1.
Daimler-Benz
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Daimler-Benz AG was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and internal combustion engines, founded in 1926. Daimler had died in 1900, and Maybach had left in 1907, the inclusion of the name Mercedes in the new brand name honored the most important model series of DMG automobiles, the Mercedes series, which were designed and built by Wilhelm Maybach. They derived their name from a 1900 engine named after the daughter of Emil Jellinek and that race car later became known as the Mercedes 35 hp. The first of the series of production models bearing the name, Jellinek left the DMG board of directors in 1909. Karl Benz remained as a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz AG until his death in 1929, although Daimler-Benz is best known for its Mercedes-Benz automobile brand, during World War II it also created a notable series of aircraft, tank, and submarine engines. Daimler also produced parts for German arms, most notably barrels for the Mauser rifle, during World War II Daimler-Benz employed slave labour. In 1989 Daimler-Benz InterServices AG was created to handle data processing, financial and insurance services, in 1998, Daimler-Benz AG bought the American automobile manufacturer Chrysler Corporation, and formed DaimlerChrysler AG
2.
Daimler AG
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Daimler AG is a German multinational automotive corporation. Daimler AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, the Maybach brand was closed at the end of 2012, but was revived in April 2015 as Mercedes-Maybach, an ultra luxury edition of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class and the Mercedes-Benz G-Class. In 2016 Daimler sold 3.0 million vehicles, by unit sales, Daimler is the thirteenth-largest car manufacturer and is the largest truck manufacturer in the world. In addition to automobiles, Daimler manufactures buses and provides services through its Daimler Financial Services arm. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, Daimler AG is a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and engines, which dates back more than a century. An Agreement of Mutual Interest was signed on 1 May 1924 between Benz & Cie and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, in 1998, Daimler-Benz and Chrysler Corporation announced the worlds largest cross-border deal ever, valued at US$38billion, and the resulting change in company name to DaimlerChrysler AG. In 2007, when the Chrysler group was sold off to Cerberus Capital Management, in November 2014, Daimler announced it would acquire 25 percent of Italian motorcycle producer MV Agusta for an undisclosed fee. The terms of the merger allowed Daimler-Benzs non-automotive businesses such as Daimler-Benz InterServices AG, debis AG for short, debis AG reported revenues of $8.6 bn in 1997. A class action lawsuit was settled in August 2003 for US$300 million while a suit by billionaire investor activist Kirk Kerkorian was dismissed on 7 April 2005. The transaction claimed the job of its architect, Chairman Jürgen E. Schrempp, the merger was also the subject of a book Taken for a Ride, How Daimler-Benz Drove Off With Chrysler, by Bill Vlasic and Bradley A. Stertz. Another issue of contention is whether the merger delivered promised synergies, martin H. Wiggers concept of a platform strategy like the VW Group, was implemented only for a few models, so the synergy effects in development and production were too low. As late as 2002, DaimlerChrysler appeared to run two independent product lines. 2L V6, and the Dodge Sprinter/Freightliner Sprinter, a re-badged Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van, Daimler agreed to sell the Chrysler unit to Cerberus Capital Management in May 2007 for US$6 billion. Chrysler reported losses of US$1.5 billion in 2006 and it then announced plans to lay off 13,000 employees in mid-February 2007, close a major assembly plant and reduce production at other plants in order to restore profitability by 2008. DaimlerChrysler had reportedly approached other carmakers and investment groups to sell Chrysler in early 2007, general Motors was reported to be a suitor, but on 3 August 2007, DaimlerChrysler completed the sale of Chrysler Group to Cerberus Capital Management. The original agreement stated that Cerberus would take an 80.1 percent stake in the new company, DaimlerChrysler changed its name to Daimler AG and retained the remaining 19. 9% stake in the separated Chrysler. The terms saw Daimler pay Cerberus US$650 million to take Chrysler, of the US$7.4 billion purchase price, Cerberus Capital Management was to invest US$5 billion in Chrysler Holdings and US$1.05 billion in Chryslers financial unit. The de-merged Daimler AG received US$1.35 billion directly from Cerberus, interestingly, despite the fact it had been nearly a decade since the Daimler/Chrysler split, the fourth-generation Jeep Grand Cherokee shares a platform with the Mercedes-Benz M-Class. This also includes the Chrysler LX platform vehicles which initially used Mercedes-Benz components since its 2005 introduction
3.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
4.
Subcompact car
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A subcompact car is the American term for an automobile with a class size smaller than a compact car, usually not exceeding 165 inches in length, but larger than a microcar. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, a car is classified as subcompact if it has between 85 cubic feet and 99 cu ft of interior volume. The subcompact segment equates roughly to A-segment and B-segment in Europe, or city car, in 2012, the New York Times described the differences, saying today’s small cars actually span three main segments in the global vehicle market. The tiny A-segment cars include the Chevrolet Spark and Smart Fortwo, they’re extremely short and very light. Slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevrolet Sonic, the A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts. Previously, cars in this size were variously categorized, including small automobile and this type of car has been around since the 1940s with the Crosley, and in the 1950s with the captive import, the Nash Metropolitan. A number of imported models, notably the Volkswagen Beetle and various small British cars, were marketed as economy cars during this time. The AMC Gremlin was described at its April 1970 introduction as the first American-built import, the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto subcompacts were introduced in September 1970 for the 1971 model year. The Pontiac Astre, the Canadian-born re-badged Vega variant was released in the U. S, the Camaro was scheduled for cancellation, but sales stabilized with the end of the 1970s energy crisis. The Monza with its GM variants Pontiac Sunbird, Buick Skyhawk, Plymouth Turismo, Oldsmobile Starfire, at this time another segment started opening up below Gremlin, Pinto and Vega that became the new subcompact segment. The Chevrolet Chevette was GMs new entry-level subcompact introduced as a 1976 model and it was an Americanized design from Opel, GMs German subsidiary. S. Renault Alliance, a version of the Renault 9, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, during the 1990s GM offered the Geo brand featuring the Suzuki-built Metro subcompact. Because of consumer demand for fuel-efficient cars during the late-2000s, sales of cars made it the fastest growing market category in the U. S. The Ford Fiesta is still only European subcompact car ever offered in North America, and there are even subcompact SUVs like the Jeep Renegade and the Mazda CX-3 Car classification Mini SUV Economy car Official US government car size class definitions
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Compact executive car
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Compact executive car is a car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In European classification, compact cars are part of the D-segment. In North American terms, close equivalents are compact premium car, compact car, entry-level luxury car. Compact executive cars are available in saloon, estate, coupé. During the late-1960s, buyer preferences fragmented the market, moving to intermediates, personal/specialty, increasing fuel prices and competition pushed AMC to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants. In 1978, AMC introduced its new Concord luxury compact represent an upgraded, more luxurious, more comfortable, more silent, more opulent automobile. On March 31st,2016, Tesla revealed a prototype of the Model 3, an electric compact premium car. Cadillac continued its sales leadership in the market by making changes with the market and introduced the 1982 Cadillac Cimarron. Today, automakers are responding to changes in the marketplace and in the mind-set of consumers looking for status on a budget. Traditional luxury car makers are gearing up to small models that will test whether affluent U. S. car buyers are ready to concede that bigger isnt always better. Facing higher fuel costs and traffic, changes are sweeping through the car market. Two of the earliest European compact executives were created by the Nuffield Organization and introduced in 1952 under the MG, the badge engineered Magnette and 4/44 twins had monocoque construction. Another monocoque compact executive was the Austin Cambridge which was brought to the market in 1954, BMC offered larger Battista Farina designed saloons in 1959, which included the all-new Austin Cambridge Mk. III, Morris Oxford Series V, Riley 4/68-4/72 and Wolseley 15/60-16/60 derivatives, other British compact executive contenders included the 1955 Hillman Minx, Singer Gazelle and sportier Sunbeam Rapier triplets from the Rootes Group. After Leyland bought the Standard-Triumph company, the Standard name was discontinued in 1963 in favour of the more saleable Triumph brand, in 1965 Leyland introduced the Triumph 1300 which was their first front-wheel drive vehicle. This evolved into the Triumph 1500 before being re-engineered for rear-wheel drive for the 1970 Triumph Toledo, the latter was fitted with a 16v, SOHC engine and is considered the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. By the time the Austin-Rover group formed in 1983, the Austin Montego - which was available in sporting MG Montego guise - was about to be launched. Like the later Rover 600, Austin marketed the Montego as both a family and a car and correspondingly made it available with luxurious Vanden Plas trim
6.
C-segment
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C-segment is a Euro Car Segment, a car classification loosely defined by the European Commission as the third smallest segment in the European market. Although the definition is vague, there is overlap between segments A-F based on mass and area parameters. In 2011, the C-segment had an EU market share of 23%, the tiny A-segment cars include the Chevy Spark and Smart Fortwo. Theyre extremely short and very light, slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevy Sonic. The A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts, in the C-segment — typically called compacts — are the largest of the small cars
7.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
8.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
9.
Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an F4, or Front-engine, Four-wheel drive layout places the internal combustion engine at the front of the vehicle and drives all four roadwheels. This layout is chosen for better control on many surfaces. Most four-wheel-drive layouts are front-engined and are derivatives of earlier front-engined and this layout is also the drive train of choice for off-road pickup trucks and SUVs. It allows these vehicles to get the most traction without sacrificing precious cargo or passenger room, the center differential is often not present in these vehicles, meaning the 4WD system does not allow any difference in front and rear axle speeds. For normal road driving, these vehicles are shifted into 2WD mode, preventing damage to the transfer case, though full-time systems cannot go to 2WD mode
10.
4Matic
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4Matic is the marketing name of an AWD four-wheel drive system developed by Mercedes-Benz. It is designed to increase traction in slippery conditions, the four-wheel-drive system was developed in conjunction with Steyr-Daimler-Puch, who manufactured the Mercedes-Benz G-Class in Austria. Nearly all Mercedes-Benz vehicles that feature this system are paired with a transmission as the default transmission. The first design of 4Matic system was introduced in 1987 on the W124 series saloons and it was available with the 2.6 L and 3.0 L 6-cylinder petrol and diesel engines. Some newer versions of 4Matic are true AWD as the system remains active at all times, sophisticated engine management and ABS systems control the amount of torque transferred to each wheel allowing the system to be effective at any speed. The centre differential, also known as the case, contains two clutches. The rear differential lock, previously known as ASD on Mercedes-Benz models, due to safety and stability concerns there is no front differential lock. The 4Matic system uses inputs from the three channel ABS system and a steering wheel angle sensor to decide when to intervene, 4WD is disengaged automatically if the ABS service brakes are applied. Engine throttle control is not inherent in the W124 system, the later system variant when in test mode allows for continued operation of the rear shock self-levelling system when installed. Initially plagued with reliability factors, the multi-plate clutch central differentials were subject to failure, the second generation of 4Matic was reintroduced on the W210 series in 1998/1999. Available only with left hand drive, the cars were manufactured at the Magna-Steyr plant in Austria. The second generation of 4Matic utilized a full-time 4-wheel drive system with three open differentials front, centre and rear, traction control is achieved using ETS. This employs the ABS system with additional valves to monitor and then partially brakes any wheel which loses traction and this much simpler system is also featured in the Mercedes-Benz M-Class SUV. These later systems include engine and automatic stability controls
11.
Mercedes-Benz
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Mercedes-Benz is a global automobile manufacturer and a division of the German company Daimler AG. The brand is known for vehicles, buses, coaches. The headquarters is in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, the slogan for the brand is the best or nothing and Mercedes-Benz was one of the top growing brands in 2014 with 18% growth. The Mercedes automobile was first marketed in 1901 by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, emil Jellinek, an Austrian automobile entrepreneur who worked with DMG created the trademark in 1902, naming the 1901 Mercedes 35 hp after his daughter Mercedes Jellinek. The first Mercedes-Benz brand name vehicles were produced in 1926, following the merger of Karl Benzs, on 28 June 1926, Mercedes Benz was formed with the merger of Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimlers two companies. Gottlieb Daimler was born on 17 March 1834 in Schorndorf, after training as a gunsmith and working in France, he attended the Polytechnic School in Stuttgart from 1857 to 1859. After completing various activities in France and England, he started work as a draftsman in Geislingen in 1862. At the end of 1863, he was appointed inspector in a machine tool factory in Reutlingen. Throughout the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz produced the 770 model, a car that was popular during Germanys Nazi period, Adolf Hitler was known to have driven these cars during his time in power, with bulletproof windshields. Most of the models have been sold at auctions to private buyers. One of them is currently on display at the War Museum in Ottawa, the pontiffs Popemobile has often been sourced from Mercedes-Benz. In 1944,46,000 forced laborers were used in Daimler-Benzs factories to bolster Nazi war efforts, the company later paid $12 million in reparations to the laborers families. Mercedes-Benz has introduced many technological and safety innovations that became common in other vehicles. Mercedes-Benz is one of the best-known and established automotive brands in the world, for information relating to the famous three-pointed star, see under the title Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft including the merger into Daimler-Benz. As part of the Daimler AG company, the Mercedes-Benz Cars division includes Mercedes-Benz, mercedes-AMG became a majority owned division of Mercedes-Benz in 1999. The company was integrated into DaimlerChrysler in 1999, and became Mercedes-Benz AMG beginning on 1 January 1999, Daimlers ultra-luxury brand Maybach was under Mercedes-Benz cars division until 2013, when the production stopped due to poor sales volumes. It now exists under the Mercedes-Maybach name, with the models being ultra-luxury versions of Mercedes cars, Daimler coorporates with BYD Auto to make and sell a battery-electric car called Denza in China. In 2016, Daimler announced plans to sell Mercedes-Benz branded all-electric battery cars in China, beside its native Germany, Mercedes-Benz vehicles are also manufactured or assembled in, Since its inception, Mercedes-Benz had maintained a reputation for its quality and durability
12.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
13.
Mercedes-Benz B-Class
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The Mercedes-Benz B-Class is a compact luxury car produced by German automaker Mercedes-Benz since 2005. Mercedes-Benz markets it as a sports compact tourer and it is similar to the A-Class, though bigger and with bigger engines. The European New Car Assessment Programme classifies it as a small MPV, as of December 20,2013, delivery of B-Class vehicles reached 1 million since the launch of the B-Class in 2005. In 2005 it was introduced in spring in Europe and in autumn in Canada, the B-Class is a front-wheel drive car with a sandwich floor construction and a parabolic rear suspension. The B-Class has a design, one box for the drivetrain and another the passenger. The B-Class gains much of its large interior volume through its height. Having evolved from the even smaller A-Class it retained that cars sandwich floor concept, the A-Class was originally intended to have a battery-powered version that would meet California’s zero-emissions mandate, and the batteries were supposed to go between the floors. All models included many passive automobile safety systems like ESP, ABS, traction control, cornering lights, active lighting system, in the event of a frontal impact the engine and transmission slides beneath the passenger compartment. In 2008 it was updated with a system and a BlueEFFICIENCY option. A new NGT variant was added, which could burn either gasoline or natural gas, in 2011 Mercedes-Benz did a world tour with three of its Mercedes-Benz F-Cell vehicles, one of which was the B-Class. The hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicle was more than 30,000 kilometres in a circumnavigation of the globe. The B160 and B180 conform to Euro V emission standards, the rest of the engines conform to Euro IV emission standards. A particulate filter is available as an option for the diesel units, the second generation B-Class was introduced at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany. European models went on sale in November 2011, japan models went on sale in April 2012. They assembled at Rastatt, Germany, and from 2011 at Kecskemet, by summer 2013, over 230,000 second generation B-Class cars had been delivered. It included new gasoline and diesel engines, mated to either a manual or seven-speed dual-clutch transmission. Drag coefficient was lowered, despite growing in overall dimensions to the benefit of interior space, a new four-cylinder engine was introduced with the model, the M270. New safety systems included adaptive cruise control, blind spot assist and, the last part of the model name indicates how the vehicle is powered, Natural Gas Drive, c, e. g
14.
Rastatt
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Rastatt is a town and baroque residence in the District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located in the Upper Rhine Plain on the Murg river,6 km above its junction with the Rhine and has a population of around 50,000. Rastatt was an important place of the War of the Spanish Succession and it then remained the residence of the margraves of Baden-Baden until 1771. It was the location of the First and Second Congress of Rastatt, in the 1840s, Rastatt was surrounded by fortifications to form the fortress of Rastatt. For about 20 years previous to 1866, it was occupied by the troops of the German Confederation, for some years, Rastatt was one of the strongest fortresses of the German empire, but its fortifications were dismantled in 1890. In 1997, a new Mercedes-Benz car factory started production in Rastatt, Rastatt and the surrounding area is home to a variety of historical buildings, includes palaces and castles such as Schloss Rastatt and Schloss Favorite. In the vicinity of Rastatt is the Black Forest and the French border, Rastatt is twinned with, Fano, Italy. New Britain, Connecticut, United States Ostrov, Czech Republic
15.
Thonburi
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Thonburi is an area of modern Bangkok. The full formal name was City of Treasures Gracing the Ocean For the informal name, Thonburi remained an independent town and province, until it was merged into Bangkok in 1971. Thonburi stayed less developed than the side of the river. Many of the traditional small waterways, Khlongs, still exist there, in 1950, Bangkok had around 1. 3m people, and the municipality of Thonburi around 400,000. In 1970 Thonburi was Thailands second largest city proper with around 600,000 residents, wong Wein Yai is a landmark of Thonburi District. At the time of the merger, Thonburi province consisted of nine districts, smithies, Michael, Three military accounts of the 1688 Revolution in Siam, Itineria Asiatica, Orchid Press, Bangkok, ISBN 974-524-005-2. Wyatt, David K. Thailand, A Short History, Bangkok Page 56-57, Temples to visit in Thonburi. Retrieved, September 20,2011 from http, //www. bangkok-bangkok. org/sights-attractions-in-bangkok-thailand/thonburi-aera/4/ Bangkok Palace - ComeThailand. com, retrieved, September 20,2011 from http, //www. comethailand. com/bangkok-palace/blog The King Taksin Monument - a Monument to a Great Warrior. Retrieved, September 20,2011 from http, //www. tour-bangkok-legacies. com/king-taksin-monument. html Wat Arun - Temple of the Dawn, retrieved, September 21,2011 from http, //www. bangkoksite. com/WatArun/WatArunPage. html Thonburi travel guide from Wikivoyage
16.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
17.
Steve Mattin
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Steve Mattin is a British automobile designer. He is known as the designer of AvtoVAZ Lada, as well as the designer of Mercedes ML-Class and GL-Class vehicles. Steve Mattin was born in Bedford, England on 29 October 1964, in 1987, he graduated from Coventry University, specialising in industrial design. In 1987, Mattin joined Mercedes-Benz in Sindelfingen, where he signed on as a designer for Daimler-Benz and he served in that role until 1990, when he was promoted Senior Designer. In 1993, he was promoted to Design Manager, where he remained until 2000 and he is credited with the design of Mercedes ML-Class and GL-Class vehicles. In 2004, Mattin joined the Volvo Car Corporation, where he served as the chief designer, from 2005 to 2009, he served the organization as vice-president, design director, and board member. He oversaw the creation of the Volvo S60, V60, following his tenure with Volvo, Mattin began teaching at Umeå University in Sweden. In 2011, Mattin began working as the designer of AvtoVAZs Lada. In August 2012 during the Moscow International Automobile Salon AvtoVAZ presented the new SUV Lada XRAY designed by Mattin, Mattin introduced the updated logo of AvtoVAZ at the Auto World international exhibition in St. Petersburg on April 1,2015
18.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
19.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
20.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
21.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
22.
International Motor Show Germany
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The International Motor Show Germany or simply International Motor Show, in German known as the Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung, is the worlds largest motor show. It is held annually, with vehicles being displayed in odd-numbered years in Frankfurt am Main. Before 1991 the show was held solely in Frankfurt, the IAA is organized by the Verband der Automobilindustrie and is scheduled by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs dAutomobiles. Currently, the show in Frankfurt occupies twelve buildings, in 1897 the first IAA was held at the Hotel Bristol in Berlin, with a total of eight motor vehicles on display. As the automobile became more known and accepted, the IAA became an event in Germany, with at least one held every year. From 1905-1907, there were two per year, as the production had increased to an industrial level. In the next years the show was suspended due to the ongoing World War I, despite the still perceptible after-effects of the global recession, the 22nd IAA was held in Berlin in 1931, with a total of 295,000 visitors. For the first time the exhibition included front-wheel drive vehicles, in 1939 the 29th installation of the event gathered a total of 825,000 visitors - an all-time record at that time. The new Volkswagen was presented for the first time, which came to be known as the Beetle. This was the last IAA before it was suspended during World War II. From 1947-1949, Germany’s automobile and accessories manufacturers took part in the trade fair in Hanover. The automobile industry’s hall acted like a magnet on the public, in 1951 the show was held on the Messe Frankfurt for the first time. The event, which was held in April, attracted a total of 570,000 visitors, just six months later, in September 1951, a second exhibition in Berlin was held, gathering 290,000 visitors. From then on, the German automobile industry bade farewell to its exhibition site in Berlin. The IAA was also rescheduled to take place every other year. In 1989 the last IAA to feature both passenger cars and commercial vehicles in one show confirmed that the site in Frankfurt was now too small for this major event. Almost 2,000 exhibitors squeezed onto a site measuring 252,000 square metres. More than 1.2 million visitors attended the event, because of the high demand, it was no longer possible to meet exhibitors’ requirements for adequate exhibition stands
23.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
24.
Moose test
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The evasive maneuver test, more commonly known as the moose test or elk test, is performed to determine how well a certain vehicle evades a suddenly appearing obstacle. This test has been standardized in ISO 3888-2, forms of the test have been performed in Sweden since the 1970s. In reality, the test is constructed to simulate, for example. The test is performed on a dry road surface, traffic cones are set up in an S shape to simulate the obstacle, road, and road edges. The car to be tested has one belted person in each available seat, when the driver comes onto the track, they quickly swerve into the oncoming lane to avoid the object and then immediately swerves back to avoid oncoming traffic. The test is repeated with an increased speed until the car skids, knocks down cones, in July 2005, the Dacia Logan appeared initially to fail the test, but a later investigation concluded that excessive testing had worn the cars tires to failure. On the occasion of being interviewed for an article in the Süddeutsche Zeitung, Swedish automotive magazine Teknikens Värld tests hundreds of cars every year with the moose test. It publishes results from many years of testing on their web site It shows many cars. The Citroën Xantia Activa V6 is the fastest car, by a significant margin, ever tested by the magazine and holds the record since 1999. This means the Xantia Activa V6 - a high-end large family car - is faster than cars like the track-oriented 2008 Porsche 911 GT3 RS or the 2017 Mclaren 675LT supercar, a Toyota Prius is substantially quicker than a Saab 9-3 in the same test. The moose is common in Sweden, Norway, Finland, northern Russia, Canada, and Alaska, because of its heavy weight and tall legs, collisions with moose are particularly dangerous for the persons in a car. Both Volvo and Saab have a tradition of taking moose crashes into account when building cars, the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute has developed a moose crash test dummy called Mooses. The dummy is used to recreate realistic moose collisions, australian car manufacturers use crash test kangaroo dummies for similar reasons. Electronic stability control Tilt test Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute - Moose Crash Test Dummy Moose test - list of the fastest and slowest cars
25.
Electronic stability control
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When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically applies the brakes to help steer the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the front wheel to counter oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce power until control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicles cornering performance, instead, it helps to minimize the loss of control. According to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the U. S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in 1983, a series production Four-wheel electronic anti-skid control is introduced on the Toyota Crown. In 1987, Mercedes-Benz, BMW and Toyota introduced their first traction control systems, Traction control works by applying individual wheel braking and throttle to keep traction while accelerating but, unlike the ESC, it is not designed to aid in steering. In 1990, Mitsubishi released the Diamante in Japan and it featured a new electronically controlled active trace & traction control system that Mitsubishi developed. Simply named TCL in 1990, the system has now evolved into Mitsubishis modern Active Skid, developed to help the driver maintain the intended line through a corner, an onboard computer monitored several vehicle operating parameters through various sensors. Although not a ‘proper’ modern stability control system, trace control monitors steering angle, throttle position, the TCL systems standard wheel slip control function enables better traction on slippery surfaces or during cornering. From 1987 to 1992, Mercedes-Benz and Robert Bosch GmbH co-developed a system called Elektronisches Stabilitätsprogramm to control lateral slippage, in 1995, three automobile manufacturers introduced ESC systems. Mercedes-Benz, supplied by Bosch, was the first to implement ESP with their Mercedes-Benz S600 Coupé and that same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive introduced the system on the BMW7 Series. Toyotas Vehicle Stability Control system (also in 2004, a system called Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management appeared on the Toyota Crown Majesta in 1995. In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP for all-wheel drive vehicles, in 1998, Volvo Cars began to offer their version of ESC called Dynamic Stability and Traction Control on the new Volvo S80. Meanwhile, others investigated and developed their own systems, during a moose test, which became famous in Germany as the elk test, the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Värld in October 1997 rolled a Mercedes A-Class at 78 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC and this produced a significant reduction in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today, virtually all premium brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, the availability of ESC in small cars like the A-Class ignited a market trend thus ESC became available for all models at least as an option. Consequently, the European Union decided in 2009 to make ESC mandatory, since November 1,2011, EU Type Approval is only granted to models equipped with ESC. By November 1,2014, ESC is required on all newly registered cars in the EU, general Motors worked with Delphi Automotive and introduced its version of ESC called StabiliTrak in 1997 for select Cadillac models
26.
Geneva Motor Show
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The International Geneva Motor Show is an annual auto show held in March in the Swiss city of Geneva. The show is hosted at the Geneva Palexpo, a centre located next to the Geneva Cointrin International Airport. The Salon is organised by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs dAutomobiles, exotic supercars often steal the spotlight during their debuts at the show. Prototypes, new equipment, technical breakthroughs, international partnerships, as well as political and social debates, have announced at the exhibition. The show is regarded as a playing field for the worlds automakers. Areas of the show, Motor cars 3 or 4 or more wheels, electric cars and alternative powered cars. Special bodywork for motor cars, car design, engineering, the International Advanced Mobility Forum is the Geneva Motor Show forum on the mobility of the future. The 87th Geneva Motor Show was held from 9 to 19 March 2017, the 86th Geneva Motor Show was held from 3 to 13 March 2016. The 85th Geneva Motor Show was held from 5 to 15 March 2015, the 84th Geneva Motor Show was held from 6 to 16 March 2014. The 83rd Geneva Motor Show was held from 5 to 17 March 2013, the 82nd edition was held from 8 to 18 March 2012. The 2011 edition was held from 3 to 13 March 2011, the 80th edition of the Geneva Motor Show was held from 4–14 March 2010. Over 80 introductions were expected for the show, press days for the show started on 2 March 2010, when most of the major introductions occurred. The 2009 Geneva Motor Show was held from 5–15 March 2009, the following vehicles were introduced, The 2008 Geneva Motor Show was held from 4–16 March 2008. Bolloré Bluecar Fiat Panda, hybrid petrol -natural gas, ford Focus Turnier 2.0 Honda Small Hybrid Sports Honda FCX Clarity Opel Corsa D, with optimized 100HP1. 6l natural gas engine. Reva Greeny AC1 and AC1 Z Subaru R1e, small city car
27.
Common rail
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Common rail direct fuel injection is a direct fuel injection system for petrol and diesel engines. On diesel engines, it features a fuel rail feeding individual solenoid valves. Third-generation common rail diesels now feature piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, in petrol engines, it is used in Gasoline direct injection engine technology. The first successful usage in a production began in Japan by the mid-1990s. Dr. Denso claims the first commercial high pressure common rail system in 1995, modern common rail systems, whilst working on the same principle, are governed by an engine control unit which opens each injector electrically rather than mechanically. This was extensively prototyped in the 1990s with collaboration between Magneti Marelli, Centro Ricerche Fiat and Elasis, after research and development by the Fiat Group, the design was acquired by the German company Robert Bosch GmbH for completion of development and refinement for mass-production. In hindsight, the sale appeared to be an error for Fiat. The company had little choice but to sell Bosch a licence, as it was in a financial state at the time. In 1997 they extended its use for passenger cars, the first passenger car that used the common rail system was the 1997 model Alfa Romeo 1562.4 JTD, and later on that same year Mercedes-Benz introduced it in their W202 model. Common rail engines have used in marine and locomotive applications for some time. The Cooper-Bessemer GN-8 is an example of a hydraulically operated common rail diesel engine, vickers pioneered the use of common rail injection in submarine engines. Vickers engines with the common rail system were first used in 1916 in the G-class submarines. It used four plunger pumps to deliver a pressure of up to 3,000 pounds per square inch every 90 degrees of rotation to keep the fuel pressure adequately constant in the rail, fuel delivery to individual cylinders could be shut off via valves in the injector lines. Pressure control was achieved by means of an adjustable pump discharge stroke, early engines had a pair of timing cams, one for ahead running and one for astern. Later engines had two injectors per cylinder, and the series of constant-pressure turbocharged engines were fitted with four injectors per cylinder. This system was used for the injection of diesel oil and heavy fuel oil. The common rail system is suitable for all types of cars with diesel engines. The main suppliers of modern common rail systems are Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi, Denso, some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per stroke
28.
Adult
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Biologically, an adult is a human or other organism that has reached sexual maturity. In human context, the term adult additionally has meanings associated with social and legal concepts, in contrast to a minor, a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development, conversely, one may legally be an adult but possess none of the maturity and responsibility that may define an adult character. In different cultures there are events that relate passing from being a child to becoming an adult or coming of age. This often encompasses the passing a series of tests to demonstrate that a person is prepared for adulthood, or reaching a specified age, most modern societies determine legal adulthood based on reaching a legally specified age without requiring a demonstration of physical maturity or preparation for adulthood. Historically and cross-culturally, adulthood has been determined primarily by the start of puberty, in the past, a person usually moved from the status of child directly to the status of adult, often with this shift being marked by some type of coming-of-age test or ceremony. After the social construct of adolescence was created, adulthood split into two forms, biological adulthood and social adulthood, thus, there are now two primary forms of adults, biological adults and social adults. Depending on the context, adult can indicate either definition, thus, the base definition of the word adult is the period beginning at puberty. Puberty generally begins around 10 or 11 years of age for girls and 11 or 12 years of age for boys, legally, adulthood means that one can engage in a contract. One can distinguish the legality of acts of a person, or of enabling a young person to carry out that act, by selling, renting out, showing, permitting entrance, allowing participation. There may be distinction between commercially and socially enabling, sometimes there is the requirement of supervision by a legal guardian, or just by an adult. Sometimes there is no requirement, but rather a recommendation, with regard to films with violence, etc. Some cultures in Africa define adulthood at age 13, according to Jewish tradition, adulthood is reached at age 13 for Jewish boys and girls, they are expected to demonstrate preparation for adulthood by learning the Torah and other Jewish practices. The Christian Bible and Jewish scripture contain no age requirement for adulthood or marrying, which includes engaging in sexual activity. The 1983 Code of Canon Law states, A man before he has completed his year of age
29.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
30.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
31.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
32.
Petrol engine
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A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression, the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed, and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock. The first petrol engine was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, with both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T. D, higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios, Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines, examples, Bedford OB bus Bedford M series lorry GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab locomotive Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see, Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle Wankel engine Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened out – are common in airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus, less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit, the most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts or horsepower. This is the mechanical power output of the engine in a usable
33.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
34.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
35.
Continuously variable transmission
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A continuously variable transmission is an automatic transmission that can change seamlessly through a continuous range of effective gear ratios. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that offer a number of gear ratios. The flexibility of a CVT allows the shaft to maintain a constant angular velocity. When power is more important than economy, the ratio of the CVT can be changed to allow the engine to turn at the RPM at which it produces greatest power and this is typically higher than the RPM that achieves peak efficiency. In low-mass low-torque applications a belt-driven CVT also offers ease of use, a CVT does not strictly require the presence of a clutch. Nevertheless, in vehicles, a centrifugal clutch is added to facilitate a neutral stance. Simple rubber belt CVTs are commonly used in motorized vehicles. Nearly all snowmobiles, utility vehicles, golf carts and motor scooters use CVTs, many small tractors and self-propelled mowers for home and garden also use simple rubber belt CVT, though hydrostatic systems are more common. Hydrostatic CVTs are common in small to medium-sized agricultural and earthmoving equipment, Transmission output is varied to control both travel speed and direction. In mowing or harvesting operations a CVT allows the speed of the tractor or combine harvester to be adjusted independently of the engine speed. This allows the operator to slow or accelerate as needed to accommodate variations in thickness of the crop, CVTs have been used in aircraft electrical power generating systems since the 1950s and in Sports Car Club of America Formula 500 race cars since the early 1970s. CVTs were banned from Formula 1 in 1994 because of concerns that the teams would dominate if they managed to create a viable F1 CVT. More recently, CVT systems have developed for go-karts and have proven to increase performance. The Tomcar range of vehicles also utilizes the CVT system. Some drill presses and milling machines contain a pulley-based CVT where the shaft has a pair of manually adjustable conical pulley halves through which a wide drive belt from the motor loops. The pulley on the motor, however, is fixed in diameter. This gap width thus adjusts the gearing ratio between the motors fixed pulley and the output shafts variable pulley, changing speed of the chuck, a tensioner pulley is implemented in the belt transmission to take up or release the slack in the belt as the speed is altered. In most cases, the speed must be changed with the motor running, in this most common CVT system, there are two V-belt pulleys that are split perpendicular to their axes of rotation, with a V-belt running between them
36.
Airbag
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An airbag is a type of vehicle safety device and is an occupant restraint system. The airbag module is designed to inflate extremely rapidly then quickly deflate during a collision or impact with a surface or a sudden deceleration. It consists of the cushion, a flexible fabric bag, inflation module. The airbag provides an absorbing surface between the vehicles occupant and a steering wheel, instrumental panel, A-B-C- structural body frame pillars, headliner. Working as a restraint system to the vehicles seat-belt systems. Newer side-impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a side impact vehicle impact, the first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with limited success. Over time, various manufacturers have used different terms for airbags, in the 1970s, General Motors marketed its first airbag modules under the unwieldy name Air Cushion Restraint System. Common terms in North America refer to a role as a supplement to active restraints. Because no action by an occupant is required to activate or use the airbag. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered active devices because the occupant must act to enable them. In this usage, a car Anti-lock Braking System will qualify as an active-safety device, further confusing the terminology, the aviation safety community uses the terms active and passive in the opposite sense from the automotive industry. In patent applications, various airbag manufacturers sometimes use the term inflatable occupant restraint systems for vehicle airbags. The airbag specified for automobile use traces its origins to air-filled bladders as early as 1941, the invention is also credited independently to the German engineer Walter Linderer, and to the American John W. Hetrick who in 1951 registered for the first of his airbag patents. Linderers airbag was based on an air system, either released by bumper contact or by the driver. Later research during the 1960s showed that air could not inflate Linderers airbag fast enough for maximum safety. Hetrick was an engineer and member of the United States Navy. Hetrick worked with the major American automobile corporations at the time, in Japan, Yasuzaburou Kobori started developing an airbag safety net system in 1964, for which he was later awarded patents in 14 countries. He died in 1975 without seeing widespread adoption of airbag systems, in 1967, a breakthrough occurred in the development of airbag crash sensors when Allen K
37.
Windshield
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The windshield or windscreen of an aircraft, car, bus, motorbike or tram is the front window. Motorbike windshields are made of high-impact acrylic plastic. Windshields protect the occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation, however, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass. The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, early windshields were made of ordinary window glass, but that could lead to serious injuries in the event of a crash. A series of crashes led up to the development of stronger windshields, the most notable example of this is the Pane vs. Ford case of 1917 that decided against Pane in that he was only injured through reckless driving. They were replaced with windshields made of toughened glass and were fitted in the using a rubber or neoprene seal. The hardened glass shattered into many mostly harmless fragments when the windshield broke and these windshields, hovever, could shatter from a simple stone chip. In 1919, Henry Ford solved the problem of flying debris by using the new French technology of glass laminating, windshields made using this process were two layers of glass with a cellulose inner layer. This inner layer held the glass together when it fractured, between 1919 and 1929, Ford ordered the use of laminated glass on all of his vehicles. Modern, glued-in windshields contribute to the rigidity, but the main force for innovation has historically been the need to prevent injury from sharp glass fragments. Almost all nations now require windshields to stay in one even if broken. Properly installed automobile windshields are also essential to safety, along with the roof of the car, today’s windshields are a safety device just like seat belts and airbags. The installation of the glass is done with an automotive grade urethane designed specifically for automobiles. The adhesive creates a bond between the glass and the vehicle. If the adhesive bond fails at any point on the glass it can reduce the effectiveness of the air bag, the urethane sealant is protected from UV in sunlight by a band of dark dots around the edge of the windshield. The darkened edge transitions to the windshield with smaller dots to minimize thermal stress in manufacturing. The same band of darkened dots is often expanded around the rear view mirror to act as a sunshade, in many places, laws restrict the use of heavily tinted glass in vehicle windshields, generally, laws specify the maximum level of tint permitted
38.
Petrol
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Gasoline or petrol, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
39.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
40.
Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
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