1.
Corps of Colonial Marines
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The Corps of Colonial Marines were two Marine units raised from former slaves for service in the Americas by the British at the behest of Alexander Cochrane. The units were created at two different times, and were disbanded once the military threat had disappeared. The first Corps was a unit that served in the Caribbean from 1808 to 12 October 1810. The locally-recruited men were less susceptible to tropical illnesses than were troops sent from Britain, the Corps followed the practice of the British Armys West India Regiments in recruiting slaves as soldiers. The second, more substantial, Corps served from 18 May 1814 until 20 August 1816, the greater part of the Corps was stationed on the Atlantic coast, with a smaller body occupying a fort on the Gulf coast in Florida. Recruits were accepted from among escaped slaves who had gained their freedom on coming into British hands. The establishment of the force sparked controversy at the time, the arming of former slaves representing a threat to the slave-owning society of the Americas). As a consequence, the two officers of the Corps in Florida were demonised in Niles Register for their association with the Corps. At the end of the War of 1812, as the British post in Florida was evacuated the Corps Florida detachment was paid off, although several men accompanied the British to Bermuda, the majority continued to live in settlements around the wooden stockade the Corps had garrisoned. This legacy of a community of armed fugitive slaves with an arsenal would lead to tensions with the United States of America. Those remaining later took part in the Battle of Negro Fort in July 1816, after which joined the southward migration of Seminoles. Members of the Colonial Marine battalion who were deployed on the Atlantic coast withdrew from American territory and they would continue in British service as garrison-in-residence at Bermuda until 1816, when the unit was disbanded and the ex-Marines resettled on Trinidad. Rear Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane raised the first Corps of Colonial Marines in 1808 while commander-in-chief of British naval forces on the Leeward Islands station during the Napoleonic Wars. The British had captured the island of Marie Galante earlier that year, Cochrane named the ex-slaves the Corps of Colonial Marines, which was enlarged with fugitive slaves from Guadeloupe. The Corps was paid from Marie Galante revenues, clothed from Royal Navy stores and they saw no further action as a distinct body, but were listed in ships musters among supernumeraries for wages and victuals under the description Colonial Marine until mid-1815. Rear Admiral George Cockburn, Cochranes second-in-command on the Atlantic coast and it served as part of the British forces on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States during the War of 1812. On 2 April 1814, Cochrane issued a proclamation to all wishing to emigrate. By 10th May, Tangier Island off the Virginia coast had been occupied by the British, male refugees were given the option to become blue Jackets, take up arms or join the working party constructing Fort Albion and its infrastructure
2.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
3.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
4.
Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda
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HMD Bermuda was the principal base of the Royal Navy in the Western Atlantic between American independence and the Cold War. Bermuda had occupied a position astride the homeward leg taken by many European vessels from the New World since before its settlement by England in 1609. French privateers may have used the islands as a place for operations against Spanish galleons in the 16th century. Bermudian privateers certainly played a role in many Imperial wars following settlement, in 1818 the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda officially replaced the Royal Naval Dockyard, Halifax as the British headquarters for the North America and West Indies Station. In the decades following American independence, Britain was faced with two threats to its maritime supremacy, the first was French, as Napoleon battled Britain for military, political, and economic supremacy in Europe, closing continental ports to British trade. He also unleashed a storm of privateers from the French West Indies in an attempt to cripple British trade in the New World, the Royal Navy was hard-pressed in Europe, and unable to release adequate forces to counter the menace of the privateers. In any case, multi-decked ships-of-the-line were designed to each other in slow-moving, opposing lines. However many guns they might have to bring to bear, they were not able to run down, or outmanoeuvre the small privateers. The successful English colony in the United States, Jamestown, Virginia and this was at a time when Britain, and much of Europe, had long been stripped almost clear of trees. American timber had been one of the enablers of Britains ascendancy to maritime supremacy, and, by 1776, a significant part of Britains merchant fleet was made up of American ships. The British Admiralty was also enraged by the habit of American merchant, the US also had its own interest in breaking Britains supremacy on maritime trade, and from the first days of the Republic it has often claimed to champion free trade. The Royal Navy sought to counter the threat of French privateers in the New World by commissioning its own light vessels, built along the lines of traditional Bermuda sloops. The first three vessels commissioned from Bermudian shipyards were 200 ton, 12-gun sloops-of-war, ordered in 1795, over the next fifteen years, the Admiralty would commission a great many more vessels from Bermudian builders, manned by locally recruited officers and crews. They were also used for reconnaissance and maintaining pickets, in addition to ships commissioned by the Admiralty, Bermudian merchant vessels were also bought-up and commissioned for this purpose. The most famous was undoubtedly HMS Pickle, which carried the news of British victory back from Trafalgar, the Royal Navy began to invest into Bermudian real-estate in 1795. Very early, it began to buy islands at the West End of the chain, unfortunately, at that time, there was no known channel wide and deep enough to allow large naval vessels to gain access to the Great Sound. Initially, the Royal Navy bought and developed property in and around the capital of St. Georges. These included Convict Bay, which became a Royal Canadian Naval Base, HMCS Somers Isles, during the Second World War, and the building now housing the Carriage House Museum
5.
Trinidad
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Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, though geographically part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of 4,768 km2, it is also the sixth largest in the West Indies, many believe the original name for the island in the Arawaks language was Iëre which meant Land of the Hummingbird. Some believe that Iere was actually a mispronunciation or corruption by early colonists of the Arawak word Kairi which simply means Island, Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered the islands on his voyage in 1498. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands, Trinidad remained Spanish until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists from the French Caribbean, especially Martinique. In 1889 the two became a single British Crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, major landforms include the hills of the Northern, Central and Southern Ranges, the Caroni, Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni, North and South Oropouche, there are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per year, the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 metres, is the highest point in Trinidad and it is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima. Diversity is the status quo in Trinidad and it is sometimes known as a rainbow island or more fondly a callaloo. There is a range of ethnicity, religion, and culture. As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 34. 22% East Indian,35. 43% African,7. 66% Mixed - African and East Indian, and 15. 16% Mixed - Other. Venezuela has also had a impact on Trinidads culture, such as introducing the music style parang to the island. Many of these groups overlap heavily due to admixture, for example Dougla is a term used to describe a person who is of African and East Indian descent. Trinidad religion primarily centers round Roman Catholic, Anglican, other Christian denominations, Hindu, catholicism constitutes the largest religious denomination of the country. There are also multiple festivals featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan and these festivals include the world-famous Carnival, Jouvert, and Panorama, the national steel pan competition
6.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
7.
Company (military unit)
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A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–250 soldiers and usually commanded by a major or a captain. Most companies are formed of three to six platoons, although the number may vary by country, unit type. Usually several companies are grouped as a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is formed by several battalions. Occasionally, independent or separate companies are organized for special purposes and these companies are not organic to a battalion or regiment, but rather report directly to a higher level organization such as a Marine Expeditionary Force headquarters. The modern military company became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in 1631 under King Gustav II Adolph, for administrative purposes, the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the companies were organized into battalions and grouped with cavalry troops. From ancient times, some armies have used a base administrative. Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans are best able to maintain stable relationships in a group numbering between 100-250 members, with 150 members being the common number. The advent of accurate, long-range rifle fire, repeating rifles and this, coupled with the advent of radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers of men to have much greater firepower and combat effectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however, continue to remain within the range of 100-250 members, perhaps validating the premise that men fight best in organizations of around 150 members. These companies were not organic to any intermediate headquarters, but rather reported directly to the division headquarters, rifle companies consist of three platoons and a company headquarters. Until after the Second World War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both squadrons and companies depending on whether the units were supporting mounted or foot formations. The British Army infantry normally identifies its rifle companies by letter within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headquarters company and a support/heavy weapons company. Some units name their companies after regimental battle honours, this is commonly the case for composite units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme, Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regiments use traditional names for some of their companies, for example Queens Company, Left Flank, Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that is unique across the corps, not just within their command. The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps, Royal Military Police, the defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies, the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons. British companies are commanded by a major, the officer commanding. The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment, not a company, in terms of organisation, canadian Army organisation is modelled after the British
8.
Chesapeake Bay
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It is the largest estuary in North America. With its northern portion in Maryland and the part in Virginia. More than 150 major rivers and streams flow into the bays 64, 299-square-mile drainage basin, the bay is approximately 200 miles long from its northern headwaters in the Susquehanna River to its outlet in the Atlantic Ocean. It is 2.8 miles wide at its narrowest and 30 miles at its widest, total shoreline including tributaries is 11,684 miles, circumnavigating a surface area of 4,479 square miles. Average depth is 21 feet, reaching a maximum of 174 feet, the bay is spanned twice, in Maryland by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge from Sandy Point to Kent Island and in Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel connecting Virginia Beach to Cape Charles. Known for both its beauty and bounty, the bay became emptier, with crabs, oysters. Recent restoration efforts begun in the 1990s have been ongoing and show potential for growth of the oyster population. The health of the Chesapeake Bay improved in 2015, marking three years of gains over the past four years, according to a new report by the University of Maryland, the word Chesepiooc is an Algonquian word referring to a village at a big river. It is the seventh oldest surviving English place-name in the U. S. first applied as Chesepiook by explorers heading north from the Roanoke Colony into a Chesapeake tributary in 1585 or 1586. The name may refer to the Chesepian or Chesapeake people. They occupied an area which is now the Norfolk, Portsmouth, Chesapeake, in 2005, Algonquian linguist Blair Rudes helped to dispel one of the areas most widely held beliefs, that Chesapeake means something like great shellfish bay. The name might actually have meant something like great water, or it might have just referred to a location at the bays mouth. In addition, the name is almost always prefixed by the in usage by local residents, The Chesapeake, The Chesapeake Bay, the Chesapeake Bay is an estuary to the North Atlantic, lying between the Delmarva Peninsula to the east and the North American mainland to the west. It is the ria, or drowned valley, of the Susquehanna River and it is not a fjord, because the Laurentide Ice Sheet never reached as far south as the northernmost point on the bay. The large rivers entering the bay from the west have broad mouths and are extensions of the ria for miles up the course of each river. The bay was formed starting about 10,000 years ago when rising sea levels at the end of the last ice age flooded the Susquehanna River valley. Parts of the bay, especially the Calvert County, Maryland and these cliffs, generally known as Calvert Cliffs, are famous for their fossils, especially fossilized shark teeth which are commonly found washed up on the beaches next to the cliffs. Scientists Cliffs is a community in Calvert County named for the desire to create a retreat for scientists when the community was founded in 1935
9.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
10.
Alexander Cochrane
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Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane GCB RN was a senior Royal Navy commander during the Napoleonic Wars and achieved the rank of Admiral. He was knighted for his service, Alexander Inglis Cochrane was born a younger son of the Scottish peer Thomas Cochrane, the eighth Earl of Dundonald, and his wife. He joined the Royal Navy as a boy and served with British naval forces in North America and he served during the American War of Independence. Cochrane also participated in the Egyptian operations in 1801, Cochrane had been incensed that the brilliant Sir Edward Pellew a tarpaulin officer, had preferred as Admiral of the White, to the East Indies station to himself, a well connected aristocrat. Cochrane tried to implicate Sir Edward Pellew, who had relations with the Governor of Ferrol. Exmouth papers In 1805 he was commander of the Leeward Islands Station. He conducted operations against the French and Spanish on 6 February 1806 at the Battle of San Domingo during the Napoleonic Wars, a cannonball blew his hat off his head while he was on the deck of his flagship, HMS Northumberland. He was knighted and appointed KCB on 29 March 1806 in recognition of his service, other rewards included thanks from both Houses of Parliament, freedom of the city of London, and a sword valued at 100 guineas. In Barbados, Cochrane met with General Francisco de Miranda, who had defeated by Spanish naval forces in an attempt to liberate Venezuela. As Spain was then at war with Britain, Cochrane and the governor of Trinidad agreed to some support for an unsuccessful second attempt to invade Venezuela. In 1809 he commanded forces in the conquest of Martinique. He landed the force under Major-General Robert Ross that burned Washington, during the Battle of Baltimore, Cochrane directed the bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore, which proved ineffectual. He resisted calls by his officers to attack the fort more aggressively with frigates at close range. He ordered a raid by boats to assist the army encamped near Baltimore in their proposed attack on Hampstead hill. Cochrane led the British force that won the Battle of Lake Borgne in December 1814 and his forces built a hard short road to New Orleans for use by British armed forces. But, the British army was defeated at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8,1815, news that Britain had ratified the peace treaty had not reached the combatants at the Battle of New Orleans. The peace treaty was being carried to Washington, D. C. for ratification by the U. S. Congress, the Duke of Wellington held that the failure of the New Orleans campaign was largely the fault of Cochrane. In a eulogy to General Edward Pakenham -- Wellingtons brother-in-law, killed at New Orleans, he said, I cannot, the expedition to New Orleans originated with that colleague
11.
West India Regiments
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The West India Regiments were infantry units of the British Army recruited from and normally stationed in the British colonies of the Caribbean between 1795 and 1927. In 1888 the two West India Regiments then in existence were reduced to a unit of two battalions. This regiment differed from similar forces raised in parts of the British Empire in that it formed an integral part of the regular British Army. Eight West India Regiments were commissioned between 24 April and 1 September 1795, the eighth of the newly raised regiments was disbanded the following year but the quality of the new corps led to a further five West India Regiments being raised in 1798. In 1807 all serving black soldiers recruited as slaves in the West India Regiments of the British Army were freed under the Mutiny Act passed by the British parliament that same year. In 1808 the Abolition Act caused all trading in slaves to be abolished, prohibited and decleared to be unlawful. In 1812 a West African recruiting depot was established on Bance Island in Sierre Leone to train West African volunteers for the West India Regiments, by 1816 the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the reduction of the West India regiments to six led to the closure of this depot. Thereafter all recruitment for the various West Indian regiments that fought in World War I and World War II were West Indian volunteers, with officers and some senior NCOs coming from Britain. The WIR soldiers became a part of the British forces garrisoning the West Indies. The black Caribbean soldiers by contrast proved better adapted to tropical service and they served against locally recruited French units that had been formed for the same reasons. Free black Caribbeans soldiers played a prominent and often distinguished role in the history of Latin America. The new West India Regiments saw considerable service during the period of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1800 there were 12 battalion-sized regiments which were seen as valuable also for dealing with slave revolt in the West Indies colonies. The Regiments were later involved in the War of 1812, both on the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico, taking part in the British attack on New Orleans. In 1800 there were 12 battalion-sized regiments which were seen as also for dealing with slave revolt in the West Indies colonies. Following the end of the War of 1812, numbers were progressively reduced, during most of the remainder of the nineteenth century there were never less than two West India Regiments. The 1st West India Regiment from Jamaica went to the Gold Coast of Africa to fight in the Ashanti War of 1873-4, in 1888 the 1st and 2nd West India Regiments were merged into a single regiment comprising two battalions. A third battalion was raised in 1897, but was disbanded in 1904, enlistment for the West India Regiment during this period involved a commitment for twelve years of full-time service. This was in contrast with most other regiments of the British regular army
12.
Ralph James Woodford
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Sir Ralph James Woodford, 2nd Baronet of Carleby, Lincolnshire, was the longest-serving Governor of Trinidad. Young and energetic, from 1813 he sought to bring order to Trinidad society and greatly improved the public infrastructure, at the same time, he institutionalised class and racial divisions and was not in favour of emancipation. His governorship was cut short by his death at sea, Ralph James Woodford, born in 1784, was the son of the 1st Baronet of Carleby, the diplomat Sir Ralph Woodford, and Gertrude Reessen, of Dutch extraction. Between 1809 and 1811 Woodford was in Madeira, caring for his invalid sister and their parents both died in 1810 and on his return he sought an appointment. Appointed on 31 October 1812, he succeeded Hector William Munro on 14 June 1813 on his arrival in Port of Spain. Much of the capital had been destroyed in a fire in 1808. In view of the recent fire, only buildings were permitted. Land was reclaimed to provide the first proper wharfage giving access to trading ships and he arranged the purchase of an abandoned sugar estate and laid it out as The Savannah for the peoples recreation and as a cattle pasture. Purchasing also the nearby Hollandais Estate as his residence, he established there botanical gardens and had ornamental trees planted in the towns main squares. He had the streets paved, Both of the current cathedrals in Port of Spain have their origins in the churches he had built for the Anglican and Roman Catholic communities. In all, he oversaw the development of Port of Spain into a town, in the words of Henry Coleridge in 1825. The streets are wide, long, and laid out at angles, no house is now allowed to be built of wood. There is a public walk embowered in trees, and a market place with a market house or shambles in excellent order. Supervising many of the works personally, protected from the sun and on his horse, in addition to the paving of roads, Woodford introduced steam navigation to link Port of Spain with San Fernando and other settlements around the island. In 1818 the 71-foot wood-hulled Woodford was built by William Denny at Dumbarton, Scotland, Woodford was personally against the abolition of slavery, and tended to favour the sugar planters with regard to emancipation when disputes came before him. Underlying much of his policy was a desire to bring order to this new Brish colony. In April 1828, Woodford was seriously ill and departed Trinidad for England for treatment and he died en route off the coast of Jamaica on 17 May 1828
13.
Naparima Plain
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On the island of Trinidad, the Naparima Plain is a broad lowland area on the west between the Central Range and the Southern Range, the lowland area on the east is the Nariva Plain. To the north of the Central Range is the Caroni Plain, the Oropouche river flows through the Naparima Plain and drains into the Oropouche Lagoon, a swampy area, on the Gulf of Paria coast. The northern region of the Naparima Plain has alluvial soil, the region is sandy. The Banwari Trace archaeological site, the oldest site in the Caribbean, is located in the Naparima Plains, foreign Area Studies, Area handbook for Trinidad and Tobago, Supt. of Docs
14.
Slave ship
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Slave ships were large cargo ships specially converted for the purpose of transporting slaves. Only a few decades after the arrival of Europeans to America, the peak time of slave ships to the Atlantic passage was between the 18th and early-19th centuries, when large plantations developed in the colonies of America. In order to profit, the owners of the ships divided their hulls into holds with little headroom. Unhygienic conditions, dehydration, dysentery and scurvy led to a mortality rate, on average 15%. Often the ships, also known as Guineamen, transported hundreds of slaves, for example, the slave ship Henrietta Marie carried about 200 slaves on the long Middle Passage. They were confined to cargo holds with each slave chained with little room to move, the most significant routes of the slave ships led from the north-western and western coasts of Africa to South America and the south-east coast of what is today the United States, and the Caribbean. As many as 20 million Africans were transported by ship, the transportation of slaves from Africa to America was known as the Middle Passage. These people also were not treated as human, living like animals throughout their voyage to the New World. The enslaved were naked and shackled together with different types of chains. They spent a portion of time pinned to floorboards which would wear skin on their elbows down to the bone. Firsthand accounts from former slaves, such as Olaudah Equiano, describe the conditions that enslaved people were forced to endure. The Slave Trade Act 1788 regulated conditions on board British slave ships for the first time and it was introduced to the United Kingdom parliament by Sir William Dolben, an advocate for the abolition of slavery. For the first time, limits were placed on the number of enslaved people that could be carried. Under the terms of the act, ships could transport 1.67 slaves per ton up to a maximum of 207 tons burthen, the well-known slave ship Brookes was limited to carrying 454 people, it had previously transported as many as 609 enslaved. This limited reduction in the overcrowding on slave ships may have reduced the death rate. In the eighteenth and early centuries, the sailors on slave ships were often badly paid. Furthermore, a mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease. While conditions for the crew were vastly better than those of the people, they remained harsh
15.
Spanish missions in the Americas
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During the Age of Discovery, the Christian Church inaugurated a major effort to spread Christianity in the New World by converting indigenous peoples. As such, the establishment of Christian missions went hand-in-hand with the efforts of European powers such as Spain, France. For these nations, the enterprise was based on the necessity to develop European commerce. According to Adriaan van Oss, Catholicism remains the principal colonial heritage of Spain in America, more than any set of economic relationships. The Catholic religion continues to permeate Spanish-American culture today, creating a cultural unity which transcends the political and national boundaries dividing the continent. Christian leaders and Christian doctrines have been accused of justifying and perpetrating violence against Native Americans found in the New World, according to Colin Calloway, the Spanish missions also produced massive population decline, food shortages, increased demands for labor, and violence. However, other scholars point out that the Catholic Church often defended the rights of Native Americans, for example, Jesuits devoted themselves to the interests of Native Americans. The Spanish missions in the Carolinas were part of a series of religious outposts that Spanish Catholics established to spread Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans, the principal coastal mission and fort in the area was Santa Elena, which survived until 1587. The Spanish chapter of Georgias earliest colonial history is dominated by the mission era. The early missions in present-day Georgia were established to serve the Guale and various Timucua peoples, later the missions served other peoples who had entered the region, including the Yamassee. These missions brought grain, cattle, and a homeland for the California Native Americans. They had no immunity to European diseases, with subsequent indigenous tribal population falls, overland routes were established from New Spain that resulted in the establishment of a mission and presidio - now San Francisco, and a pueblo - now Los Angeles. The clash of Spanish and native cultures during the Spanish Las Californias-New Spain and these aspects have received more research in recent decades. The missions gave Spain a valuable toehold in the land, and introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables. Eventually, a network of settlements was established each of the installations was no more than a long days ride by horse or boat from another. As early as the voyages of Christopher Columbus, the Kingdom of Spain sought to establish missions to convert pagans to Catholicism in Nueva España, New Spain consisted of the Caribbean, Mexico, and portions of what is now the Southwestern United States. To facilitate colonization, the Catholic Church decided to award these lands to Spain, the missions represented the first major effort by Europeans to colonize the Pacific Coast region, and gave Spain a valuable toehold in the frontier land. The government of Mexico shut down the missions in the 1830s, in the end, the mission had mixed results in its objective to convert, educate, and civilize the indigenous population and transforming the natives into Spanish colonial citizens
16.
Acre
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The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong, lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands. The international symbol of the acre is ac, the most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by two parts per million, see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land, one international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. An acre was defined in the Middle Ages, being the amount of land that could be ploughed in one day with a yoke of oxen. One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles,4,840 square yards,43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square metres. While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are definitions of a yard. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, as a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape, any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre. In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States, consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872609874252 square metres, its value is based on an inch defined by 1 metre =39.37 inches exactly. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre. Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper, areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, in Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75 percent of a 100 yards long by 53.33 yards wide American football field, the full field, including the end zones, covers approximately 1.32 acres. For residents of countries, the acre might be envisaged as approximately half of a 105 metres long by 68 metres wide association football pitch. It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, in English it was historically spelled aker. The acre was approximately the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day and this explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong
17.
Cassava
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Manihot esculenta is a woody shrub native to South America of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is extensively cultivated as a crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root. Though it is often called yuca in Spanish and in the United States, it differs from the yucca, Cassava, when dried to a powdery extract, is called tapioca, its fermented, flaky version is named garri. Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice. Cassava is a staple food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over half a billion people. It is one of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils, Nigeria is the worlds largest producer of cassava, while Thailand is the largest exporter of dried cassava. Cassava is classified as sweet or bitter. Like other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts, the more toxic varieties of cassava are a fall-back resource in times of famine or food insecurity in some places. Farmers often prefer the bitter varieties because they deter pests, animals, the cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 mm thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 cm in diameter at the top, a woody vascular bundle runs along the roots axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish, Cassava roots are very rich in starch and contain small amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin C. However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients, in contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein, but deficient in the amino acid methionine and possibly tryptophan. Forms of the domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4,600 BC, manioc pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, the oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1, 400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén, in El Salvador. With its high potential, it had become a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica. Cassava was a food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art. The Moche people often depicted yuca in their ceramics, spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, for these Christians in the New World, cassava was not suitable for communion since it could not undergo transubstantiation and become the body of Christ
18.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
19.
George Harris, 3rd Baron Harris
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George Francis Robert Harris, 3rd Baron Harris GCSI, was a British peer, Liberal politician and colonial administrator. He served as the Governor of Trinidad from 1846 to 1854, Harris was born to William Harris, 2nd Baron Harris and his wife Eliza Selina Anne on 14 August 1810 and educated at Merton College, Oxford and Christ College, Oxford. Harris joined the Liberal Party and served as the Governor of Trinidad from 1846 to 1854, Harris retired as Governor of Madras in 1859 and died in England in 1872 at the age of 62. Harris was born on 14 August 1810 to William Harris, 2nd Baron Harris and his wife Eliza Selina Anne who owned Waterstown House at Glasson, westmeath, Ireland, and Belmont, Faversham, England. He was the grandson of George Harris, 1st Baron Harris, Harris had his early education at Eton College and under the private tutorship of Rev. John Shaw before joining Merton College, Oxford in 1829. Harris completed his matriculation from Merton College and graduated in arts from Christ Church, Harris was appointed as joint patron of Athlone Yacht Club in 1845 with Lord Castlemaine and Hon. L. H. King-Harman following the death of 2nd Lord Harris in June of that year. Harris was beset will ill-health and remained bed-ridden for some time in the city of Pau in France where he worked for a time for the Church of England, in 1846, Harris was appointed Governor of Trinidad, a role he kept until 1854. In 1850 he married Sarah, daughter of Port of Spain archdeacon George Cummins, during his tenure, Harris revamped the prevailing education system thereby laying down the foundation for the present-day system of education prevailing in Trinidad. Harris also mooted the idea of importing indentured labourers from India to replace the slaves who had been freed following the abolition of slavery. Harris is considered to be one of Trinidads best ever administrators though he had also criticized for favouring his own men in appointments. On 1 July 1856, Harris flagged off the first regular train service in the province between the city of Madras and the town of Arcot. The University of Madras was established in 1857 when Harris was the Governor, in September 1854, Harris headed the Torture Commission appointed to investigate the allegations of torture inflicted on Indian peasants by revenue officials. Throughout his tenure, Harris was critical of the attitude of the Anglo-Indian press in Madras and tried to regulate the freedom of the press. He criticized them as disloyal in tone, un-English in spirit, and wanting in every principle When the Indian Rebellion of 1857 broke out, as a result, Harris lent the whole Madras Army to the Government of India for quelling the rebellion. However, there is evidence that suggests that one of the 52 regiments of the Madras Army refused to volunteer for service during the mutiny. Harris continued even after the transfer of sovereignty over India from the British East India Company to the British crown in 1858, eventually resigning as Governor in 1859. Lord Harris died in November 1872, aged 62, and was succeeded in the barony by his son Robert Harris, 4th Baron Harris, Lord Harris married Sarah, daughter of the Venerable George Cummons, Archdeacon of Trinidad, in 1850. She died only three years later, historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago
20.
Subsistence agriculture
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Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families. The output is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade, the typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to feed and clothe themselves during the year. Planting decisions are made principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, tony Waters writes, Subsistence peasants are people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace. Subsistence agriculture also emerged independently in Mexico where it was based on cultivation. Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently, Subsistence horticulture may have developed independently in South East Asia and Papua New Guinea. Subsistence farming continues today in parts of rural Africa, and parts of Asia. Many of the items, as well as occasional services from physicians, veterinarians, blacksmiths. In Central and Eastern Europe subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture reappeared within the economy since about 1990. In this type of agriculture, a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning, and crops are grown. After 2-3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned, while the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored. After a decade or more, the farmer may return to the first piece of land, shifting cultivation is called Dredd in India, Ladang in Indonesia and Milpa in Central America and Mexico. However, such farmers often recognize the value of such compost and they also may irrigate part of such fields if they are near a source of water. In some areas of tropical Africa, at least, such smaller fields may be ones in which crops are grown on raised beds, thus farmers practicing slash and burn agriculture are often much more sophisticated agriculturalists than the term slash and burn subsistence farmers suggest. In this type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals, generally they rear cattle, sheep, goats, camels and/or yaks for milk, skin, meat and wool. This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia, India, east and south-west Africa, examples are the nomadic Bhotiyas and Gujjars of the Himalayas. In Intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools, climate, with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Farmers use their land holdings to produce enough, for their local consumption. It results in more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns
21.
Cash crop
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A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm, the term is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producers own livestock or grown as food for the producers family. In earlier times cash crops were only a small part of a farms total yield, while today, especially in developed countries. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in developed nations. Prices for major crops are set in commodity markets with global scope, with some local variation based on freight costs and local supply. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets and this system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations, Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices is known as dumping, the Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for the Arctic is Rhodiola rosea, there is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand. Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals, oil-yielding crops, vegetables, tree fruit or top fruit, in regions with a subtropical climate, oil-yielding crops and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops. In regions with a climate, coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, bananas, oranges, cotton. The oil palm is a palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil. Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, for example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of the countrys population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, cocoa, fruit. These farms, typically operated by corporations, cover tens of square kilometres. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a small income for families. Africa has realized significant growth in plantations, many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. Jatropha curcas is a crop grown for biofuel production in Africa
22.
Theobroma cacao
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Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make cocoa mass, cocoa powder, confectionery, ganache and chocolate. Leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–40 cm long, the flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches, this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, 1–2 cm diameter, with pink calyx, the floral formula is ✶ K5 C5 A G. While many of the flowers are pollinated by bees or butterflies/moths, cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies. Having the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. The fruit, called a pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm long and 8–10 cm wide, ripening yellow to orange. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called beans, the seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate, while the pulp is used in some countries to prepare refreshing juice, smoothies, jelly, and nata. The fermented pulp, until recently discarded in Ecuador, the Dominican Republic, each seed contains a significant amount of fat as cocoa butter. Their most noted active constituent is theobromine, a similar to caffeine. Small amounts of cocoa flavanol, a natural nutrient found in cocoa, has found to increase oxygen flow to the cerebral. Compounds found in Theobroma cacao have also found to have other substances that are beneficial for health such as proanthocyanidins. Proanthocyanidin is a compound made by the plant that is not needed directly for growth, but it has been found to promote antiviral, antibacterial. Pectin is a field of study that many land plants grow including Theobroma cacao. Pectin from Theobroma cacao has antimicrobial effects and has the potential to be used in the pharmaceutical, nutritional, pectin can be extracted from Theobroma cacao with a variety ways but two ways involve using aqueous nitric acid or boiling water. Cacao belongs to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Sterculioidea of the mallow family Malvaceae, Cacao is one of 22 species of Theobroma. The generic name is derived from the Greek for food of the gods, from θεός, meaning god, the specific name cacao is derived from the native name of the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages. The cacao was known as kakaw in Tzeltal, K’iche’ and Classic Maya, kagaw in Sayula Popoluca, cupuaçu, Theobroma grandiflorum, is a closely related species found in Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. Like cacao, it is also the source for a kind of known as cupulate or cupuaçu chocolate
23.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
24.
Mineral rights
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Mineral rights are property rights to exploit an area for the minerals it harbors. Mineral rights can be separate from property ownership, Ownership of mineral rights is an estate in real property. Technically it is known as an estate, although often referred to as mineral rights. It is the right of the owner to exploit, mine, the mineral estate of the land includes all organic and inorganic substances that form a part of the soil. Exceptions include sand, gravel, limestone, and subsurface water—which are normally considered part of the surface estate, mineral interests can be found across the entire United States. The most common known for oil and gas production include Texas, Oklahoma, North Dakota, California. Texas, being one of the highest producers of oil and gas, the Eagle Ford Shale and Permian Basin in Texas are the leaders in overall production of oil and gas. Therefore, mineral rights are common in these areas, the Eagle Ford Shale extends into 24 counties. Due to the amount of brittle carbonate in the Eagle Ford Shale. As a result, the Eagle Ford Shale is one of the largest producers of mineral rights, the Permian Basin is a “stacked play” with mineral formations spanning the Yates, San Andres, and Clear Fork. Mineral estates are sometimes severed from the surface estate, such severance is accomplished with a conveyance or reservation of these rights. This conveyance or reservation includes minerals or substances considered minerals, although technically not minerals, which are naturally occurring crystalline solids, legal regimes typically include hydrocarbon resources such as oil and natural gas under the term mineral rights. Such a conveyance or reservation includes royalties, bonuses and rentals, in the absence of such a conveyance, the surface owner retains the rights. Minerals may be possessed as an estate, which does not permit a person to sell them. After this, the revert to a predesignated entity, such as a specific organization or person. It is possible for mineral right owners to sever and sell oil and gas royalties, in such case, if the oil lease expires, the royalty owner has nothing and the mineral owner still owns the minerals. The four major stages for mineral rights leasing are, Ownership Leasing The Division Order The Royalty Check There are three distinct but related aspects of ownership and this arrangement between individual mineral owners and oil companies began prior to 1900 and still thrives today. If the term of the oil or gas lease extends beyond the term
25.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
26.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
27.
Pastor
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A pastor is usually an ordained leader of a Christian congregation. When used as an ecclesiastical styling or title, the term may be abbreviated to Pr or Ps, a pastor also gives advice and counsel to people from the community or congregation. The word pastor derives from the Latin noun pastor which means shepherd and relates to the Latin verb pascere - to lead to pasture, set to grazing, cause to eat. The term pastor also relates to the role of elder within the New Testament, many Protestant churches call their ministers pastors. Present-day usage of the word is rooted in the Biblical image of shepherding, the Hebrew Bible uses the Hebrew word רעה. English-language translations of the New Testament usually render the Greek noun ποιμήν as shepherd, the two words occur a total of 29 times in the New Testament, most frequently referring to Jesus. For example, Jesus called himself the Good Shepherd in John 10,11, the same words in the familiar Christmas story refer to literal shepherds. 1 Corinthians 9,7 - Paul says, of himself and the apostles, in the United States, the term pastor is used by Catholics for what in other English-speaking countries is called a parish priest. The Latin term used in the Code of Canon Law is parochus, the parish priest is the proper clergyman in charge of the congregation of the parish entrusted to him. Many Protestants use the term pastor as a title or as a job title, United Methodists, for example, ordain to the office of deacon and elder, each of whom can use the title of pastor depending upon their job description. These pastors may be lay people, seminary students, or seminary graduates in the ordination process, and cannot exercise any functions of clergy outside the charge where they are appointed. The use of the pastor can also be regional in some denominations, including some parts of the Methodist, Presbyterian, Seventh-day Adventist, American Churches of Christ. The use of the pastor to refer to the common Protestant title of modern times dates to the days of John Calvin. Both men, and other Reformers, seem to have revived the term to replace the Catholic priest in the minds of their followers, the pastor was considered to have a role separate from the board of presbyters. In some Lutheran churches, ordained clergy are called priests, while in others the term pastor is preferred, ordained clergy are called priests in the Episcopal Church, as in all other branches of the Anglican Communion. Bercot, David W. Will The Real Heretics Please Stand Up, newAdvent. org, The Catholic Encyclopedias entry on the term pastor. LifeWay. com, Articles to help the pastor in the roles of preacher, missionary, leader, shepherd, and person
28.
Abstinence
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Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food, the practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs, for example, one can abstain from smoking. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, in the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be an act, freely chosen to enhance life. The latter is a state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the life of desire, to a chosen ideal. Hindus observe fast once in a fightnight on the day of Ekadashi. This is done to please Lord Sri Krishna by keeping themselves busy in religious activities on this day, for Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the month of Ramadan. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet, in both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for a prior to taking Holy Communion. Many Traditionalist Catholics abstain from eating meat all Fridays in the year, Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence, the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat. Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol, mormons absstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for spiritual and charitable reasons. The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking. In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Hindus abstain from eating meat, total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism
29.
Protestant work ethic
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This contrasts with the focus upon religious attendance, confession, and ceremonial sacrament in the Roman Catholic tradition. A person does not need to be a religious Calvinist in order to follow the Protestant work ethic, as it is a part of certain cultures impacted by the Protestant Reformation. The concept is credited with helping to define the societies of Northern, Central and Western Europe such as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands. Even though some of these countries were affected by Lutheranism or Anglicanism than Calvinism. As penal law was enacted to uphold the teachings of the Church of England in England. Among them were the Puritans who emigrated to New England, bringing the work ethic with them, germanic immigrants brought their work ethic to the United States of America, Canada, South Africa and other European colonies. The phrase was coined in 1904–05 by Max Weber in his book The Protestant Ethic. Protestants, beginning with Martin Luther, reconceptualized worldly work as a duty which benefits both the individual and society as a whole, thus, the Catholic idea of good works was transformed into an obligation to consistently work diligently as a sign of grace. Since it was impossible to know who was predestined, the notion developed that it might be possible to discern that a person was elect by observing their way of life, hard work and frugality were thought to be two important consequences of being one of the elect. Protestants were thus attracted to these qualities and supposed to strive for reaching them, in short, he had to be self made. The so-called Protestant Ethic then prevalent held that man was a sturdy and responsible individual, responsible to himself, his society, anybody who could not measure up to that standard could not qualify for public office or even popular respect. One who was born with a spoon in his mouth might be envied. There has been a revitalization of Webers interest, including the work of Lawrence Harrison, Samuel P. Huntington, to put it bluntly, we are witnessing the decline and fall of the Protestant work ethic in Europe. This represents the triumph of secularization in Western Europe—the simultaneous decline of both Protestantism and its unique work ethic. It is common for those in a Protestant work culture to skip lunch or to eat lunch while doing their job. This is in contrast to Catholic cultures which practice siesta at lunch time, and neo-Confucianist cultures such as China, Korea, in Italy, many shops now remain open during siesta, while in China, companies are encouraging employees to give up their traditional break time. The economist Joseph Schumpeter argues that capitalism began in Italy in the 14th century, becker and Wossmann at the University of Munich have written a discussion paper describing an alternate theory. A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economics History, heath,1973, covers some of the criticism of Webers theory
30.
Obeah
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Obeah is a term used by the Igbo tribe in Nigeria, and also in the West Indies to refer to sorcery, and religious practices developed among West African slaves, specifically of Igbo origin. Obeah is similar to other Afro-American religions including Palo, Vodou, Santería, Obeah is practiced in Haiti, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago and other Caribbean nations. Obeah is associated with both benign and malignant magic, charms, luck, and with mysticism in general, in some Caribbean nations, Obeah refers to folk religions of the African diaspora. In some cases, aspects of folk religions have survived through syncretism with Christian symbolism and practice introduced by European colonials. Casual observation may conclude that Christian symbolism is incorporated into Obeah worship, in parts of the Caribbean where Obeah existed, slaves were taken from a variety of African nations with differing spiritual practices and religions. It is from these arrivals and their spiritualisms that Obeah originates, the hypothesis of origin that is most accepted and is supported by the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute database traces obeah to the dibia or obia traditions of the Igbo people, specialists in Obia were known as Ndi Obia and practised the same activities as the obeah men and women of the Caribbean like predicting the future and manufacturing charms. Among the Igbo there were known as ọbiạ which were said to be able to talk. Parts of the Caribbean where Obeah was most active imported a number of its slaves from the Igbo dominated Bight of Biafra. In another hypothesis, the Efik language is the root of obeah where the word comes from the Efik ubio meaning a bad omen. The last hypothesis of the origin of Obeah lies with the Ashanti who called their priests Obayifoɔ, there is also evidence of Akan names among Obeah men of the Caribbean in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Akan origin of Obeah has been criticised by writers who hold that an Igbo origin is more likely. However, in colonies where Bight of Biafra slaves were represented and Akan were plenty. The first time in Jamaican history the term obeah was used was to refer to Nanny of the Maroons an Ashanti-Akan queen as an old witch, Obeah came to mean any physical object, such as a talisman or charm, that was used for evil magical purposes. Referred to as an Obeah-item Obeah incorporated various beliefs from the religions of later migrants to the colonies where it was present, Obeah also influenced other religions in the Caribbean, e. g. Christianity which incorporated some Obeah beliefs. In The Serpent Myth, William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the 19th century Golden Dawn magical order, claims Ob was an Egyptian word for serpent and is the source of the term Obeah. In 1787 a letter to an English newspaper referred to Obiu-women interpreting the wishes of the dead at the funeral of a slave in Jamaica. A continuing source of white anxiety related to Obeah was the belief that practitioners were skilled in using poisons, an anti-Obeah law passed in Barbados in 1818 specifically forbade the possession of any poison, or any noxious or destructive substance
31.
Veneration
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Veneration, or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions, philologically, to venerate derives from the Latin verb, venerare, meaning to regard with reverence and respect. Veneration of saints is practiced, formally or informally, by adherents of some branches of all religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Islam. The practice of veneration is deemed heretical by iconoclastic denominations, Hinduism has a long tradition of veneration of saints, expressed toward various gurus and teachers of sanctity, both living and dead. Branches of Buddhism include formal liturgical worship of saints, with Mahayana Buddhism classifying degrees of sainthood, other sects, such as Wahhabists etc. abhor the practice. In Judaism, there is no classical or formal recognition of saints, in some regions, for example within Judaism in Morocco, there is a long and widespread tradition of saint veneration. Both main branches of Buddhism, Theravada and Mahayana, recognize those who have achieved a degree of enlightenment as an Arhat. Mahayana Buddhism particularly gives emphasis to the power of saints to aid ordinary people on the path to enlightenment and those who have reached enlightenment, and have delayed their own complete enlightenment in order to help others, are called Bodhisattvas. Mahayana Buddhism has formal liturgical practices for venerating saints, along with specific levels of sainthood. Tibetan Buddhists venerate especially holy lamas, such as the Dalai Lama, veneration towards those who were considered holy began in early Christianity, with the martyrs first being given special honor. Official church commemoration of saints in Rome beginning as early as the third century, over time, the honor also began to be given to those Christians who lived lives of holiness and sanctity. Various denominations venerate and determine saints in different ways, with some having a formal canonization or glorification process, in Roman Catholic and Orthodox theology, veneration is a type of honor distinct from the adoration due to God alone. It is the manifestation of submission, and acknowledgement of dependence, appropriately shown towards the excellence of a divine person. It is the worship of the Creator that God alone deserves, veneration, known as dulia in classical theology, is the honor and reverence appropriately due to the excellence of a created person. Excellence exhibited by created beings likewise deserves recognition and honor and we see a general example of veneration in events like the awarding of academic awards for excellence in school, or the awarding of olympic medals for excellence in sports. There is nothing contrary to the adoration of God when we offer the appropriate honor. We must make a further clarification regarding the use of the term “worship” in relation to the categories of adoration and veneration, historically, schools of theology have used the term “worship” as a general term which included both adoration and veneration. They would distinguish between “worship of adoration” and “worship of veneration. ”The word “worship” was not synonymous with adoration, hence Catholic sources will sometimes use the term “worship” not to indicate adoration, but only the worship of veneration given to Mary and the saints
32.
Shango
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He is syncretized with either Saint Barbara or Saint Jerome. Shango is historically a royal ancestor of the Yoruba as he was the third Alafin of the Oyo Kingdom prior to his posthumous deification, following Oranmiyan, and Ajaka, Jakuta was the third Alafin of Oyo. Jakuta brought prosperity to the Oyo Empire during his reign, in Professor Masons mythological account of heroes and kings, contrary to his peaceful brother Ajaka, Jakuta was a powerful and even violent ruler. He reigned for seven years the whole of which period was marked by his continuous campaigns, the end of his reign resulted from his own inadvertent destruction of his palace by lightning. During his lifetime, he was married to three wives namely Oshun, Oba, and Oya, the worshiping of the Sango deity in Yoruba land is actually the fifth day of the week in which is named Ojo Jakuta. The worshipers worship with varieties of foods such as, Guguru, Bitter cola, prepared Amala and Gbegiri soup. Also, it is worshiped with Bata drum, one significant thing about this Deity is that it is worshiped using red clothings, Just as he is said to have admired red attires during his lifetime. Shango is venerated in Santería and Haitian Vodou as Chango, in Haïti, he is from the Nago Nation, as Ogou. Palo recognizes him as Siete Rayos, while in Candomblé this Orixa is referred to as Xango, the Sango worshippers in Yorubaland in Nigeria do not eat cowpea because they believe that the wrath of the god of iron would descend on them. The Sango god necklaces are composed in varying patterns of red and white beads, ceremonies for Sango devotees in the New World are focused on achieving power and control over their lives. The song Mama Loi, Papa Loi by Bahamian musician Exuma includes the lines Come on Shango, johnson, Samuel, History of the Yorubas, London 1921. Lange, Dierk, Yoruba origins and the Lost Tribes of Israel, Anthropos 106, law, Robin, The Oyo Empire c.1600 – c. Épithètes royales akkadiennes et sumériennes, Paris 1967, tishken, Joel E. Tóyìn Fálọlá, and Akíntúndéí Akínyẹmí, Sàngó in Africa and the African Diaspora, Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana University Press,2009
33.
Psalms
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The Book of Psalms, commonly referred to simply as Psalms or the Psalms, is the first book of the Ketuvim, the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning instrumental music and, by extension, the book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches. Many of the psalms are linked to the name of David, over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the leader or choirmaster, including such statements as with stringed instruments and according to lilies. Others appear to be references to types of composition, such as A psalm and Song. Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common being of David, others named include Moses, Asaph, the Sons of Korah and Solomon. A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship, Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation Ps. Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, see table—between the Hebrew and it is generally admitted that Pss.9 and 10 were originally a single acrostic poem, they have been wrongly separated by Massorah, rightly united by the Septuagint and Vulgate. On the other hand, Ps.144 is made up of two songs — verses 1–11 and 12–15, Pss.42 and 43 are shown by identity of subject, of metrical structure and of refrain, to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Ps.146, later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and not a few other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes,1,2,3,4,6 +13,9 +10,19,20,21,56 +57,69 +70,114 +115,148,149,150. A choral ode would seem to have been the form of Pss.14 +70. The two strophes and the epode are Ps,14, the two antistrophes are Ps.70. It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter, Ps.14 =53, Ps.70 =40. Other such duplicated psalms are Ps and this loss of the original form of some of the psalms is allowed by the Biblical Commission to have been due to liturgical uses, neglect of copyists, or other causes. The Septuagint bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151, Some versions of the Peshitta include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely written in Hebrew. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set, gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types, Hymns, songs of praise for Gods work in creation or in history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, two sub-categories are enthronement psalms, celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying Mount Zion, Gods dwelling-place in Jerusalem
34.
Hazel Manning
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Hazel Anne Marie Manning is a former Trinidad and Tobago politician. She entered the Senate as a Peoples National Movement Senator after the 2001 election, Senator Manning served as Minister of Education of Trinidad and Tobago and subsequently as Minister of Local Government. She is also the spouse of former Prime Minister Patrick Manning and she was born in the southern city of San Fernando and received her secondary education at St. Josephs Convent, San Fernando. She obtained her bachelors degree from the University of the West Indies at St. Augustine in the Social Sciences and she subsequently obtained a post graduate Diploma in Administration. She and Patrick Manning were married in 1972 and her career has included working in various agencies including the Town and Country Planning Division of the Ministry of Planning and Development where she was head of its research unit. She also worked for years as a social impact assessment consultant
35.
Brent Sancho
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Brent Sancho CM is a Trinidadian former football player and politician. In February 2015, he became the Minister of Sports for his country, Trinidad. Sancho spent his years playing for St. Johns University in New York City. Sancho then spent most of his career playing in the United States. A successful spell in the SPL was followed by a transfer to League One side Gillingham, in December 2007 Sancho joined Millwall on a months contract. This was not renewed and he himself once again without a club until signing for Scottish Football League Division Two champions Ross County. Sancho went on trial with Wrexham A. F. C. in July 2008 but was not signed by the club, eventually, Sancho returned to the USA in August 2008, joining the Atlanta Silverbacks and playing in eight matches in the remaining part of the season. On 26 February 2009 the Rochester Rhinos announced the signing of Sancho to a two-year contract, in the third match, against Paraguay, he scored an own goal and defeat in this game confirmed Trinidad and Tobagos elimination from the tournament. On 9 October 2006, Sancho announced his retirement from international football along with 12 others, speaking at a press conference, Sancho said, Its not just monetary. They have made certain contractual arrangements which they have now reneged on and this followed a dispute between the World Cup players and the Trinidad and Tobago Football Federation regarding bonuses for playing in the World Cup. The issue went to court in the United Kingdom which ruled in favour of the players, several of the players subsequently returned to the national team, but Sancho did not play for T&T after the 2006 World Cup. As of February 2015, the dispute between the players and the national association was still ongoing. In 2010, Sancho was the owner/coach of the Trinidad and Tobago Professional Football League club North East Stars and he handed control of Central FC to the clubs co-owner, Kevin Harrison, when he was appointed Minister of Sport. In 2015, Sancho was appointed Minister of Sport in Trinidad, Rochester Rhinos bio Brent Sancho at Soccerbase
36.
Black Refugee (War of 1812)
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They were the largest part of migration of African Americans who sought freedom in the War of 1812. Those from the Gulf Coast settled in Trinidad in 1815, during 1813, Vice Admiral Warren was ordered to receive aboard his ships any blacks who might petition him for assistance. These he was to receive as free men, not as slaves, captain Robert Barrie of HMS Dragon reported to Admiral Warren there is no doubt but the blacks of Virginia and Maryland would cheerfully take up arms and join us against the Americans. By the time that the Admiralty received the report, they had decided to order Warrens successor, Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane. Given under my hand at Bermuda this second day of April,1814, alex Cochrane Cochranes proclamation made no mention of slaves. Although only a few doubted its true application, it was misinterpreted as an incitement to violent revolt. The flow of refugees had already considerable, and Cochranes action did no more than confirm what had been happening for over a year. For the most part the Black Refugees remained in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, in total, about 4000 Africans escaped to the British by way of the Royal Navy, the largest emancipation of African Americans prior to the American Civil War. About 2000 settled in Nova Scotia and about 400 settled in New Brunswick, Black Refugees in Nova Scotia were first housed in the former prisoner of war camp on Melville Island, which became an immigration facility after the War of 1812. From Melville Island, they moved to settlements around Halifax and in the Annapolis Valley, other black refugees were settled in Trinidad, most having served in the Corps of Colonial Marines, but including around 200 from Louisiana and East and West Florida. The community in Trinidad became known as Merikins and their company still exist. The Black Refugees make up the largest single source of ancestors for Black Nova Scotians, large numbers of Black Refugees settled in North and East Preston, Nova Scotia, communities still occupied today by their descendents. Many other Black refugees settled in communities such as Hammonds Plains, Beechville, Windsor. Some Black Refugee families moved closer to Halifax for employment opportunities in the 1840s, the migration included the religious leader and abolitionist Richard Preston and the parents of William Hall, one of Canadas first winners of a Victoria Cross
37.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
38.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
39.
Tony Martin (professor)
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Tony Martin was a Trinidad-born professor of Africana Studies at Wellesley College. He retired in June 2007 as professor emeritus after 34 years teaching at the Africana Studies Department, born Anthony Martin in Port of Spain, Trinidad, he attended Tranquillity School, where he was a contemporary of Stokely Carmichael. After secondary school Martin went to England to study law at Grays Inn, London, Martin subsequently received a B. Sc. honours degree in economics at the University of Hull. Martin was founder and chair of the Africana Studies Department at Wellesley College, where he began teaching in 1973, became tenured in 1975, Martin was a prolific author of scholarly articles on many aspects of Black History and lectured all over the world. He received awards and honors from the American Philosophical Society, the Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations and many others. Martin also wrote, compiled or edited 14 books, most recently Caribbean History, From Pre-Colonial Origins to the Present and Amy Ashwood Garvey, Pan-Africanist, Feminist,1, Or, A Tale of Two Amies. He had been working on two biographies of Trinidadian women, of Audrey Jeffers and Kathleen Davis. Martin died unexpectedly on January 17,2013, aged 70, at Westshore Medical Hospital, Cocorite and he co-authored, with Wendy Ball, Rare Afro-Americana, A Reconstruction of the Adger Library. When she asked him about his escort, Martin, she claims, responded using profanity, accused her of racism and bigotry, and positioned himself so as to physically intimidate her. Martin denied all claims, and declared that a group of women accosted him rudely. In an interview with a newspaper, Plantec said, I stopped him and said, Excuse me, sir. He looked at me and said, What do you mean, I said, What Wellesley student are you with. Martin, in the interview, agreed that there was an angry exchange. He also said he asked permission from the desk before going to the restroom. Coming out of the restroom, I was rudely accosted by a group of women who were coming up the stairs behind me. I tried to ignore them for a space of time. And eventually, when we got to the top of the stairs I became very annoyed, mary Lefkowitz was a classics professor at Wellesley, who taught courses on ancient Greek culture. In a 1992 article for The New Republic, she challenged what she felt were ahistorical Afrocentric claims, the books thesis, is that Jews had a disproportionately large role in the black slave trade relative to their numbers. This thesis has since been condemned and refuted by historians including the American Historical Association
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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African-American history
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African-American history is the branch of American history that specifically discusses the African-American or Black American ethnic groups in the United States. Most African Americans are the descendants of Africans forcibly brought to, African Americans have been known by various names throughout American history, including colored and Negro, which are no longer accepted in English. Instead the most usual and accepted terms nowadays are African American and Black, the term person of color usually refers not only to African Americans, but also to other non-white ethnic groups. African-American history is celebrated and highlighted annually in the United States during February, although previously marginalized, African-American history has gained ground in school and university curricula and gained wider scholarly attention since the late 20th century. The great majority of African Americans descend from Africans brought directly from Africa, originally these slaves were captured in African wars and transported via the Atlantic slave trade. The American slaves descended from the ethnic groups from mostly western and central Africa. A smaller minority were from eastern and southeastern Africa, some of the major ethnic groups the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Hausa, Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, slaves from specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and more dominant in numbers than others in certain regions of what later became the United States. Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade, the largest source of slaves to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many tribes with their own customs and religions, by the tenth century, Islam had been soaked up by many of the residents. Those villages in West Africa that were enough to be in good conditions for growth and success. They also contributed their success to the slave trade, Origins and Percentages of African Americans imported into British North America and Louisiana Before the Atlantic Slave Trade there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, the people of Mali and Benin are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves. In the account of Olaudah Equiano, he described the process of being transported to the colonies, on the ships, the slaves were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships. Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender, under the deck, the slaves were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Male slaves were kept in the ships hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding. Due to the lack of hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly
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Atlantic slave trade
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The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
