, he suggested, brought up in new and free social conditions, the Leninist conception of a socialist state is tied to Vladimir Lenins theory of the revolutionary party and organizational principles of democratic centralism. These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published in The State and Revolution, a central text for many Marxists. Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would wither away as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment, as he put succinctly, So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no state, states run by Communist parties that adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states. The Soviet Union was the first to proclaim itself a socialist state in its 1936 Constitution, another well-known example is the Peoples Republic of China, which proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its 1982 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. In the West, such states are known as communist states. This often includes at least the commanding heights of the economy to be nationalized, usually operated according to a plan of production, at least in the major production and social spheres. These Communist states often dont claim to have achieved socialism in their countries, rather, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea used to be a Marxist–Leninist state
19.
Foco
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Although the original approach was to mobilize and launch attacks from rural areas, many foco ideas were adapted into urban guerrilla warfare movements by the late 1960s. During two years, the poorly armed escopeteros, at times fewer than 200 men, managed to win victories against Batistas army and police force, the small group finally managed to take Havana after the December 1958 Battle of Santa Clara. This surprising success led to the theory which, inspired by Maos doctrine of peoples war. This theory focused heavily on the notion of vanguardism and on the value of the example. While focalism drew from previous Marxist-Leninist ideas and the Maoist strategy of protracted peoples war, Guevara added that this theory was formulated for developing countries, and that the guerrilleros had to look for support among both the workers and the peasants. In power, Castro sided with the USSR in the 1961 Sino-Soviet split, perhaps accelerated by this divide, the latter man shifted his energies away from Cuba to adventurism, promoting guerrilla focos overseas. Though this method had triumphed in Cuba, Guevara saw it subsequently fail in Africa, laurent-Désiré Kabila put it in practice in Congo. Despite being backed by the Castro regime, Guevaras attempt to forge an insurgency in Bolivia led to his capture, by the mid-1970s, however, Cuba revived and further escalated its previous zeal, directly deploying its military in Africa before the collapse of détente—e. g. Supporting up the MPLA government in Angola, in Argentina, the Peoples Revolutionary Army, led by Roberto Santucho, attempted to create a foco in the Tucumán Province. The attempt failed after the government of Isabel Perón signed in February 1975 the secret presidential decree 261, general Acdel Vilas immediately deployed over 3,000 soldiers, including conscripts from the Fifth Infantry Brigade and two companies of elite commandos. The ERP was quickly defeated, but this campaign marked the beginning of the Dirty War in Argentina. Similarly, Cuba supported four rival guerrilla groups decision to form the URNG coalition of Guatemala in 1982, the strength of an idea Revolution in the Revolution. Che Guevaras Guerrilla Warfare FROM CUBA TO BOLIVIA, GUEVARA’S FOCO THEORY IN PRACTICE - University of Calgary The Functionality of the Foco Theory
20.
Juche
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Consequentially, Juche was adopted into a set of principles that the North Korean government has used to justify its policy decisions from the 1950s onwards. Such principles include moving the nation towards claimed chaju, through the construction of charip, Juche is a Sino-Korean word which is formed by hanja meaning subject and body. Literally it means subjectivity or agency, and in political discourse has a connotation of self-reliance, autonomy and it is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of Sadae, or reliance on the great powers. Official statements by the North Korean government attribute the origin of Juche to Kim Il-Sungs experiences in the Anti-Imperialist Youth League in 1930 in his struggle against Japan. The first documented reference to Juche as an ideology appeared in 1955, in a given by Kim Il Sung entitled On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism. The speech had been delivered to promote a political purge similar to the earlier Yanan Rectification Movement in China. In his 1955 speech, the first known to refer to Juche, Kim Il-sung said, To make revolution in Korea we must know Korean history and geography as well as the customs of the Korean people. Only then is it possible to educate our people in a way that suits them and to inspire in them an ardent love for their native place, in North Korea it functions as the authoritative and comprehensive explanation of Juche. According to the treatise, the Workers Party of Korea is responsible for indoctrinating the masses in the ways of Juche thinking, Juche is, according to the treatise, inexorably linked with Kim Il-sung, and represents the guiding idea of the Korean Revolution. We are confronted with the task of modeling the whole society on the Juche idea. The WPKs break with basic premises of Marxism–Leninism emerges more clearly in the article Let Us March Under the Banner of Marxism–Leninism, in August 1997, the Central Peoples Committee of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea promulgated regulations regarding use of the Juche Era calendar. Gregorian calendar dates are used for years before 1912, while years from 1912 are described as Juche years, the Gregorian year 2017, for example, is Juche 106, as 2017-1911=106. When used, Juche years are often accompanied by the Gregorian equivalent, kims regime intended these principles to apply around the world, not only to Korea. Since 1976 North Korea has organized seminars on Juche. The grand International Scientific Seminar on the Juche Idea took place in Antananarivo from September 28 to 30,1976, what we want is not the perfection of political independence alone. The evil forces craftily manipulate the economic levers in order to perpetuate their supremacy and reduce us to vassals, the International Juche Research Center was established in Tokyo in 1978 to supervise international Juche research groups. The Juche Tower, completed in 1982, incorporated commemorative plaques from supporters, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Black Panther Party of the US expressed sympathy for the ideology. The Nepal Workers Peasants Party identifies Juche as its guiding idea in its governance of Bhaktapur, Kimilsungism was first mentioned by Kim Jong-il in the 1970s and was introduced alongside the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System
21.
Goulash Communism
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Goulash Communism or Kadarism refers to the variety of communism as practised in the Hungarian Peoples Republic, from the 1960s until the Central European collapse of communism in 1989. With elements of market economics, as well as an improved human rights record, it represented a quiet reform. The name is a metaphor derived from goulash, a popular Hungarian dish. Sometimes described as the happiest barracks in the socialist camp, Hungary in this period enjoyed many amenities not available in the rest of the Eastern Bloc. The party, under János Kádár, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the police and repealed most of the restrictions on speech. In their place, the party introduced a relatively liberal cultural, though liberal in comparison to soviet socialism, the first relaxation of economic control was far from posing the same threat of the 1956 reforms. Official policy employed different methods of administering the collectives, leaving the pace of mechanization up to each cooperative, additionally, rather than enforcing the system of compulsory crop deliveries and of workdays credit the collectivizers used monthly cash wages. Later in the ‘60s, cooperatives were permitted to enter into related and then general auxiliary businesses such as processing, light industry. Goulash Communism showed a far greater concern for public opinion and a focus on the present material well-being of the citizens than had been the case in the period preceding 1956. Marxist-Leninist ideology is invoked in the desire to reform as seen in Imre Nagy’s Reform Communism and he argues that Marxism is a “science that cannot remain static but must develop and become more perfect”. He attributes Marx to having created a method, meant to guide yet not entirely encompass socialism or its development. “The theory of Marx – as Lenin stated – gives general guiding principles, the result was a regime that was far less authoritarian than other Communist regimes—and certainly less so than the first seven years of undisguised Communist rule in Hungary. Generally, Hungarians had much more freedom to speak, write, for instance, samizdat publications were tolerated to some extent, and conversations with foreigners did not attract much official scrutiny. However, while Kádárs regime was more humane than most of its counterparts. The Communist Party still retained a monopoly of power, with the National Assembly being little more than a stamp for decisions already made by the MSZMP. The media, while having somewhat more latitude than in other Communist regimes, were subjected to fairly onerous restrictions. The secret police operated with more restraint than in other Communist states. Hungarys economic resources were mobilized to better satisfy consumer demand by providing an extensive assortment of consumer goods
22.
Maoism
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Mao Zedong Thought, or Maoism, is a political theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong. Its followers are known as Maoists, the modern Chinese intellectual tradition of the turn of the twentieth century is defined by two central concepts, iconoclasm and nationalism. It was this association of conservatism and Confucianism which lent to the nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the first decades of the twentieth century. Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during the New Culture Movement which occurred between 1915 and 1919, vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The negative reaction culminated in the May 4th Incident which occurred on day in 1919. The May 4th Incident and Movement which followed, catalyzed the political awakening of a society which had long seemed inert, yet another international event would have a large impact on not only Mao but also the Chinese intelligentsia, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Although the revolution did elicit interest among Chinese intellectuals, socialist revolution in China was not considered an option until after the May 4th Incident. Afterwards, To become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present. During the period following the Long March, Mao and the Communist Party of China were headquartered in Yanan. During this period Mao clearly established himself as a Marxist theoretician, the rudimentary philosophical base of Chinese Communist ideology is laid down in Maos numerous dialectical treatises and was conveyed to newly recruited party members. This period truly established ideological independence from Moscow for Mao and the CPC, the Initial Marxist Period from 1920–1926, Marxist thinking employs imminent socioeconomic explanations, Maos reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone would bring about the transition from capitalism to communism because of three main reasons and these reasons do not provide socioeconomic explanations, which usually form the core of Marxist ideology. The Formative Maoist Period from 1927–1935, In this period, Mao avoided all theoretical implications in his literature and his writings in this period failed to elaborate what he meant by the Marxist method of political and class analysis. Prior to this period, Mao was concerned with the dichotomy between knowledge and action, now, he was more concerned with the dichotomy between revolutionary ideology and counter-revolutionary objective conditions. There was more correlation drawn between China and the Soviet model, the Mature Maoist Period from 1935–1940, Intellectually, this was Maos most fruitful time. The shift of orientation was apparent in his pamphlet Strategic Problems of Chinas Revolutionary War and this pamphlet tried to provide a theoretical veneer for his concern with revolutionary practice. Mao started to separate from the Soviet model since it was not automatically applicable to China, Chinas unique set of historical circumstances demanded a correspondingly unique application of Marxist theory, an application that would have to diverge from the Soviet approach. The Civil-War Period from 1940-1949, Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren, Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory
23.
Titoism
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Titoism is described as the post-World War II policies and practices associated with Josip Broz Tito during the Cold War, characterized by an opposition to the Soviet Union. It usually represents Josip Broz Titos Yugoslav doctrine in Cold War international politics, the term was originally used by the government of the Soviet Union to denote it as a heresy. Today it is used to refer to Yugo-nostalgia, on the other hand, Socialism in One Country focused on fast industrialisation and modernisation in order to compete with what Stalin perceived as the more advanced nations of the west. During Tito’s era, his ideas specifically meant that the communist goal should be pursued independently of what he referred to as the Stalinist and Imperialist policies of the Soviet Union. The Soviets and their satellite states often accused Yugoslavia of Trotskyism and social-democracy, charges loosely based on Titos samoupravljanje, in these, the Soviet leadership saw the seeds of council communism or even corporatism. The propaganda attacks centered on the caricature of Tito the Butcher, Tito was in fact welcomed by Western powers as an ally, but he never lost his communist credentials. Over time these negotiations became less cordial because Tito had the intention neither of handing over executive power nor of accepting foreign intervention or influence and this led to the 1947 cooperation agreement signed in Bled. The Bled agreement, also referred to as the Tito-Dimitrov treaty, was signed 1 August 1947, in Bled and it foresaw also unification between Vardar Macedonia and Pirin Macedonia and return of Western Outlands to Bulgaria. The policy of regional blocs had been the norm in Comintern policies, displaying Soviet resentment of the nation-state in Eastern Europe, at the same time, the Non-Aligned states failed to form a third Bloc, especially after the split at the outcome of the 1973 oil crisis. Leonid Brezhnevs conservative attitudes yet again chilled relations between the two countries, Yugoslavia backed Czechoslovakias leader Alexander Dubček during the 1968 Prague Spring, and then cultivated a special relation with the maverick Romanian President Nicolae Ceauşescu. However, Ceauşescu was an member of the alliance, since he profited from the events in order to push his authoritarian agenda inside Romania. After Brezhnev brought Czechoslovakia to heel in 1968, Romania and Yugoslavia maintained privileged connections up to the mid-1980s, Titos own ideology became less clear with the pressures of various nationalisms within Yugoslavia and the problems posed by the 1970s Croatian Spring. Although still claimed as official policies, virtually all aspects of Titoism went into decline after Titos death in 1980. The socialist variant of workers self-management was also adopted by the Spanish Carlist Party in the 1970s founded by Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma, however it did not attract many followers during the Spanish transition to democracy, and many Carlists preferred their centuries-old right-wing tendency. Marxists. org Mircea Rusnac, Banaterra. eu Mircea Rusnac, Banaterra. eu Balkans, Flirting With Marx, for Old Times Sake by Vesna Peric Zimonjic, Inter Press Service, June 4,2009, ipsnews. net
24.
Stalinism
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Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented by Joseph Stalin. These included not only people but also working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies. Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization, rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities. After the American private enterprises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over, the term came into prominence during the mid-1930s, when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared, Lets replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism. Stalin initially met this usage with hesitancy, dismissing it as excessively praiseful, Stalinism usually denotes a style of a government, and an ideology. From 1917 to 1924, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin often appeared united, in his dispute with Leon Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced capitalist countries. Also, Stalin polemicized against Trotsky on the role of peasants, as in China, in Stalins view, counterrevolutionary elements will try to derail the transition to full Communism, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason, Communist regimes influenced by Stalin have been described as totalitarian. Soviet puppet Sheng Shicai extended Stalinist rule in Xinjiang province in the 1930s, Sheng conducted a purge similar to Stalins Great Purge in 1937. Stalin blamed the Kulaks as the inciters of reactionary violence against the people during the implementation of agricultural collectivisation, in response, the state under Stalins leadership initiated a violent campaign against the Kulaks, which has been labeled as classicide. Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, in the 1930s, Stalin apparently became increasingly worried about the growing popularity of the Leningrad party boss Sergei Kirov. After the assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stalin, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky, thereafter, several trials known as the Moscow Trials were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. Article 58 of the code, which listed prohibited anti-Soviet activities as counterrevolutionary crime, was applied in the broadest manner. The Russian word troika gained a new meaning, a quick, Stalins hand-picked executioner, Vasili Blokhin, was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period. Many military leaders were convicted of treason and a purge of Red Army officers followed. The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Leon Trotsky to claim that a river of blood separated Stalins regime from that of Lenin. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937, this eliminated the last of Stalins opponents among the former Party leadership. With the exception of Vladimir Milyutin and Joseph Stalin himself, all of the members of Lenins original cabinet who had not succumbed to death from natural causes before the purge were executed
25.
Vladimir Lenin
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Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism, born to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brothers execution in 1887. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empires Tsarist regime and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, after his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications. In 1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split, Lenins government was led by the Bolsheviks—now renamed the Communist Party—with some powers initially also held by elected soviets. It redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry, opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services, tens of thousands were killed and others interned in concentration camps. Anti-Bolshevik armies, established by both right and left-wing groups, were defeated in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin promoted economic growth through a mixed economic system. Seeking to promote world revolution, Lenins government created the Communist International, waged the Polish–Soviet War, in increasingly poor health, Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion. He became a figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement. Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was from a family of serfs, his origins remain unclear, with suggestions being made that he was Russian, Chuvash, Mordvin. Despite this lower-class background he had risen to middle-class status, studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility, Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in mid-1863. Well educated and from a prosperous background, she was the daughter of a German–Swedish woman. Soon after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod, five years after that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the governments plans for modernisation. His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir, the couple had two children, Anna and Alexander, before Lenin—who would gain the childhood nickname of Volodya—was born in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870, and baptised several days later. They were followed by three children, Olga, Dmitry, and Maria. Two later siblings died in infancy, Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity, a view that influenced her children. Every summer they holidayed at a manor in Kokushkino
26.
Joseph Stalin
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Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state. Stalin was one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Sokolnikov, and Bubnov. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and he managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin by suppressing Lenins criticisms and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained General Secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932–33, major figures in the Communist Party and government, and many Red Army high commanders, were arrested and shot after being convicted of treason in show trials. Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis, Germany ended the pact when Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Despite heavy human and territorial losses, Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles of Moscow, after defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red Army captured Berlin in May 1945, effectively ending the war in Europe for the Allies. The Soviet Union subsequently emerged as one of two recognized world superpowers, the other being the United States, Communist governments loyal to the Soviet Union were established in most countries freed from German occupation by the Red Army, which later constituted the Eastern Bloc. Stalin also had relations with Mao Zedong in China and Kim Il-sung in North Korea. On February 9,1946, Stalin delivered a public speech in which he explained the fundamental incompatibility of communism and capitalism. He stressed that the system needed war for raw materials. The Second World War was but the latest in a chain of conflicts which could be broken only when the economy made the transformation into communism. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War, Stalin remains a controversial figure today, with many regarding him as a tyrant. However, popular opinion within the Russian Federation is mixed, the exact number of deaths caused by Stalins regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions. Joseph Stalin was born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, the Russian-language version of his birth name is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili. Ioseb was born on 18 December 1878 in the town of Gori, Georgia and his father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was Ekaterine Keke Geladze, a housemaid. As a child, Ioseb was plagued with health issues
27.
Earl Browder
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Earl Russell Browder was an American political activist, functionary and leader of the Communist Party USA. Browder is best remembered as the General Secretary of the CPUSA during the 1930s, during World War I, Browder served time in federal prison as a conscientious objector to conscription and the war. In 1930, following the removal of a political faction from leadership. In the wake of public outrage over the 1939 Nazi-Soviet pact and he was convicted of two counts early in 1940 and sentenced to four years in prison, remaining free for a time on appeal. In the spring of 1942 the U. S. Supreme Court affirmed the sentence, Browder was subsequently released in 1943 as a gesture towards wartime unity. However, following the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Browder lived out the rest of his life in relative obscurity at his home in Yonkers, New York, as the author of numerous books and pamphlets. Earl Browder was born on May 20,1891 in Wichita, Kansas, the child of Martha Jane and William Browder. His father was sympathetic to populism, historian Theodore Draper notes that Browder was influenced by an offshoot of the syndicalist movement which believed in working in the AF of L. Browder moved to Kansas City and was employed as a worker, entering the AF of L union of his trade. In 1916 he took a job as manager of the Johnson County Cooperative Association in Olathe, Browder was aggressively opposed to World War I and publicly spoke out against it, characterizing the fighting as an imperialist conflict. After the United States joined the war in 1917, Browder was arrested and charged under the Espionage Act conspiring to defeat the operation of the draft law and nonregistration. Browder was sentenced to 2 years in prison for conspiracy and 1 year for nonregistration, in 1919, Browder, Cannon and their Kansas City associates started a radical newspaper, The Workers World, with Browder serving as the first editor. In June of that year Browder was jailed again on a charge, however. A series of splits and mergers followed, with the two Communist parties formally merging in 1921. Released from prison at last, Browder lost no time in joining the United Communist Party, Browder found employment as the managing editor of the monthly magazine of TUEL, The Labor Herald. In 1920 the Communist International headed by Grigory Zinoviev decided to establish a confederation of Communist trade unions. Earl Browder was named to this delegation, ostensibly representing Kansas miners and this trip to Soviet Russia incidentally proved decisive in bringing the syndicalist Foster over to the Communist movement. The pair returned to the United States in January 1929, the year 1929 marked a major turn in the Communist Party of the United States of America
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