1.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Peterhouse, Cambridge
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Peterhouse is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It is the oldest college of the university, having founded in 1284 by Hugo de Balsham, Bishop of Ely. Today, Peterhouse has 226 undergraduates,86 full-time graduate students and 45 fellows, the modern name of Peterhouse does not include the word college. Peterhouse is one of the wealthiest colleges in Cambridge, with assets exceeding £250 million, Peterhouse is widely considered the most traditional of the Cambridge colleges. It is one of the few that still seeks to insist that its members attend communal dinners, Hall takes place in two sittings, with the second known as Formal Hall, which consists of a three-course candlelit meal and which must be attended wearing gowns. At Formal Hall, the rise as the fellows proceed in, a gong is rung. The college has five Nobel laureates associated with it, either as students or fellows, Sir John Kendrew, Sir Aaron Klug, Archer Martin, Max Perutz. After disagreement between the scholars and the Brethren of the Hospital, both requested a separation, the Church of St Peter without Trumpington Gate was to be used by the scholars. Bishop Hugo de Balsham died in 1286, bequeathing 300 marks that were used to buy land to the south of St Peters Church. The earliest surviving set of statutes for the college was given to it by the then Bishop of Ely, Simon Montacute, although based on those of Merton College, these statutes clearly display the lack of resources then available to the college. They were used in 1345 to defeat an attempt by Edward III to appoint a candidate of his own as scholar, in 1354-55, William Moschett set up a trust that resulted in nearly 70 acres of land at Fen Ditton being transferred to the College by 1391-92. The Colleges relative poverty was relieved in 1401 when it acquired the advowson and rectory of Hinton through the efforts of Bishop John Fordham and John Newton. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the college acquired the area formerly known as Volneys Croft, which today is the area of St Peters Terrace, the William Stone Building. In 1553, Andrew Perne was appointed Master and his religious views were pragmatic enough to be favoured by both Mary I, who gave him the Deanery of Ely, and Elizabeth I. A contemporary joke was that the letters on the weather vane of St Peters Church could represent Andrew Perne, Papist or Andrew Perne, Protestant according to which way the wind was blowing. Having previously been close to the reformist Regius Chair of Divinity, Martin Bucer, later as vice-chancellor of the university Perne would have Bucers bones exhumed, John Foxe in his Actes and Monuments singled this out as shameful railing. There is a hole burnt in the middle of the relevant page in Pernes own copy of Foxe, Perne died in 1589, leaving a legacy to the college that funded a number of fellowships and scholarships, as well bequeathing an extensive collection of books. This collection and rare volumes since added to it is now known as the Perne Library, between 1626 and 1634, the Master was Matthew Wren
4.
Martin J. Taylor
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Sir Martin John Taylor, FRS is a British mathematician and academic. On 5 November 2009 he was elected Warden of Merton College, Oxford, Taylor was born in Leicester in 1952 and educated at Wyggeston Grammar School. His early research concerned various properties and structures of algebraic numbers, in 1981 he proved the Fröhlich conjecture relating the symmetries of algebraic integers to the behaviour of certain analytic functions called Artin L-functions. Taylor was awarded the London Mathematical Society Whitehead Prize in 1982 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1996. He was President of the London Mathematical Society from 1998 to 2000 and in 2004 was appointed Physical Secretary, Taylor was knighted in the 2009 New Year Honours. Taylor received an honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of East Anglia in July 2012 and his hobbies include fly fishing and hill walking, and he is an enthusiastic supporter of Manchester United. Sir Martin Taylors profile on the Merton College website Martin J. Taylor at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
5.
Colleges of the University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford has 38 Colleges and six Permanent Private Halls of religious foundation. These colleges are not only houses of residence, but have substantial responsibility for student teaching, generally tutorials and classes are the responsibility of colleges, while lectures, examinations, laboratories, and the central library are run by the university. Most colleges take both graduates and undergraduates, but several are for graduates only, undergraduate and graduate students may name preferred colleges in their applications. For the Department of Physics, reallocation is done on a random basis after a shortlist of candidates is drawn upon, for graduate students, many colleges express a preference for candidates who plan to undertake research in an area of interest of one of its fellows. St Hughs College, for example, states that it accepts students in most subjects. College buildings range from the medieval to modern buildings, but most are made up of interlinked quadrangles,2008 saw the first modern merger of colleges, with Green College and Templeton College merging to form Green Templeton College. This reduced the number of Colleges of the University from 39 to 38, the number of PPHs also reduced in 2008, when Greyfriars closed down. The University of Oxfords collegiate system arose because the university came into existence through the agglomeration of independent institutions in the city of Oxford. The first academic houses were monastic halls, of the dozens that were established in Oxford during the 12th to 15th centuries, none survived the Reformation. The modern Dominican permanent private hall of Blackfriars is a descendant of the original, as the University took shape, friction between the hundreds of students living where and how they pleased led to a decree that all undergraduates would have to reside in approved halls. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Often generously endowed and with permanent teaching staff, the colleges were originally the preserve of graduate students, however, once they began accepting fee-paying undergraduates in the 14th century, the halls days were numbered. The fourth oldest college is Exeter, which was founded in 1314 and the fifth is Oriel, the most recent new foundation is Kellogg College, founded in 1990, while the most recent overall is Green Templeton College,2008. Women entered the university for the first time in 1878, becoming members of the University in 1920, womens colleges before integration were Somerville College, Lady Margaret Hall, St Annes, St Hildas, and St Hughs. In 1974 the first mens colleges to admit women as members were Brasenose, Hertford, Jesus College, St Catherines, however, the Hall had begun to admit female postgraduate students from Michaelmas 2014. Some colleges, such as Kellogg, Linacre, Nuffield, St Antonys, St Cross, all Souls College admits only Fellows. Harris Manchester College is intended specifically for students with a minimum age of 21. Each college and permanent private hall has its own arms, although in some cases these were assumed rather than granted by the College of Arms, the blazons below are taken from the Oxford University Calendar unless otherwise indicated
6.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
7.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
8.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
9.
Merton College Chapel
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Merton College Chapel is the church of Merton College, Oxford, England. Dedicated to St Mary and St John the Baptist, the chapel was completed in its present form the end of the 13th century. On 13 September 1266 the church of St John the Baptist was granted to the scholars of Merton College by the Abbey of Reading. However, by the late 1280s it had fallen into a ruinous condition, the present choir with its enormous east window was complete by 1294. The window is an important example of how the strict conventions of the Early English Period of architecture were beginning to be relaxed at the end of the 13th century. The south transept was built in the 14th century, the transept in the early years of the 15th century. The great tower was complete by 1450, the chapel replaced the parish church of St. John and continued to serve as the parish church as well as the chapel until 1891. It is for this reason that it is referred to as Merton Church in older documents. This dual role also probably explains the enormous scale of the chapel, the Reformation did not leave Merton Chapel untouched. During the reign of the zealously Protestant Edward VI, traditional forms of worship began to change, however, Edward died young, and during the reign of his sister Mary I Catholicism was restored, enthusiastically embraced by the college. The church was in a bad state by the seventeenth century, leading to a number of rebuilding projects by architects including Christopher Wren. A new choral foundation was established in 2008 when Peter Phillips, the choir consists of twenty-eight singers, of whom eighteen are choral scholars, there are also two organ scholars. The choir has toured in France, the USA and in Sweden, the choirs repertoire includes a number of pieces written for the College Choir by Howard Skempton, Gabriel Jackson and John Tavener. The college celebrates its 750th anniversary in 2014, when the Merton Choirbook will be premiered, the College also recently commissioned a new organ to be installed, to coincide with the anniversary celebrations. The organ was built by Dobson Pipe Organ Builders from Lake City, Iowa and it will be officially opened at the Organ Festival weekend in April 2014. A spire from the chapel has resided in Pavilion Garden VI of the University of Virginia since 1928, Merton College Library Mob Quad at Merton Henderson, Bernard William, Merton College. Retrieved 9 February 2010 Highfield, J. R. L. and Martin, a History of Merton College, Oxford. Parker, John Henry, An Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture, retrieved 9 February 2010 Official Merton College Chapel website History of the Chapel Virtual tour of Merton
10.
Mob Quad
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Mob Quad is a four-sided group of buildings from the 13th and 14th centuries in Merton College, Oxford surrounding a small lawn. The quadrangle pattern has since been copied at other colleges and universities worldwide. It was built in three distinct phases, the oldest part is the colleges Treasury or Muniment Room that stands above and behind the arch in the north east corner. The roof of this part is strikingly steep and is made of stone in order to protect it from fire, the steep pitch of the roof is necessary to support the weight of the stone. The present roof was restored with new Purbeck stone in 1966, the upper floor has always been used to store the college muniments, the ground floor was probably the original bursary. It is not known exactly when the building was completed, and this range to the south of the Muniment Room was complete by about 1310–1320. The matching North side is slightly earlier and apparently stands on the site of the former church of St John. Evidence shows from the accounts that the old church was being used as rooms by 1308. These buildings were designed, and are used, as accommodation for members of the college. They consist of three storeys of rooms, the third being built in the steeply-pitched attics, the rooms are arranged in sets on either side of central wooden staircases. The walls are thick and faced in rag-finished Cotswold stone, the south and west ranges which complete the quadrangle were built in 1373–1378. They were built to provide accommodation and to house the expanding college library. The old part of the library is still there, and, still expanding, the large dormer windows were added as part of Warden Saviles rebuilding work which began in 1589. The origin of the name Mob Quad is obscure, on older plans and accounts the quad is called variously Little Quadrangle, Old Quadrangle, Bachelors Quadrangle, Postmasters Quadrangle, and Undergraduates Quadrangle. The word mob, derived from the Latin mobile vulgus does not appear in English until the late 17th century and it was possibly originally a humorous description of the occupants. The lawn is a 20th-century addition, Merton College, Oxford Merton College Library Bott, Alan. Merton College, A short history of the buildings, martin, G. H. Highfield, J. R. L. A history of Merton College, Oxford, some thoughts about Mob-Quad in the eighteenth century and at other times
11.
Quadrangle (architecture)
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In architecture, a quadrangle is a space or courtyard, usually rectangular in plan, the sides of which are entirely or mainly occupied by parts of a large building. The word is probably most closely associated with college or university campus architecture, most quadrangles are open-air, while a few have been roofed over, to provide additional space for social meeting areas or coffee shops for students. The word quadrangle was originally synonymous with quadrilateral, but this usage is now relatively uncommon, some modern quadrangles resemble cloister gardens of medieval monasteries, called garths, which were usually square or rectangular, enclosed by covered arcades or cloisters. However, it is clear from the oldest examples which are plain and unadorned with arcades, grander quadrangles that look like cloisters came later, once the idea of a college was well established and benefactors or founders wished to create more monumental buildings. In North America, Thomas Jeffersons design for the University of Virginia centered the housing, later, some American college and university planners imitated the Jeffersonian plan, the Oxbridge idea, Beaux-Arts forms, and other models. The University of Chicagos Gothic campus is notable for its innovative use of quadrangles. All five barracks at The Citadel feature quadrangles with red-and-white squares, quadrangles are also found in traditional Kerala houses and is known as the Nadumittam
12.
Merton College Library
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Merton College Library is one of the earliest libraries in England and the oldest academic library in the world still in continuous daily use. The library is located in parts of the college, and houses a priceless collection of early printed books. The historic collection was built through benefactions, including manuscripts donated by the medieval clergyman William Reade. The library also contains early printed books from the libraries of Griffin Higgs and Henry Kent. The main collection runs to approximately 70,000 volumes, the Upper Library was improved in the 16th century under Warden Sir Henry Savile. The Upper Library still retains these 16th-century fittings, although the main academic library is housed elsewhere, the Upper Library is still regularly used by members of the college, and is open to visitors by arrangement. The library also has important collections of papers and manuscripts from three former Mertonians, mountaineer Andrew Sandy Irvine and authors T. S. Eliot and Max Beerbohm. The Library is mentioned in the 1925 novel Varsity The Great Gatsby written by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald, merton College, Oxford Mob Quad Information on the Library from Mertons web site
13.
J. R. R. Tolkien
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He was at one time a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972, after Tolkiens death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his fathers extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term legendarium to the part of these writings. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien and this has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the father of modern fantasy literature—or, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, forbes ranked him the 5th top-earning dead celebrity in 2009. Tolkiens paternal ancestors were middle-class craftsmen who made and sold clocks, watches and pianos in London, the Tolkien family had emigrated from Germany in the 18th century but had become quickly intensely English. According to the tradition, the Tolkiens had arrived in England in 1756. Several families with the surname Tolkien or similar spelling live in northwestern Germany, mainly in Lower Saxony, however, this origin of the name has not been proven. A German writer has suggested that the name is likely to derive from the village of Tolkynen near Rastenburg. Although that village is far from Lower Saxony, its name is derived from the now-extinct Old Prussian language. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892 in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State to Arthur Reuel Tolkien, an English bank manager, the couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank for which he worked. Tolkien had one sibling, his brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel. In another incident, a family servant, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off. When he was three, he went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them and this left the family without an income, so Tolkiens mother took him to live with her parents in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole, then a Worcestershire village, Mabel Tolkien taught her two children at home. Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil and she taught him a great deal of botany and awakened in him the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his lessons were those concerning languages
14.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
15.
Norrington Table
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Although the difference between the highest places on the table is usually very slight, the top colleges remain very competitive about their rankings on the Table. Their competitiveness has been heightened in recent years by increased media attention on the rankings, contrary to popular belief, the Norrington Table was not created in 1962 by Sir Arthur Norrington, who was then president of Trinity College. Norrington did not invent the idea of producing a table of the results of Oxford Colleges, rather, he suggested a refinement to the weightings given to results by a pre-existing table. Norringtons scoring system was suggested in 1963 and abandoned after 1985, on 5 September 1963, Norrington had a letter published in The Times, in which he objected to the table that their correspondent had invented two days earlier. The Times had previously published a table of Oxford Colleges results in 1962, Norrington wrote, Your Correspondent has analysed the final examination results this year and gives an order of merit, among the first colleges, based on the percentage of Firsts and Seconds. This, in effect, is the same as basing it on the percentage of Thirds, a better result, I submit, is obtained by a points system in which a First scores more than a second and a Second more than a Third. This method of calculation will be found to promote Magdalen and Merton, the Tompkins Table became the preferred rating for Cambridge colleges and has prevailed for Oxford colleges, too, since 1986. John Lucas, Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, presented a critique of the Norrington Table in a 1980 article titled Norrington Blues
16.
Henry Savile (Bible translator)
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Sir Henry Savile was an English scholar, Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and Provost of Eton. He was a Member of the Parliament of England for Bossiney in 1589 and Dunwich in 1593. He was the son of Henry Savile of Bradley, near Halifax in Yorkshire, England, a member of an old county family, the Saviles of Methley and he was educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, where he matriculated in 1561. He became a fellow of Merton in 1565 and he established a reputation as a Greek scholar and mathematician by voluntary lectures on the Almagest, and in 1575 became junior proctor. In 1578 he travelled on the continent of Europe, where he collected manuscripts and is said to have been employed by Queen Elizabeth as her resident in the Low Countries, on his return he was named Greek tutor to the Queen. In 1583, Lord Burghley appointed Savile, with John Chamber and Thomas Digges, to sit on a commission to consider whether England should adopt the Gregorian calendar, in 1585 he was established as Warden of Merton by a vigorous exercise of the interest of Burghley and Secretary Walsingham. He proved a successful and autocratic head of house, generally unpopular with fellows and undergraduates and his translation of four books of the Histories of Tacitus, with the learned Commentary on Roman Warfare, enhanced his reputation. He also sat in Parliament as the member for Bossiney in 1589, on 26 May 1596 he obtained the provostship of Eton, the reward of persistent begging. He was not qualified for the post by the statutes of the college, for he was not in orders, Savile insisted with considerable ingenuity that the queen had a right to dispense with statutes, and at last he got his way. In February 1601 he was put under arrest on suspicion of having been concerned in the rebellion of the Earl of Essex and he was soon released and his friendship with the faction of Essex went far to gain him the favour of James I. So no doubt did the views he had maintained in regard to the statutes of Eton, on 30 September 1604 Savile was knighted, and in that year he was named one of the body of scholars appointed to prepare the authorized version of the Bible. He was entrusted with parts of the gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, in 1619 he founded and endowed a chair in astronomy and a chair in geometry at Oxford, both bearing his name. He died at Eton on 19 February 1622 and his edition of St. John Chrysostom in eight folio volumes was published in 1610–1613. It was printed by the printer in a private press erected at the expense of Sir Henry. The Chrysostom, which cost him £8000 and did not sell well, was the most considerable work of pure learning undertaken in England in his time, at the same press he published an edition of the Cyropaedia in 1618. Savile used Cambridge University Library MS Ff.1.25.1 as his source for this, a brother, Thomas Savile, was also a member of Merton College and had some reputation as a scholar. His surviving child Elizabeth married Sir John Sedley and was mother of Sir Charles Sedley and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Carr, William. London, Smith, Elder & Co. p.367
17.
Balliol College, Oxford
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Balliol College /ˈbeɪliəl/, founded in 1263, is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Among the colleges alumni are three former ministers, five Nobel laureates, and numerous literary and philosophical figures, including Adam Smith, Gerard Manley Hopkins. In 2012 Balliol had an endowment of £62. 5m, Balliol College was founded in about 1263 by John I de Balliol under the guidance of the Bishop of Durham. Under a statute of 1881, New Inn Hall was merged into Balliol College in 1887, Balliol acquired New Inn Halls admissions and other records for 1831–1887 as well as the library of New Inn Hall, which largely contained 18th-century law books. Along with many of the ancient colleges, Balliol has evolved its own traditions and customs over the centuries, the patron saint of the College is Saint Catherine of Alexandria. On her feast day, a dinner is held for all final year students within Balliol. This festival was established by 1550. Another important feast is the Snell Dinner and this dinner is held in memory of John Snell, whose benefaction established exhibitions for students from the University of Glasgow to study at Balliol one of whom was Adam Smith. The feast is attended by fellows of Balliol College, the current Snell Exhibitioners, by far the most eccentric event is The Nepotists carol-singing event organised by the Colleges Arnold and Brackenbury Society. This event happens on the last Friday of Michaelmas term each year, on this occasion, Balliol students congregate in the college hall to enjoy mulled wine and the singing of carols. The evening historically ended with a rendition of The Gordouli on Broad Street, outside the gates of Trinity College, verses of this form are now known as Balliol rhymes. The best known of these rhymes is the one on Benjamin Jowett and this has been widely quoted and reprinted in virtually every book about Jowett and about Balliol ever since. This and 18 others are attributed to Henry Charles Beeching, the other quatrains are much less well known. For many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Balliol and those of its neighbour to the east, Trinity College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. The rivalry reflects that which exists between Trinity College, Cambridge and Balliols sister college, St Johns College, Cambridge. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. In fact, in its form, the rivalry appears to date from the late 1890s
18.
University College, Oxford
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University College, is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. It has a claim to being the oldest college of the university, as of 2009, the college had an estimated financial endowment of £109m. The college is associated with a number of influential people, notable alumni include Clement Attlee, C. S. Lewis, Bill Clinton, V. S. Naipaul, Stephen Hawking and Percy Bysshe Shelley. A legend arose in the 14th century that the college was founded by King Alfred in 872, however most agree its foundation was in 1249 by William of Durham. He bequeathed money to support ten or twelve Masters of Arts studying Divinity, and this later date still allows the claim that Univ is the oldest of the Oxford colleges, although this is contested by Balliol College and Merton College. Until the 16th century, it was open to Fellows studying theology. As Univ grew in size and wealth, its buildings were replaced with the current Main Quadrangle in the 17th Century. Although the foundation stone was placed on 17 April 1634 the disruption of the English Civil War meant it was not completed until sometime in 1676, Radcliffe Quad followed more rapidly by 1719, and the Library was built in 1861. University College began to accept female students in 1979. The main entrance to the college is on the High Street and its grounds are bounded by Merton Street, the college is divided by Logic Lane which is owned by the college and runs through the centre. The western side of the college is occupied by the library, the hall, the chapel, the eastern side of the college is mainly devoted to student accommodation in rooms above the High Street shops, on Merton Street or in the separate Goodhart Building. This building is named after former master of the college Arthur Lehman Goodhart, the college also owns student accommodation on Staverton Road in North Oxford which houses students after their second year. The college also owns the University College Boathouse and a ground which is located nearby on Abingdon Road. The Alternative Prospectus is written and produced by current students for prospective applicants, the publication was awarded a HELOA Innovation and Best Practice Award in 2011. The Univ Alternative Prospectus offers student written advice and guidance to potential Oxford applicants, the award recognises the engagement of the college community, unique newspaper format, forward-thinking use of social media and the collaborative working between staff and students. University has the longest grace of any Oxford college and it is read before every Formal Hall, which is held Tuesday, Thursday, and Sunday at Univ. The reading is performed by a Scholar of the College and whoever is sitting at the head of High Table, the Scholar does not need to know it by heart, and it is unusual for people to do so. Gratiarum actio in collegio magnae aulae universitatis quotidie ante mensam dicenda, SCHOLAR — Deus det vivis gratiam, defunctis requiem, Ecclesiae, Reginae, Regnoque nostro, pacem et concordiam, et nobis peccatoribus vitam aeternam
19.
Littlemore
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Littlemore is a district and civil parish in Oxford, England. The civil parish includes part of Rose Hill and it is about 2 1⁄2 miles southeast of the city centre of Oxford, between Rose Hill, Blackbird Leys, Cowley, and Sandford-on-Thames. The 2011 Census reforded the parishs population as 5,646, in the Middle Ages, and perhaps earlier, most of Littlemore was a detached part of the parish of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford. The rest of the township was in the parish of Iffley, Littlemore was not made a separate ecclesiastical parish until 1847. It became a parish in 1866. Until the early 20th century Littlemore was rural, extensive development started in the 1920s and continued in the 1950s. Early in the 12th century Sir Robert de Sandford founded a priory of Benedictine nuns on a piece of land called Cherley and it was dedicated originally to Saints Mary, Nicholas and Edmund, but within a few years this was reduced to only St Nicholas. The location of Cherley was described variously as Sandford or Littlemore until the middle of the 13th century, Sir Robert endowed the priory with six virgates of land in Sandford parish. At one time the priory also claimed the advowson of St Marys parish church at Puttenham, Hertfordshire, king Henry III paid 40 shillings a year to maintain a prebendaria at the priory and in 1232 granted the priory one hide of land at Hendred. In 1445 Dr John Derby visited the priory on behalf of William Alnwick, seven nuns were living there but their dormitory was in such disrepair that they did not sleep in it, for fear it would collapse. The nuns were breaking their Rule by eating meat every day, in 1517 Edmund Horde visited the priory on behalf of a subsequent Bishop of Lincoln, William Atwater. There was no food, clothing or spending money for the nuns, within the last year another of the nuns had had an illegitimate child whose father was a married man in Oxford. Some of the nuns had rebuked Wells but she had responded by putting them in the stocks. There were five nuns, and Wells had ordered all to tell Mr Horde that all was well. Bishop Atwater summoned and examined Wells, who admitted these irregularities had been going on for eight years, Atwater deposed her but allowed her to remain in post for the time being, provided she did nothing without Mr Hordes approval. Nine months after Mr Hordes report, Bishop Atwater visited the priory himself and he found that Wells had taken revenge on those nuns who had told the truth, putting one in the stocks for a month and kicking and punching another nun in the head. Another nun continued to misbehave, romping with boys in the cloister, when she was put in the stocks as a punishment, three other nuns released her and burnt the stocks. When Wells tried to rebuke them, the four escaped from the priory via a window, in 1524 Thomas Wolsey, the Lord Chancellor, recommended that the priory be dissolved
20.
Dissolution of the Monasteries
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Although the policy was originally envisaged as increasing the regular income of the Crown, much former monastic property was sold off to fund Henrys military campaigns in the 1540s. Professor George W. Bernard argues, The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. one adult man in fifty was in religious orders. Very few English houses had been founded later than the end of the 13th century, there was a Medieval proverb in England that said if the Abbot of Glastonbury married the Abbess of Shaftesbury, the heir would have more land than the King of England. The 200 houses of friars in England and Wales constituted a distinct wave of foundations almost all occurring in the 13th century. Friaries, for the most part, were concentrated in urban areas, however, the religious changes in England under Henry VIII and Edward VI were of a different nature from those taking place in Germany, Bohemia, France, Scotland and Geneva. Bernard says there was concern in the later fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries about the condition of the monasteries. Pastoral care was seen as more important and vital than the monastic focus on contemplation, prayer. English monasticism in the 1530s may have faced grave and urgent problems, Henry wanted to change this, and in November 1529 Parliament passed Acts reforming apparent abuses in the English Church. These Acts sought to demonstrate that establishing royal jurisdiction over the Church would ensure progress in religious reformation where papal authority had been insufficient, the monasteries were next in line. The stories of monastic impropriety, vice and excess that were to be collected by Thomas Cromwells visitors may have been biased and exaggerated. Levels of monastic debt were increasing, and average numbers of professed religious were falling, only a minority of houses could now support the twelve or thirteen professed religious usually regarded as the minimum necessary to maintain the full canonical hours of the Divine Office. Extensive monastic complexes dominated English towns of any size, but most were less than half full, renaissance princes throughout Europe were facing severe financial difficulties due to sharply rising expenditures, especially to pay for armies, fighting ships and fortifications. Most tended, sooner or later, to resort to plundering monastic wealth, protestant princes would justify this by claiming divine authority, Catholic princes would obtain the agreement and connivance of the Papacy. Monastic wealth, regarded everywhere as excessive and idle, offered a standing temptation for cash-strapped secular, in terms of popular esteem however, the balance tilted the other way. By the time Henry VIII turned his mind to the business of monastery reform, the first case was that of the so-called Alien Priories. As a result of the Norman Conquest some French religious orders held substantial property through their daughter monasteries in England, some of these were merely granges, agricultural estates with a single foreign monk in residence to supervise things, others were rich foundations in their own right. Such estates were a source of income for the Crown in its French wars. If the property with which a house had been endowed by its founder were to be confiscated or surrendered, then the house ceased to exist, whether its members continued in the religious life or not
21.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
22.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
23.
Archbishop of Canterbury
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The current archbishop is Justin Welby. His enthronement took place at Canterbury Cathedral on 21 March 2013, Welby is the 105th in a line which goes back more than 1400 years to Augustine of Canterbury, the Apostle to the English, sent from Rome in the year 597. From the time of Augustine in the 6th until the 16th century, during the English Reformation the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. In the Middle Ages there was variation in the methods of nomination of the Archbishop of Canterbury. At various times the choice was made by the canons of Canterbury Cathedral, today the archbishop fills four main roles, He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church and he is the metropolitan archbishop of the Province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England. He is the primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury plays a part in national ceremonies such as coronations, due to his high public profile. As spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as primus inter pares of all Anglican primates worldwide, since 1867 he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. In the last two of these functions he has an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England, the archbishops main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, as holder of one of the five great sees, the Archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. He is one of the men in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdoms order of precedence. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English monarch, today the choice is made in the name of the monarch by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the Crown Nominations Commission. Since the 20th century, the appointment of Archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between more moderate Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals, the current archbishop, Justin Welby, the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signs himself as + Justin Cantuar and his predecessor, Rowan Williams, 104th Archbishop of Canterbury, was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 27 February 2003. Immediately prior to his appointment to Canterbury, Williams was the Bishop of Monmouth, on 18 March 2012, Williams announced he would be stepping down as Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 2012 to become Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. In addition to his office, the archbishop also holds a number of positions, for example, he is Joint President of the Council of Christians. Some positions he formally holds ex officio and others virtually so, geoffrey Fisher, 99th Archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960
24.
William Laud
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William Laud was an English archbishop and academic. He was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633, during the rule of Charles I. Arrested in 1640, he was executed in 1645, in matters of church polity, Laud was autocratic. They were precursors to later High Church views, in theology, Laud was accused of being an Arminian and opponent of Calvinism, as well as covertly favouring Roman Catholic doctrines. On all three grounds, he was regarded by Puritan clerics and laymen as a formidable and dangerous opponent, Laud favoured scholars, and was a major collector of manuscripts. He pursued ecumenical contacts with the Greek Orthodox Church, the pun give great praise to the Lord, and little Laud to the devil is a warning to King Charles attributed to Archibald Armstrong, the official court jester. Laud was known to be touchy about his diminutive stature and he was educated at Reading School, and went in 1589 to St Johns College, Oxford, matriculating on 17 October. In 1593 he became a fellow of the college and he graduated B. A. in 1594, M. A. in 1598, and D. D. in 1608. As an undergraduate Laud had for his tutor John Buckeridge, who became president of St Johns in 1605, Laud was ordained deacon on 4 January 1601, and priest on 5 April in the same year. On 4 May 1603 he was one of the proctors for the year, when Buckeridge left St Johns in 1611, Laud succeeded him as President, but only after a hard patronage struggle reaching high court circles. The rival candidate, John Rawlinson, was chaplain to Lord Ellesmere, Laud was chaplain to Richard Neile, who was Clerk of the Closet. Eventually King James brushed aside irregularities in the election, settling matters in Lauds favour, Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616. At Gloucester Cathedral he began ceremonial innovations with the communion table, by local custom, the table stood in the middle of the choir, as was then usual in a parish church, rather than at the east end as was typical of cathedrals. Laud believed he had the blessing to renovate and improve the run-down building. Neile attempted, but could not obtain, Lauds appointment as Dean of Westminster, but at the end of 1621, and despite the kings view of Laud as a troublemaker, Laud received the relatively lowly see as the Bishop of St Davids. Laud became a confidant of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham at the end of the reign, the Buckingham household employed John Percy, a Jesuit, as chaplain, and the king wished to counter well-founded rumours that Percy was making Catholic converts there. In a three-day series of debates with Percy in 1622, Laud was introduced to argue the Protestant case on the final day. He then displaced John Preston as religious adviser to the Duke, historians believe Laud had homosexual leanings, which he nevertheless seems to have managed discreetly
25.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
26.
Henrietta Maria of France
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Henrietta Maria of France was queen consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of his two successors, Charles II and James II. Her Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in an Anglican service, the execution of King Charles in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris, and then returned to England after the Restoration of her eldest son, Charles, in 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later. The North American Province of Maryland was named in her honour, Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, Marie de Medici. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, in England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Catholic, as daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon. She was the youngest sister of the future King Louis XIII of France and her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, in Paris, before she was a year old. Henrietta was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills, the princess was heavily influenced by the Carmelites at French court. By 1622, Henrietta was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, Henrietta Maria and Charles I of England were married on 13 June 1625, during a brief period in which Englands pro-Spanish policy was replaced by a pro-French policy. After an initial period, she and Charles formed an extremely close partnership. Henrietta never fully assimilated herself into English society, she did not speak English before her marriage, Charles was outraged, and upon returning to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles looked to France instead, the English agent Kensington was sent to Paris in 1624 to examine the potential French match, and the marriage was finally negotiated in Paris by James Hay and Henry Rich. Henrietta was aged just 15 at the time of her marriage, views on Henriettas appearance vary, her husbands niece, Sophia of Hanover commented that the. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and she did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion. Henrietta married Charles by proxy on 11 May 1625, shortly after his accession to the throne and they were then married in person at St. Henrietta was allowed to watch Charles being crowned, at a discreet distance. Henrietta had strong Catholic beliefs, which would influence her time as queen. Charles liked to call Henrietta Maria simply Maria, with the English people calling her Queen Mary, in due course, Henrietta would unsuccessfully try to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England
27.
Savilian Professor of Astronomy
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The position of Savilian Professor of Astronomy was established at the University of Oxford in 1619. It was founded by Sir Henry Savile, a mathematician and classical scholar who was Warden of Merton College, Oxford and he appointed John Bainbridge as the first professor, who took up his duties in 1620 or 1621. There have been 21 astronomy professors in all, Steven Balbus, three professors have been awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Charles Pritchard, Harry Plaskett and Joseph Silk. The two Savilian chairs have been linked with professorial fellowships at New College, Oxford, since the late 19th century. In the past, some of the professors were provided with a residence, either near New College or at the Radcliffe Observatory. The astronomy professor is a member of the Sub-Department of Astrophysics at Oxford and he also donated his books to the universitys Bodleian Library. The professors could come from any Christian country, but he specified that a professor from England should have a Master of Arts degree as a minimum. He wanted students to be educated in the works of the scientists of the ancient world, in addition, the astronomy professor should cover Copernicus. Tuition in trigonometry was to be shared by the two professors, as many students would have had little mathematical knowledge, the professors were also permitted to provide instruction in basic mathematics in English. He also required the astronomy professor to take astronomical observations as well by night as by day, each professor was required to lecture in public for 45 minutes twice weekly during the university terms and would be fined 10 shillings for every day missed. Students who were required to attend, but who failed to do without good cause, were to be fined sixpence, Savile provided that the rents from specified properties in Kent and Essex were to be divided equally between the professors, giving each £160 annually. Savile selected John Bainbridge to be the first astronomy professor, Bainbridge had impressed him with a description of a comet seen in 1618. In the documents establishing the professorship, Savile reserved to himself the right to appoint the professors during his lifetime, the Vice-Chancellor of the university was to inform the electors of any vacancy, and could be summoned to advise them. The appointment could either be straight away, or delayed for some months to see whether any eminent mathematician can be allured from abroad. The 1881 statute provided that the professor was to lecture and give instruction in theoretical and practical Astronomy, the professorship is one of two permanent chairs attached to Oxfords Sub-Department of Astrophysics. Two official residences have been provided for the astronomy professor, the first was in New College Lane, in central Oxford. John Wallis rented a house there from New College from 1672 until his death in 1703, at some point, towards the end of his life, David Gregory lived in the eastern part of the premises. New College renewed the lease at a low rent from 1716, the second official residence was built during the time of Thomas Hornsby, who proposed that an observatory should be built at a site to the north of the city centre
28.
William Harvey
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William Harvey was an English physician who made seminal contributions in anatomy and physiology. In 1973 the William Harvey Hospital was constructed in the town of Ashford, Williams father, Thomas Harvey, was a jurat of Folkestone where he served the office of mayor in 1600. Records and personal descriptions delineate him as a calm, diligent. Revered, consulted and implicitly trusted in him, made their father the treasurer of their wealth when they acquired great estates. Kept, employed, and improved their gainings to their great advantage, Thomas Harveys portrait can still be seen in the central panel of a wall of the dining-room at Rolls Park, Chigwell, in Essex. William was the eldest of nine children, seven sons and two daughters, of Thomas and his wife Joan Halke, notable family connections include Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham, who married Williams niece Elizabeth Harvey, and the diplomat Sir Daniel Harvey. Harveys initial education was carried out in Folkestone, where he learned Latin and he then entered the Kings School. Harvey stayed at the Kings School for five years, after which he matriculated at Gonville, Harvey graduated as a Bachelor of Arts from Caius in 1597. He then travelled through France and Germany to Italy, where he entered the University of Padua, during Harveys years of study there, he developed a relationship with Fabricius and read Fabriciuss De Venarum Ostiolis. Harvey graduated as a Doctor of Medicine at the age of 24 from the University of Padua on 25 April 1602, following this, Harvey established himself in London, joining the Royal College of Physicians on 5 October 1604. A few weeks after his admission, Harvey married Elizabeth Browne, and you shall take no gift or reward. This you will promise to do as you shall answer before God, Harvey earned around thirty-three pounds a year and lived in a small house in Ludgate, although two houses in West Smithfield were attached as fringe benefits to the post of Physician. At this point, the physicians function consisted of a simple but thorough analysis of patients who were brought to the once a week. The next important phase of Harveys life began with his appointment to the office of Lumleian lecturer on 4 August 1615, Harvey began his lectures in April 1616. At this time, at the age of thirty-seven, he was described as a man of lowest stature, round faced, his eyes small, round, very black and full of spirit, his hair as black as a raven and curling. The notes which he used at the time are preserved in the British Museum, to point out what is peculiar to the actual body which is being dissected. To supply only by speech what cannot be shown on your own credit, to cut up as much as may be in the sight of the audience. To enforce the right opinion by remarks drawn far and near, not to praise or dispraise other anatomists, for all did well, and there was some excuse even for those who are in error
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Thomas Fairfax
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Fairfax became unhappy with Cromwells policy and publicly refused to take part in Charless show trial. Eventually he resigned, leaving Cromwell to control the republic and his dark hair and eyes and a swarthy complexion earned him the nickname Black Tom. Thomas Fairfax was born at Denton Hall, halfway between Ilkley and Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 17 January 1612, the eldest son of Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He studied at St Johns College, Cambridge, and Grays Inn, in the Second Bishops War the following year the English army was routed at the Battle of Newburn. Fairfax fled with the rest of the army but was nevertheless knighted for his services in January 1641. His distant cousin was Sir Thomas Fairfax of Gilling Castle - the common ancestor of both Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and her husband, Prince William and this was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of the kings saddle. When the civil war broke out in 1642, his father, Lord Fairfax, was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in Yorkshire. A gathering of national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle. The younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded managed to join Oliver Cromwell, one of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed in the action. But the Marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs, the city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted to the Parliament. In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still strong, the war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform. This involved the removal of the Earl of Essex from the supreme command and this was followed by the New Model Ordinance, which replaced the locally raised Parliamentary regiments with a unified army. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater, the whole west was soon reduced. Fairfax arrived in London on 12 November 1645, in his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, in January 1647 he was delivered up by the Covenanters to the commissioners of Englands parliament
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Siege of Oxford
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The first engagement was in May 1644, during which King Charles I escaped, thus preventing a formal siege. The second, in May 1645, had started when Sir Thomas Fairfax was given orders to stop. The last siege began in May 1646 and was a siege of some three months, but the war was obviously over and negotiation, rather than fighting, took precedence. The creation of the Kings Oxford Parliament in January 1644 placed Oxford at the centre of the Cavalier cause and this had advantages and disadvantages for both parties, although the majority of citizens supported the Roundheads, supplying the Royalist court and garrison gave them financial opportunities. The location of Oxford gave the King the strategic advantage in controlling the Midland counties, despite this, any proposals to retreat to the southwest were silenced, particularly by those enjoying the comforts of university accommodation. The King was at Christ Church and the Queen at Merton, at New Inn Hall, the requisitioned college plate was melted down into Oxford Crowns, and at Carfax, there was a gibbet. University life continued, although somewhat restricted and disturbed, the future kings Charles II and James II were conferred Master of Arts degrees, as were many others for non-academic reasons. Throughout, both sides employed poor strategies and suffered from weak intelligence, and there was animosity between the sides than is usual in such wars. Late in May 1644 Edmund Ludlow joined Sir William Waller at Abingdon to blockade Oxford, according to Sir Edward Walkers diary, on 27 May Waller attempted to cross the Isis at Newbridge, but was defeated by Royalist dragoons. The following day, the Earl of Essex Robert Devereaux and his army forded the river at Sandford-on-Thames, halting on Bullingdon Green in full view of the city. Whilst the main army marched on to Islip to make quarters there, the Earl of Essex, the King, being at that time on the top of Magdalen Tower, had a clear view of the troops manoeuvres. Waller finally succeeded in forcing the passage at Newbridge on 2 June, the King went to Woodstock to hold council and in the late evening heard news that Waller had brought some 5,000 horse and foot through Newbridge, some of which were within three miles of Woodstock. Walker notes that there was not enough supplies to last fourteen days and it was decided the King should leave Oxford that night, the King ordered a large part of the army, with cannon, to march through the city towards Abingdon to act as a diversion. The King constituted a council to govern affairs in his absence, after a few hours the army returned from Abingdon, having successfully drawn off Waller. On the night of 3 June 1644 at about 9 p. m. m. on 4 June, the armys Colours had been left standing and a further diversion was arranged by the 3,500 infantry left with the cannon in North Oxford. The Earl of Essex and his troops had crossed the River Cherwell and had troops in Woodstock, while Waller. Although without heavy baggage, the King had some sixty to seventy carriages, the escape being discovered, Waller made haste in pursuit, taking some few stragglers in Burford who had regarded their drink more than their safety. The King and his forces, after assembling in the fields beyond Bourton, in the one course Oxford had been yielded up to them, having not a fortnights provisions, and no hopes of relief
31.
Broad Walk
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Broad Walk is wide walkway running east-west on the north side of Christ Church Meadow and south of Merton Field in central Oxford, England. The walkway runs between St Aldates though the Christ Church War Memorial Garden at the end and the River Cherwell to the east at the southern end of the University of Oxford Botanic Garden. To the north at the end is Christ Church, one of the Oxford colleges. Broad Walk used to be lined with elm trees, but has been denuded due to Dutch elm disease. The Meadow Building of Christ Church, in an imposing stone-faced Venetian Gothic style, is immediately to the north of Broad Walk. Opposite to the south, the tree-lined Poplar Walk, laid out in 1872 by Henry Liddell, Dean of Christ Church, leads down to the River Thames. Views of some of the spires and towers of Oxford include Tom Tower, the spire of Christ Church Cathedral, Merton College Chapel Tower, and Magdalen Tower. The first hot air balloon ascent in Britain was made by James Sadler from Merton Field on 4 October 1783, postwar development planned for central Oxford included a relief road passing through the Christ Church Meadow along the route of Broad Walk and joining the district of St Ebbes. The proposal was defeated after strong opposition
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Old Malden
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Old Malden is a ward of the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames in southwest London,10 miles south west of Charing Cross. Along with Coombe and Kingston Vale it is one of the affluent areas in the borough. The area has a history as the ancient parish of Malden, derived from the Old English mæl duna. Malden appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Meldone, held partly by William de Wateville and partly by Robert de Wateville. Its domesday assets were,4 hides and 3 virgates,1 chapel,1 mill worth 12s, 6½ ploughs,5 acres of meadow, St John the Baptist Church, close to the Hogsmill, dates back to Saxon times. In 1611 the chancels old flint walls were repaired and the nave, in 1875 a new nave and chancel were added, and in 2004 a two storey extension was completed. The current Vicar is the Revd Kevin Scott MA, the house was later used as a court in the reign of Henry VIII, and in the mid 18th century the house was the home of Captain Cook. In 1852 the Hogsmill River was the setting for the background of Ophelia painted by John Everett Millais, Malden became Old Malden in 1870, with the development of New Malden, two miles to the north in the parish of Kingston upon Thames. To the west of Plough Green is Old Malden Library, the Parish Church of Old Malden is St John the Baptist, and can be found just beyond the width restriction in Church Road. There was a building here at the time of the Domesday Book. The present building comprises the 1611 re-build, the 1875 extension, the Vicar is the Revd Kevin Scott MA who was licensed to the parish in 2003. Old Malden is served by Malden Manor station to the north, Malden Road, joining the green and Worcester Park station was flanked by two rows of over forty mature poplar trees until 2010, when most were felled as a safety measure due to internal rotting. Replacement oaks were planted later that year, a minor tributary of the River Thames, the Hogsmill, flows through the west of Old Malden. John the Baptist, the site of its vicarage, the 18th century Manor House, Plough Green, A village green with a pond, a 15th-century public house, and a picturesque group of mainly 19th century cottages. The public house is operated as a restaurant by Harvester. Ian Hutchinson, former Chelsea footballer, lived in The Glebe during the 1970s, daley Thompson, British double-Olympic champion decathlete, lived near The Plough
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Merton Street
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Merton Street is an historic and picturesque cobbled street in central Oxford, England. It joins the High Street at its end, between the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art and the Eastgate Hotel at the historic east gate of the city. It then runs east-west, parallel and to the south of the High Street for most of its length, Merton College, one of Oxfords older colleges, is situated to the south of the street. To the west of Merton, Corpus Christi College, one of Oxfords smallest colleges, at the very western end, actually in Oriel Square, is an entrance to Christ Church, Oxfords largest college. At the eastern end can be found the notorious Pink House, logic Lane and Magpie Lane, both narrow lanes, lead off the street to the north. Also located here is the Merton Street tennis court, an example of an extant real tennis court. To the south is Merton Grove, providing access between Merton College and Corpus Christi College to Christ Church Meadow to the south. The street is designated the A420 due to the blockage of the High Street to normal traffic, to the west it continues through Oriel Square, where Oriel College is located. Despite being cobbled, the street has been repaired by Oxford City Council using asphalt, the part of modern-day Merton Street adjoining the High Street used to be known as Coach & Horses Lane, named after a public house on the west side of the lane. From the early 18th to the late 19th century, it known as King Street. The rest of the street was known as St John Baptists Street. In 1751, the street had become King Street. The entire street became known as Merton Street only in the 20th century, siegfried Sassoon briefly took rooms in no 14 during 1919, on the recommendation of Lady Ottoline Morrell. The historian Michael Brock and his wife Eleanor lived in the street in the early 1950s, the academic and author J. R. R. Tolkien had rooms in Merton Street towards the end of his life in the early 1970s. Media related to Merton Street, Oxford at Wikimedia Commons
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Christ Church, Oxford
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Christ Church is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. The college is associated with Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, which serves as the college chapel and it is the second wealthiest Oxford college by financial endowment with an endowment of £436m as of 2015. Christ Church has produced thirteen British prime ministers, more than any other Oxbridge college, the college was the setting for parts of Evelyn Waughs Brideshead Revisited, as well as a small part of Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland. More recently it has used in the filming of the movies of J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series. Distinctive features of the architecture have been used as models by a number of other academic institutions, including the National University of Ireland, Galway. The University of Chicago and Cornell University both have reproductions of Christ Churchs dining hall, christChurch Cathedral in New Zealand, after which the City of Christchurch is named, is itself named after Christ Church, Oxford. Stained glass windows in the cathedral and other buildings are by the Pre-Raphaelite William Morris group with designs by Edward Burne-Jones, Christ Church is also partly responsible for the creation of University College Reading, which later gained its own Royal Charter and became the University of Reading. The first female undergraduates matriculated at Christ Church in 1980 and he planned the establishment on a magnificent scale, but fell from grace in 1529, with the buildings only three-quarters complete, as they were to remain for 140 years. In 1531 the college was suppressed, but it was refounded in 1532 as King Henry VIIIs College by Henry VIII. Since the time of Queen Elizabeth I the college has also associated with Westminster School. The dean remains to this day an ex member of the schools governing body. Major additions have made to the buildings through the centuries. To this day the bell in the tower, Great Tom, is rung 101 times at 9 pm at the former Oxford time every night, in former times this was done at midnight, signalling the close of all college gates throughout Oxford. Since it took 20 minutes to ring the 101, Christ Church gates, unlike those of other colleges, when the ringing was moved back to 9,00 pm, Christ Church gates still remained open until 12.20,20 minutes later than any other college. Although the clock itself now shows GMT/BST, Christ Church still follows Oxford time in the timings of services in the cathedral, King Charles I made the Deanery his palace and held his Parliament in the Great Hall during the English Civil War. In the evening of 29 May 1645, during the siege of Oxford. During the Commonwealth, John Owen attained considerable eminence, the Visitor of Christ Church is the reigning British sovereign, and the Bishop of Oxford is unique among English bishops in not being the Visitor of his own cathedral. The head of the college is the Dean of Christ Church, There are a senior and a junior censor the former of whom is responsible for academic matters, the latter for undergraduate discipline
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Corpus Christi College, Oxford
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Corpus Christi College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1517, it is the 12th oldest college in Oxford, the college, situated on Merton Street between Merton College and Oriel College, is one of the smallest in Oxford by student population, having around 230 undergraduates and 120 graduates. It is academic by Oxford standards, averaging in the top half of the universitys informal ranking system, the Norrington Table, in recent years, the colleges historical significance includes its role in the translation of the King James Bible. The college is noted for the pillar sundial in the main quadrangle, known as the Pelican Sundial. Corpus achieved notability in recent years when teams representing them won University Challenge on 9 May 2005 and once again on 23 February 2009. The Visitor of the College is ex officio the Bishop of Winchester, the college dates its founding to 1517, when its founder, Richard Foxe, the Bishop of Winchester, established the college statutes. Letters patent had been granted by Henry VIII in the previous year, the library, founded at the same time as the college, was probably, when completed, the largest and best furnished library then in Europe. The important Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives taught at Corpus during the 1520s while tutor to Mary Tudor, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the college was again involved in religious ferment. Reginald Pole, a fellow of the college in the 1520s, was Archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of Queen Mary, john Rainolds, another fellow, and Corpuss seventh President, was involved in the inception and translation of the King James Bible, published in 1611. John Keble, a leader of the Oxford Movement, was an undergraduate at Corpus at the start of the nineteenth century, and went on to a fellowship at Oriel and to have a college named after him. The coat of arms is quite complex, since it incorporates a symbol chosen by the founder, the arms of the See of Winchester, and the arms of Hugh Oldham. Because of the complexity of the arms they are not suitable for use on items such as the college crested tie, the pelican also appears alone on the college flag and on top of the Pelican Sundial. The college maintains a hive of bees, and the front wall of the MBI Al Jaber auditorium is decorated with images of bees. The college traditionally keeps at least one tortoise as a living mascot, the Tortoise Fair, at which the Corpus tortoise are raced against tortoises belonging to other colleges and local residents, is an annual event held to raise funds for charity
36.
Choir (architecture)
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A choir, also sometimes called quire, is the area of a church or cathedral that provides seating for the clergy and church choir. It is in the part of the chancel, between the nave and the sanctuary, which houses the altar and Church tabernacle. In larger medieval churches it contained choir-stalls, seating aligned with the side of the church, in modern churches, the choir may be located centrally behind the altar, or the pulpit. The back-choir or retro-choir is a space behind the altar in the choir of a church. In the Early Church, the sanctuary was connected directly to the nave, the choir was simply the east part of the nave, and was fenced off by a screen or low railing, called cancelli, which is where the English word chancel comes from. The word choir is first used by members of the Latin Church, isidore of Seville and Honorius of Autun write that the term is derived from the corona, the circle of clergy or singers who surrounded the altar. When first introduced, the choir was attached to the bema, the platform in the center of the nave on which were placed seats for the higher clergy. This arrangement can still be observed at the Basilica of St. Mary Major in Rome, over time, the bema and choir moved eastward to their current position. In some churches the choir is arranged in the apse behind the altar, the architectural details of the choir developed in response to its function as the place where the Divine Office was chanted by the monastic brotherhood or the chapter of canons. The chancel was regarded as the part of the church. The pulpit and lectern are also found at the front of the choir. The organ may be located here, or in a loft elsewhere in the church, some cathedrals have a retro-choir behind the High Altar, opening eastward towards the chapels in the eastern extremity. After the Reformation Protestant churches generally moved the forward, typically to the front of the chancel. The choir and rear of deep chancels became little used in churches surviving from the Middle Ages, with the emphasis on sermons, and their audibility, some churches simply converted their chancels to seat part of the congregation. The choir area is occupied by sometimes finely carved and decorated wooden seats known as choir stalls, the choir may be furnished either with long benches or individual choir stalls. There may be several rows of seating running parallel to the walls of the church, the use of choir stalls is more traditional in monasteries and collegiate churches. Monastic choir stalls are often fitted with seats that fold up when the monastics stand, often the hinged seat will have a misericord on the underside on which he can lean while standing during the long services. The upper part of the stall is so shaped as to provide a headrest while sitting
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English Gothic architecture
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English Gothic is an architectural style that flourished in England from about 1180 until about 1520. As with the Gothic architecture of other parts of Europe, English Gothic is defined by its arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses, large windows. The earliest large-scale applications of Gothic architecture in England are at Canterbury Cathedral, many features of Gothic architecture had evolved naturally from Romanesque architecture. This evolution can be seen most particularly at the Norman Durham Cathedral, English Gothic was to develop along lines that sometimes paralleled and sometimes diverged from those of continental Europe. Historians traditionally divide English Gothic into a number of different periods, Gothic architecture continued to flourish in England for a hundred years after the precepts of Renaissance architecture were formalised in Florence in the early 15th century. Many of the largest and finest works of English architecture, notably the medieval cathedrals of England are largely built in the Gothic style, so also are castles, palaces, great houses, universities, and many smaller unpretentious secular buildings, including almshouses and trade halls. Another important group of Gothic buildings in England are the parish churches, historians sometimes refer to the styles as periods, e. g. Perpendicular period in much the same way as an historical era may be referred to as the Tudor period. The various styles are seen at their most fully developed in the cathedrals, abbey churches, according to the originator of the term in 1817, Thomas Rickman, the period ran from 1189 to 1307, Rickman based his defining dates on the reigns of certain English monarchs. In the late 12th century, the Early English Gothic style superseded the Romanesque or Norman style, during the late 13th century, it developed into the Decorated Gothic style, which lasted until the mid-14th century. With all of early architectural styles, there is a gradual overlap between the periods. As fashions changed, new elements were used alongside older ones, especially in large buildings such as churches and cathedrals. It is customary, therefore, to recognise a transitional phase between the Romanesque and Early English periods from the middle of the 12th century, although usually known as Early English, this new Gothic style had originated in the area around Paris before spreading to England. There it was first known as the French style and it was first used in the choir or quire of the abbey church of St Denis, dedicated in June 1144. Even before that, some features had been included in Durham Cathedral, showing a combination of Romanesque, by 1175, with the completion of the Choir at Canterbury Cathedral by William of Sens, the style was firmly established in England. The most significant and characteristic development of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet, pointed arches were used almost universally, not only in arches of wide span such as those of the nave arcade, but also for doorways and lancet windows. It also allows for greater variation in proportions, whereas the strength of round arches depends on semicircular form. The barrel vaults and groin vaults characteristic of Romanesque building were replaced by rib vaults, the arched windows are usually narrow by comparison to their height and are without tracery. For this reason Early English Gothic is sometimes known as the Lancet style, although arches of equilateral proportion are most often employed, lancet arches of very acute proportions are frequently found and are highly characteristic of the style
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Transept
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A transept is a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the edifice. In churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a building within the Romanesque. Each half of a transept is known as a semitransept, the transept of a church separates the nave from the sanctuary, apse, choir, chevet, presbytery or chancel. The transepts cross the nave at the crossing, which belongs equally to the main nave axis, upon its four piers, the crossing may support a spire, a central tower or a crossing dome. Since the altar is located at the east end of a church. The north and south end walls often hold decorated windows of stained glass, such as rose windows, occasionally, the basilicas and the church and cathedral planning that descended from them were built without transepts, sometimes the transepts were reduced to matched chapels. More often, the transepts extended well beyond the sides of the rest of the building, forming the shape of a cross and this design is called a Latin cross ground plan, and these extensions are known as the arms of the transept. A Greek cross ground plan, with all four extensions the same length, when churches have only one transept, as at Pershore Abbey, there is generally a historical disaster, fire, war or funding problem, to explain the anomaly. At Beauvais only the chevet and transepts stand, the nave of the cathedral was never completed after a collapse of the daring high vaulting in 1284. At St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague, only the choir, in a metro station or similar construction, a transept is a space over the platforms and tracks of a station with side platforms, containing the bridge between the platforms. Placing the bridge in a rather than an enclosed tunnel allows passengers to see the platforms. Aisle Apse Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram Glossary of the Catholic Church Transom
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Stephen, Leslie, ed. (1886). "Brent, Nathaniel". Dictionary of National Biography. 6. London: Smith, Elder & Co., pp. 262–4
