1.
Editorial cartoon
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An editorial cartoon, also known as a political cartoon, is a drawing containing a commentary expressing the artists opinion. An artist who writes and draws such images is known as an editorial cartoonist and they typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and satire in order to question authority and draw attention to corruption, political violence and other social ills. The pictorial satire of William Hogarth has been credited as the precursor to the political cartoon and his pictures combined social criticism with sequential artistic scenes. A frequent target of his satire was the corruption of early-18th-century British politics and his art often had a strong moralizing element to it, such as in his masterpiece of 1719, A Rakes Progress. However, his work was only tangentially politicized and was regarded on its artistic merits. George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons, Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable to the growth of a school of caricature. Party warfare was carried on with vigour and not a little bitterness. Gillrays incomparable wit and humour, knowledge of life, fertility of resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, george Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray. His early career was renowned for his caricatures of English life for popular publications. He gained notoriety with his prints that attacked the royal family. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, and Thomas Rowlandson. The art of the cartoon was further developed with the publication of the periodical Punch in 1841, founded by Henry Mayhew. It was bought by Bradbury and Evans in 1842, who capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies to turn the magazine into a preeminent national institution. Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and Charles Keene. This group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman, Punch authors and artists also contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week, created in response to Dickens departure from Household Words. For over five decades he was a steadfast social witness to the sweeping changes that occurred during this period alongside his fellow cartoonist John Leech. By the mid 19th century, major newspapers in many countries featured cartoons designed to express the publishers opinion on the politics of the day
2.
Puck (magazine)
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Puck was the first successful humor magazine in the United States of colorful cartoons, caricatures and political satire of the issues of the day. It was published from 1871 until 1918, a collection of Puck cartoons dating from 1879 to 1903 is maintained by the Special Collections Research Center of The George Washington University. The weekly magazine was founded by Joseph Ferdinand Keppler in St. Louis and it began publishing English and German language editions in March 1871. Five years later, the German edition of Puck moved to New York City, the English language edition soon followed on March 14,1877. The publication lasted two years, the final edition was distributed September 5,1918. A typical 32-page issue contained a political cartoon on the front cover. There was always a double-page color centerfold, usually on a political topic, there were numerous black-and-white cartoons used to illustrate humorous anecdotes. A page of editorials commented on the issues of the day, and this led Shakespeares Puck character to be recast as a charming near-naked boy and used as the title of the magazine. Puck was the first magazine to carry illustrated advertising and the first to successfully adopt full-color lithography printing for a weekly publication, the magazine consisted of 16 pages measuring 10 inches by 13.5 inches with front and back covers in color and a color double-page centerfold. The cover always quoted Puck saying, What fools these mortals be, the jaunty symbol of Puck is conceived as a putto in a top hat who admires himself in a hand-mirror. He appears not only on the magazine covers but over the entrance to the Puck Building in New Yorks Nolita neighborhood, in May 1893, Puck Press published A Selection of Cartoons from Puck by Joseph Keppler featuring 56 cartoons chosen by Keppler as his best work. Also during 1893, Keppler temporarily moved to Chicago and published a smaller-format, shortly thereafter, Joseph Keppler died, and Henry Cuyler Bunner, editor of Puck since 1877 continued the magazine until his own death in 1896. Harry Leon Wilson replaced Bunner and remained editor until he resigned in 1902, Joseph Keppler, Jr. then became the editor. S. Pughe, Rose ONeill, Charles Taylor, James Albert Wales and its prime targets, however, were not just corrupt machine politicians. The magazine included as well what it, like the letterpress, condemned as the political agenda of the Catholic Church, especially its new Pope. If allowed to proceed unimpeded, the pope and his minions, along with Tammanys bosses and supporters, Puck was not about to let that happen. In cartoons and editorials spanning two decades, the magazine blasted and often conjoined both Tammany and the papacy with invidious comparisons that left few readers in doubt as to their sympathies. Puck was housed from 1887 in the landmark Chicago-style, Romanesque Revival Puck Building at Lafayette and Houston streets, the steel-frame building was designed by architects Albert and Herman Wagner in 1885, as the worlds largest lithographic pressworks under a single roof, with its own electricity-generating dynamo
3.
Figure of speech
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A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is figurative language in the form of a single word or phrase. It can be a repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity, however, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. The earliest known text listing them, though not explicitly as a system, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium, of unknown authorship, quintillian then mentioned them in Institutio Oratoria. Philo of Alexandria also listed them as addition, subtraction, transposition, figures of speech come in many varieties. The aim is to use the language inventively to accentuate the effect of what is being said, a few examples follow, Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran is an example of, where the consonant r is used repeatedly. Whereas, Sister Suzy sewing socks for soldiers is a form of alliteration called sibilance. Both are commonly used in poetry and she would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains is a variety of zeugma called a syllepsis. Run up refers to ascending and also to manufacturing, the effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a pun, that she might be climbing up the curtains. The ellipsis or omission of the use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said. Military Intelligence is an oxymoron is the use of direct sarcasm to suggest that the military would have no intelligence and this might be considered to be a satire and an aphorism. An Einstein is an example of synecdoche, as it uses a name to represent a class of people. I had butterflies in my stomach is a metaphor, referring to a feeling as if there were flying insects in ones stomach. To say it was like having some butterflies in my stomach would be a simile, because it uses the word like which is missing in the metaphor. That filthy place was really dirty is an example of tautology as there are the two words filthy and dirty having almost the same meaning and are repeated so as to make the more emphatic. Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two categories, schemes and tropes. Schemes are figures of speech that change the ordinary or expected pattern of words, for example, the phrase, John, my best friend uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes change the meaning of words
4.
All the world's a stage
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All the worlds a stage is the phrase that begins a monologue from William Shakespeares As You Like It, spoken by the melancholy Jaques in Act II Scene VII. It is one of Shakespeares most frequently quoted passages, the comparison of the world to a stage and people long predated Shakespeare. When it was founded in 1599 Shakespeares own theatre, The Globe, may have used the motto Totus mundus agit histrionem, ultimately the words derive from quod fere totus mundus exercet histrionem attributed to Petronius, a phrase which had wide circulation in England at the time. Likewise the division of life into a series of ages was a commonplace of art and literature. The number of varied, three and four being the most common among ancient writers such as Aristotle. The concept of seven ages derives from medieval philosophy, which constructed groups of seven, as in the seven deadly sins, the seven ages model dates from the 12th century. King Henry V had a tapestry illustrating the seven ages of man and he also takes elements from Ovid and other sources known to him. The Seven Ages of Man Ages of Man Riddle of the Sphinx Six Ages of the World Solomon Grundy The dictionary definition of all the worlds a stage at Wiktionary
5.
As You Like It
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As You Like It is a pastoral comedy by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1599 and first published in the First Folio,1623. The plays first performance is uncertain, though a performance at Wilton House in 1603 has been suggested as a possibility. As You Like It follows its heroine Rosalind as she flees persecution in her uncles court, accompanied by her cousin Celia to find safety and, eventually, love, in the Forest of Arden. In the forest, they encounter a variety of memorable characters, Jaques provides a sharp contrast to the other characters in the play, always observing and disputing the hardships of life in the country. Historically, critical response has varied, with critics finding the work of lesser quality than other Shakespearean works. The play remains a favourite among audiences and has adapted for radio, film. The play is set in a duchy in France, but most of the takes place in a location called the Forest of Arden. Frederick has usurped the Duchy and exiled his brother, Duke Senior. Duke Seniors daughter, Rosalind, has permitted to remain at court because she is the closest friend and cousin of Fredericks only child. Orlando, a gentleman of the kingdom who at first sight has fallen in love with Rosalind, is forced to flee his home after being persecuted by his older brother, Oliver. Frederick becomes angry and banishes Rosalind from court, Celia and Rosalind decide to flee together accompanied by the court fool, Touchstone, with Rosalind disguised as a young man and Celia disguised as a poor lady. Ganymede and Aliena do not immediately encounter the Duke and his companions, instead, they meet Corin, an impoverished tenant, and offer to buy his masters crude cottage. Orlando and his servant Adam, meanwhile, find the Duke and his men and are living with them. Rosalind, also in love with Orlando, meets him as Ganymede, Ganymede says that he will take Rosalinds place and that he and Orlando can act out their relationship. The shepherdess, Phoebe, with whom Silvius is in love, has fallen in love with Ganymede, Touchstone, meanwhile, has fallen in love with the dull-witted shepherdess, Audrey, and tries to woo her, but eventually is forced to be married first. William, another shepherd, attempts to marry Audrey as well, but is stopped by Touchstone, finally, Silvius, Phoebe, Ganymede, and Orlando are brought together in an argument with each other over who will get whom. Ganymede says he will solve the problem, having Orlando promise to marry Rosalind, Orlando sees Oliver in the forest and rescues him from a lioness, causing Oliver to repent for mistreating Orlando. Oliver meets Aliena and falls in love with her, and they agree to marry, Jaques, ever melancholic, declines their invitation to return to the court preferring to stay in the forest and to adopt a religious life as well
6.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
7.
Old French
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Old French was the Gallo-Romance dialect continuum spoken from the 9th century to the 14th century. In the 14th century, these came to be collectively known as the langues doïl. The mid-14th century is taken as the period to Middle French. The areal of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the parts of the Kingdom of France, Upper Burgundy. As part of the emerging Gallo-Romance dialect continuum, the langues doïl were contrasted with the langue doc, in these examples, we notice a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, at the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language, since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The second-oldest document in Old French is the Eulalia sequence, which is important for reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The Capetians langue doïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France, however, until after the French Revolution. In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues doïl, during the Early Modern period, French now becomes established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, also including the langue doc-speaking territories in the south. Old French gives way to Middle French in the mid-14th century, the earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were saints lives, the Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. The first of these is the area of the chansons de geste. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in three hundred manuscripts. The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is The Song of Roland, a fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the Crusade cycle, dealing with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. Jean Bodels other two categories—the Matter of Rome and the Matter of Britain—concern the French romance or roman, around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220. From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose, the most important romance of the 13th century is the Romance of the Rose which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. The Occitan or Provençal poets were called troubadours, from the word trobar to find, lyric poets in Old French are called trouvères. By the late 13th century, the tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets
8.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
9.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
10.
Allegory
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As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
11.
Parable
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A parable is a succinct, didactic story, in prose or verse, which illustrates one or more instructive lessons or principles. It differs from a fable in that fables employ animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature as characters, a parable is a type of analogy. Some scholars of the gospels and the New Testament apply the term parable only to the parables of Jesus. Parables such as The Prodigal Son are central to Jesus teaching method in the canonical narratives, the word parable comes from the Greek παραβολή, meaning comparison, illustration, analogy. It was the name given by Greek rhetoricians to an illustration in the form of a fictional narrative. Parables are often used to explore concepts in spiritual texts. The Bible contains numerous parables in the Gospels section of the New Testament and these are believed by some scholars to have been inspired by mashalim, a form of Hebrew comparison. Examples of Jesus parables include the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son, mashalim from the Old Testament include the parable of the ewe-lamb and the parable of the woman of Tekoah. In Sufi tradition, parables are used for imparting lessons and values, recent authors such as Idries Shah and Anthony de Mello have helped popularize these stories beyond Sufi circles. A mid-19th-century example, the Parable of the window, criticises a part of economic thinking. A parable is a tale that illustrates a universal truth. It sketches a setting, describes an action, and shows the results and it may sometimes be distinguished from similar narrative types, such as the allegory and the apologue. A parable often involves a character who faces a dilemma or one who makes a bad decision. Although the meaning of a parable is not explicitly stated, it is not intended to be hidden or secret but to be quite straightforward. The defining characteristic of the parable is the presence of a subtext suggesting how a person should behave or what he should believe. Aside from providing guidance and suggestions for proper conduct in ones life, parables express an abstract argument by means of using a concrete narrative which is easily understood. The allegory is a general narrative type, it also employs metaphor. Like the parable, the allegory makes a single, unambiguous point, an allegory may have multiple noncontradictory interpretations and may also have implications that are ambiguous or hard to interpret
12.
Aesop's Fables
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Aesops Fables or the Aesopica is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller believed to have lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE. The fables originally belonged to the tradition and were not collected for some three centuries after Aesop’s death. By that time a variety of stories, jokes and proverbs were being ascribed to him. The process of inclusion has continued until the present, with some of the fables unrecorded before the later Middle Ages, the process is continuous and new stories are still being added to the Aesop corpus, even when they are demonstrably more recent work and sometimes from known authors. Manuscripts in Latin and Greek were important avenues of transmission, although poetical treatments in European vernaculars eventually formed another, on the arrival of printing, collections of Aesop’s fables were among the earliest books in a variety of languages. Through the means of later collections, and translations or adaptations of them, initially the fables were addressed to adults and covered religious, social and political themes. They were also put to use as guides and from the Renaissance onwards were particularly used for the education of children. Their ethical dimension was reinforced in the world through depiction in sculpture, painting and other illustrative means, as well as adaptation to drama. In addition, there have been reinterpretations of the meaning of fables and changes in emphasis over time, apollonius of Tyana, a 1st-century CE philosopher, is recorded as having said about Aesop. Like those who dine well off the plainest dishes, he use of humble incidents to teach great truths. The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned in passing that Aesop the fable writer was a slave who lived in Ancient Greece during the 5th century BCE, instead, any fable tended to be ascribed to the name of Aesop if there was no known alternative literary source. In Classical times there were various theorists who tried to differentiate these fables from other kinds of narration and they had to be short and unaffected, in addition, they are fictitious, useful to life and true to nature. In them could be found talking animals and plants, although humans interacting only with humans figure in a few, typically they might begin with a contextual introduction, followed by the story, often with the moral underlined at the end. Setting the context was often necessary as a guide to the interpretation, as in the case of the political meaning of The Frogs Who Desired a King and The Frogs. Sometimes the titles given later to the fables have become proverbial, as in the case of killing the Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs or the Town Mouse and the Country Mouse. In fact some fables, such as The Young Man and the Swallow, one theorist, indeed, went so far as to define fables as extended proverbs. In this they have a function, the explaining of origins such as, in another context, why the ant is a mean. Other fables, also verging on this function, are outright jokes, as in the case of The Old Woman, Some are demonstrably of West Asian origin, others have analogues further to the East
13.
Parables of Jesus
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The Parables of Jesus can be found in all the canonical gospels, except for John, and in some of the non-canonical gospels, but are located mainly within the three synoptic gospels. They represent a key part of the teachings of Jesus, forming one third of his recorded teachings. Christians place high emphasis on these parables, since they are the words of Jesus, they are believed to be what the Father has taught. Jesus parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, scholars have commented that although these parables seem simple, the messages they convey are deep, and central to the teachings of Jesus. Christian authors view them not as mere similitudes which serve the purpose of illustration, as a translation of the Hebrew word מָשָׁל mashal, the word parable can also refer to a riddle. In all times in their history the Jews were familiar with teaching by means of parables, the use of parables by Jesus was hence a natural teaching method that fit into the tradition of his time. The parables of Jesus have been quoted, taught, and discussed since the beginnings of Christianity. Parables are one of the literary forms in the Bible. Parables are generally considered to be short stories such as the Good Samaritan, a true parable may be regarded as an extended simile. Although some suggest parables are essentially extended allegories, others argue the opposite. Dr. Kenneth Boa states that Parables are extended figures of comparison that often use short stories to teach a truth or answer a question, while the story in a parable is not historical, it is true to life, not a fairy tale. The three synoptic gospels contain the parables of Jesus, There are a growing number of scholars who also find parables in the Gospel of John, such as the little stories of the Good Shepherd or the childbearing woman. Otherwise, John includes allegories but no parables, several authors such as Barbara Reid, Arland Hultgren or Donald Griggs comment that parables are noticeably absent from the Gospel of John. The Catholic Encyclopedia states, There are no parables in St. Johns Gospel and we reckon thirty-three in all, but some have raised the number even to sixty, by including proverbial expressions. They list no parables for the Gospel of John, Parables attributed to Jesus are also found in other documents apart from the Bible. Some of these overlap those in the gospels and some are not part of the Bible. The non-canonical Gospel of Thomas contains up to fifteen parables, eleven of which have parallels in the four canonical Gospels, the unknown author of the Gospel of Thomas did not have a special word for parable, making it difficult to know what he considered a parable. Those unique to Thomas include the Parable of the Assassin and the Parable of the Empty Jar, the noncanonical Apocryphon of James also contains three unique parables attributed to Jesus
14.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
15.
Pun
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The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is a variation on a correct expression. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, as their usage and meaning are specific to a particular language, Puns have a long history in human writing. Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs were originally based on punning systems, punning has been credited as the fundamental concept behind alphabets, writing, and even human civilization. Puns can be classified in various ways, including, The homophonic pun, walter Redfern exemplified this type with his statement, To pun is to treat homonyms as synonyms. For example, in George Carlins phrase Atheism is a non-prophet institution, similarly, the joke Question, Why do we still have troops in Germany. A homographic pun exploits words which are spelled the same but possess different meanings, because of their nature, they rely on sight more than hearing, contrary to homophonic puns. They are also known as heteronymic puns, an example that combines homophonic and homographic punning is Douglas Adamss line You can tune a guitar, but you cant tuna fish. Unless of course, you play bass, the phrase uses the homophonic qualities of tune a and tuna, as well as the homographic pun on bass, in which ambiguity is reached through the identical spellings of /ˈbeɪs/, and /ˈbæs/. Homonymic puns, another type, arise from the exploitation of words which are both homographs and homophones. An adaptation of a joke repeated by Isaac Asimov gives us Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen door, playing on strained as to give much effort and to filter. A homonymic pun may also be polysemic, in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, however, lexicographers define polysemes as listed under a single dictionary lemma while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata. A compound pun is a statement that two or more puns. For example, a statement by Richard Whately includes four puns. Because he can eat the sand which is there, but what brought the sandwiches there. Why, Noah sent Ham, and his descendants mustered and bred and this pun uses sand which is there/sandwiches there, Ham/ham, mustered/mustard, and bred/bread. Similarly, the piano is not my forte links two meanings of the words forte and piano, one for the dynamic markings in music
16.
Analogy
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Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another, or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy. Analogy plays a significant role in solving, as well as decision making, perception, memory, creativity, emotion, explanation. It lies behind basic tasks such as the identification of places, objects and people, for example, in face perception and it has been argued that analogy is the core of cognition. Specific analogical language comprises exemplification, comparisons, metaphors, similes, allegories, and parables, phrases like and so on, and the like, as if, and the very word like also rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message including them. Analogy is important not only in language and common sense but also in science, philosophy. In cognitive linguistics, the notion of conceptual metaphor may be equivalent to that of analogy, Analogy has been studied and discussed since classical antiquity by philosophers, scientists, and lawyers. The last few decades have shown a renewed interest in analogy, in ancient Greek the word αναλογια originally meant proportionality, in the mathematical sense, and it was indeed sometimes translated to Latin as proportio. From there analogy was understood as identity of relation between any two ordered pairs, whether of mathematical nature or not, kants Critique of Judgment held to this notion. Kant argued that there can be exactly the same relation between two different objects. The same notion of analogy was used in the US-based SAT tests, for example, Hand is to palm as foot is to ____. This relation is not apparent in some definitions of palm and sole, where the former is defined as the inner surface of the hand. Analogy and abstraction are different cognitive processes, and analogy is often an easier one and this analogy is not comparing all the properties between a hand and a foot, but rather comparing the relationship between a hand and its palm to a foot and its sole. While a hand and a foot have many dissimilarities, the focuses on their similarity in having an inner surface. A computer algorithm has achieved human-level performance on multiple-choice analogy questions from the SAT test, the algorithm measures the similarity of relations between pairs of words by statistical analysis of a large collection of text. It answers SAT questions by selecting the choice with the highest relational similarity, Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle actually used a wider notion of analogy. They saw analogy as a shared abstraction, analogous objects did not share necessarily a relation, but also an idea, a pattern, a regularity, an attribute, an effect or a philosophy. These authors also accepted that comparisons, metaphors and images could be used as arguments, analogies should also make those abstractions easier to understand and give confidence to the ones using them
17.
Boyle Roche
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Sir Boyle Roche, 1st Baronet was an Irish politician. After a distinguished career in North America with the British Army, Roche became a member of the Irish House of Commons in 1775 and he is better remembered for the language of his speeches than his politics—they were riddled with mixed metaphors, malapropisms and other unfortunate turns of phrase. Roche may have been Richard Brinsley Sheridans model for Mrs Malaprop. While arguing for a bill, Roche once said, It would surely be better, Mr. Speaker, to give up not only a part, Roche ended his political career with the passage of the Act of Union 1800, which he supported. He chose not to attempt to enter the British House of Commons and retired on a government pension until his death, married but childless, Boyle Roche was born, the youngest of three sons, to Jordan Roche and Ellen White in County Galway in 1736. His was an old and respectable Protestant family, said to be a branch of the ancient baronial house of Roche, Viscount Fermoy from which Diana, Princess of Wales. The family were no strangers to politics, Roches great-grandfather had been elected mayor of Limerick four times. Roches older brother was Tiger Roche, a celebrated duellist and adventurer, Boyle Roche entered the army at an early age, and served in the so-called American war. There are reports of a Lieutenant Boyle Roche in Rogers Rangers who was captured by the French during The Battle on Snowshoes and later returned to his regiment. It is possible that Roche served with Wolfe at the Siege of Quebec in 1759, by 1770 he had become a major in the 28th Foot. He was knighted for his bravery at El Morro in 1776, retiring from the army, he obtained an office in the Irish revenue department in 1775. In the same year, Boyle Roche entered the Irish House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Tralee, a seat he held until 1776. His method of enlisting was as uncommon as it was pleasing to those who viewed the procession, a great number of likely recruits. An elegant band of music, consisting of French horns, hautboys, clarionets, a large brewers dray, with five-barrels of beer, the horse richly caparisoned and ornamented with ribbands. Two draymen with cockades to serve the beer, The recruiting serjeant, will you, my dear countrymen, permit those laurels to fade, or those actions to be forgotten. Let us now that we have it in our power convey to later posterity a renewal of our fidelity, and his Sacred Majesty now calls and our fidelity obliges us, and I hope your instinct prompts you, to obey the dictates of so a master. Let us then, my brave and loyal countrymen, join hearts and hands and cheerfully step forth in the cause of our Creator, our King. In Dublin, Roche was a member of the Kildare Street Club, for the office of chamberlain he was thought to be eminently qualified by his handsome figure, graceful address and ready wit, qualities which were set off by a frank, open and manly disposition
18.
Checkmate
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Checkmate is a game position in chess in which a players king is in check and there is no way to remove the threat. Checkmating the opponent wins the game, in chess the king is never captured – the game ends as soon as the king is checkmated. In formal games, most players resign an inevitably lost game before being checkmated and it is usually considered bad etiquette to continue playing in a completely hopeless position. If a player is not in check but has no move, then it is stalemate. A checkmating move is recorded in algebraic notation using the hash symbol – for example,34. Qh8#. A checkmate may occur in as few as two moves on one side all of the pieces still on the board, in a middlegame position. The term checkmate is, according to the Barnhart Etymological Dictionary, an alteration of the Persian phrase shāh māt which means, literally, the King is helpless. Others maintain that it means the King is dead, as chess reached Europe via the Islamic world, however, in Pashto, the word māt still exists, meaning destroyed, broken. Moghadam traced the etymology of the word mate and it comes from a Persian verb mandan, meaning to remain, which is cognate with the Latin word maneō and the Greek menō. It means remained in the sense of abandoned and the translation is surprised. Shāh is the Persian word for the monarch, players would announce Shāh when the king was in check. Māt is a Persian adjective for at a loss, helpless, so the king is in mate when he is ambushed, at a loss, helpless, defeated, or abandoned to his fate. In modern Persian, the word mate depicts a person who is frozen, open-mouthed, staring, confused, the words stupefied or stunned bear close correlation. So a possible alternative would be to interpret mate as unable to respond, a king is mate then means, a king is unable to respond which would correspond to there being no response that a players king can make to their opponents final move. In modern parlance, the term checkmate is a metaphor for an irrefutable, in early Sanskrit chess the king could be captured and this ended the game. The Persians introduced the idea of warning that the king was under attack and this was done to avoid the early and accidental end of a game. Later the Persians added the rule that a king could not be moved into check or left in check. As a result, the king could not be captured, before about 1600, the game could also be won by capturing all of the opponents pieces, leaving just a bare king
19.
Futurama
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Futurama is an American animated science fiction sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series was envisioned by Groening in the mid-1990s while working on The Simpsons, he later brought David X. Cohen aboard to develop storylines and characters to pitch the show to Fox. In the United States, the series aired on Fox from March 28,1999, to August 10,2003, Futurama also aired in reruns on Cartoon Networks Adult Swim from 2002 to 2007, until the networks contract expired. It was revived in 2007 as four direct-to-video films, the last of which was released in early 2009, Comedy Central entered into an agreement with 20th Century Fox Television to syndicate the existing episodes and air the films as 16 new, half-hour episodes, constituting a fifth season. In June 2009, producing studio 20th Century Fox announced that Comedy Central had picked up the show for 26 new half-hour episodes, the show was renewed for a seventh season, with the first half airing in June 2012 and the second set for mid-2013. It was later revealed that the season would be the final season. The series finale aired on September 4,2013, while Groening has said he will try to get it picked up by another network, David X. Cohen stated that the episode Meanwhile would be the last episode of season 7 and also the series finale. Throughout its run, Futurama has received critical acclaim, the show has been nominated for 17 Annie Awards and 12 Emmy Awards, winning seven of the former and six of the latter. Futurama-related merchandise has also released, including a tie-in comic book series and video game, calendars. In 2013, TV Guide ranked Futurama as one of the top 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time, Fox expressed a strong desire in the mid-1990s for Matt Groening to create a new series, and he began conceiving Futurama during this period. In 1996, he enlisted David X. Cohen, then a writer and producer for The Simpsons, the two spent time researching science fiction books, television shows, and films. When they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and story lines, Groening described trying to get the show on the air as by far the worst experience of my grown-up life. With The Simpsons the network has no input, Fox was particularly disturbed by the concept of suicide booths, Doctor Zoidberg, and Benders anti-social behavior. Groening explains, When they tried to give me notes on Futurama, I just said, and they said, Well, we dont do business that way anymore. And I said, Oh, well, thats the only way I do business, the episode I, Roommate was produced to address Foxs concerns, with the script written to their specifications. Fox strongly disliked the episode, but after negotiations, Groening received the same independence with Futurama, the name Futurama comes from a pavilion at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. Designed by Norman Bel Geddes, the Futurama pavilion depicted how he imagined the world would look in 1959, many other titles were considered for the series, including Aloha, Mars. and Doomsville, which Groening notes were resoundly rejected, by everyone concerned with it. It takes approximately six to nine months to produce an episode of Futurama, the long production time results in several episodes being worked on simultaneously
20.
Zapp Brannigan
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Zapp Brannigan is a fictional character in the animated sitcom Futurama. He is voiced by Billy West, but was intended to be voiced by Phil Hartman. The character is based on the Star Trek captain James T. Kirk, the shows executive producer David X. Cohen has described Brannigan as half Captain Kirk, half actual William Shatner. Brannigan is a 25-Star General in the Democratic Order of Planets, and captain of its flagship and he is first introduced in the fourth episode of the series, Loves Labours Lost in Space, in which he plays a major role. In the episode, Brannigan becomes enamored with Leela, whom he attempts to woo for the remainder of the series, though famed for his bravery and strategic genius, it soon becomes very apparent that he is sexist, vain, stupid and often very cowardly and inept. Most of his battles were successful because of significantly weak or non-hostile enemies or even pacifists. Brannigan is also indifferent to military casualties, and it is implied that most of his victories have been pyrrhic. He is arrogant, completely incompetent, chauvinistic, and stupid, soon after first meeting him, Leela has sex with him. He mentions this encounter repeatedly in later episodes while remaining convinced that Leela lusts after him despite her vocal opposition to the idea, Brannigans Law forbids interfering with an undeveloped planet, a parody of the Prime Directive from Star Trek. Brannigan himself does not pretend to understand it, he merely enforces it, Brannigans Law is officially called Directive B10.8,1. According to Brannigan, Brannigans Law is like Brannigans love, hard, Zapp and Kif soon found employment with Planet Express, and shortly after mounted a mutiny aboard the Planet Express Ship, usurping the captaincy from Leela, much to her chagrin. While orchestrating the mutiny, Zapp told Fry and Bender that all he expected from his crew was complete loyalty and it is soon revealed that by this, Zapp meant a willingness to die in a pointless kamikaze attack on a neutral planet. It is revealed in this episode that Zapp feels most hostile towards neutral parties, as, With enemies you know where you stand, consequently, he was reinstated as captain of the Nimbus. The Nimbus, BP-1729, is the flagship of the fleet of the D. O. O. P and it is a parody of the Enterprise from Star Trek, The Original Series. It was again damaged in Benders Big Score, only to be repaired within the month. Brannigan is widely revered in military circles for his numerous victories over hostile aliens, driving the native population of the planet Spheron 1 off of the planet. Defeated the Killbots in the Auctlian system and he was able to win the battle when he realized each Killbot had a preset kill limit. Zapp sent wave after wave of his own men until all of the Killbots had reached their limits, Brannigan is based on the Star Trek captain James T. Kirk, played by William Shatner, Brannigan and Shatner meet face-to-face in the episode Where No Fan Has Gone Before
21.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
22.
Anger
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Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response. It is an emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and emotional response to a perceived provocation, Anger can occur when a person feels their personal boundaries are being or going to be violated. Some have a tendency to react to anger through retaliation as a way of coping. William DeFoore, an anger-management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person experiencing anger will also experience physical conditions, such as increased rate, elevated blood pressure. Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or flight brain response, Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover up fear, hurt or sadness. The English term originally comes from the anger of Old Norse language. Anger can have physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, animals, for example, make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare. The behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior, rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants. Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion experienced by all humans at times. Anger is seen as a mechanism to show a person that something is wrong. Anger can mobilize psychological resources for corrective action, uncontrolled anger can, however, negatively affect personal or social well-being and impact negatively on those around them. It is equally challenging to be around a person and the impact can also cause psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence. Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists, Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation and it is shared by human and other animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped. This form of anger is episodic, settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. This form of anger is episodic, dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions
23.
Conceptual metaphor
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In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another. An example of this is the understanding of quantity in terms of directionality, a conceptual domain can be any coherent organization of human experience. This theory has gained attention, although some researchers question its empirical accuracy. This idea, and an examination of the underlying processes, was first extensively explored by George Lakoff. Other cognitive scientists, for example Gilles Fauconnier, study subjects similar to conceptual metaphor under the labels analogy, conceptual blending, Conceptual metaphors are seen in language in our everyday lives. Conceptual metaphors shape not just our communication, but also shape the way we think, in George Lakoff and Mark Johnsons work, Metaphors We Live By, we see how everyday language is filled with metaphors we may not always notice. An example of one of the commonly used conceptual metaphors is argument is war and this metaphor shapes our language in the way we view argument as war or as a battle to be won. It is not uncommon to hear someone say He won that argument or I attacked every weak point in his argument, the very way argument is thought of is shaped by this metaphor of arguments being war and battles that must be won. Argument can be seen in other ways than a battle, but we use this concept to shape the way we think of argument, Conceptual metaphors are used very often to understand theories and models. A conceptual metaphor uses one idea and links it to another to understand something. For example, the metaphor of viewing communication as a conduit is one large theory explained with a metaphor. So not only is our everyday communication shaped by the language of conceptual metaphors and these metaphors are prevalent in communication and we do not just use them in language, we actually perceive and act in accordance with the metaphors. There are two roles for the conceptual domains posited in conceptual metaphors, Source domain, the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions. Target domain, the domain that we try to understand. A mapping is the set of correspondences that exist between constituent elements of the source and the target domain. Many elements of target concepts come from source domains and are not preexisting, to know a conceptual metaphor is to know the set of mappings that applies to a given source-target pairing. The same idea of mapping between source and target is used to describe analogical reasoning and inferences, a primary tenet of this theory is that metaphors are matter of thought and not merely of language, hence, the term conceptual metaphor. Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as target and a concrete or physical concept as their source
24.
Metaphors We Live By
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In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another. An example of this is the understanding of quantity in terms of directionality, a conceptual domain can be any coherent organization of human experience. This theory has gained attention, although some researchers question its empirical accuracy. This idea, and an examination of the underlying processes, was first extensively explored by George Lakoff. Other cognitive scientists, for example Gilles Fauconnier, study subjects similar to conceptual metaphor under the labels analogy, conceptual blending, Conceptual metaphors are seen in language in our everyday lives. Conceptual metaphors shape not just our communication, but also shape the way we think, in George Lakoff and Mark Johnsons work, Metaphors We Live By, we see how everyday language is filled with metaphors we may not always notice. An example of one of the commonly used conceptual metaphors is argument is war and this metaphor shapes our language in the way we view argument as war or as a battle to be won. It is not uncommon to hear someone say He won that argument or I attacked every weak point in his argument, the very way argument is thought of is shaped by this metaphor of arguments being war and battles that must be won. Argument can be seen in other ways than a battle, but we use this concept to shape the way we think of argument, Conceptual metaphors are used very often to understand theories and models. A conceptual metaphor uses one idea and links it to another to understand something. For example, the metaphor of viewing communication as a conduit is one large theory explained with a metaphor. So not only is our everyday communication shaped by the language of conceptual metaphors and these metaphors are prevalent in communication and we do not just use them in language, we actually perceive and act in accordance with the metaphors. There are two roles for the conceptual domains posited in conceptual metaphors, Source domain, the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions. Target domain, the domain that we try to understand. A mapping is the set of correspondences that exist between constituent elements of the source and the target domain. Many elements of target concepts come from source domains and are not preexisting, to know a conceptual metaphor is to know the set of mappings that applies to a given source-target pairing. The same idea of mapping between source and target is used to describe analogical reasoning and inferences, a primary tenet of this theory is that metaphors are matter of thought and not merely of language, hence, the term conceptual metaphor. Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as target and a concrete or physical concept as their source
25.
George Lakoff
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George P. Lakoff is an American cognitive linguist, best known for his thesis that lives of individuals are significantly influenced by the central metaphors they use to explain complex phenomena. According to him, an experience and attitude towards sociopolitical issues is influenced by being framed in linguistic constructions. Between 2003 and 2008, Lakoff was involved with a progressive think tank and he is a member of the scientific committee of the Fundación IDEAS, Spains Socialist Partys think tank. The more general theory that elaborated his thesis is known as embodied mind and he is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1972. Metaphor has been seen within the Western scientific tradition as purely a linguistic construction, the essential thrust of Lakoffs work has been the argument that metaphors are primarily a conceptual construction, and indeed are central to the development of thought. He suggested that, Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. Non-metaphorical thought is for Lakoff only possible when we talk about physical reality. For Lakoff, the greater the level of abstraction the more layers of metaphor are required to express it, people do not notice these metaphors for various reasons. One reason is that some metaphors become dead and we no longer recognize their origin, another reason is that we just dont see what is going on. Lakoffs disfluent, frequent use of you know e. g. ferries our attention between the knowable enclave of things and the world of the intellect. For instance, in intellectual debate the underlying metaphor is usually that argument is war and he shot down all my arguments. His criticisms were right on target, if you use that strategy, hell wipe you out. For Lakoff, the development of thought has been the process of developing better metaphors, the application of one domain of knowledge to another domain of knowledge offers new perceptions and understandings. Lakoff began his career as a student and later a teacher of the theory of transformational grammar developed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor Noam Chomsky, in the late 1960s, however, he joined with others to promote generative semantics as an alternative to Chomskys generative syntax. In an interview he stated, During that period, I was attempting to unify Chomskys transformational grammar with formal logic, I had helped work out a lot of the early details of Chomskys theory of grammar. I came up with the beginnings of a theory in 1963 and, along with wonderful collaborators like Haj Ross and Jim McCawley. Chomsky goes further and claims that Lakoff has virtually no comprehension of the work he is discussing and his differences with Chomsky contributed to fierce, acrimonious debates among linguists that have come to be known as the linguistics wars. Lakoff offers three complementary but distinct sorts of arguments in favor of embodiment, on the contrary, most categories are supposed to be much more complicated and messy, just like our bodies
26.
Musicology
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Musicology is the scholarly analysis and research-based study of music. Musicology is part of the humanities, a scholar who participates in musical research is a musicologist. Traditionally, historical musicology has been the most prominent sub-discipline of musicology, in the 2010s, historical musicology is one of several large musicology sub-disciplines. Historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and systematic musicology are approximately equal in size, Ethnomusicology is the study of music in its cultural context. Cognitive musicology is the set of surrounding the computational modeling of music. Musical knowledge is applied in medicine, education, and music therapy—which, Music history or historical musicology is concerned with the composition, performance, reception, and criticism of music over time. Like the comparable field of art history, different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works, there are also national differences in various definitions of historical musicology. In theory, music history could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music, in practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology and historical musicology is typically assumed to imply Western Art music of the European tradition. The methods of historical musicology include source studies, paleography, philology, style criticism, historiography, musical analysis, Music historians may examine issues in a close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composers art songs. New musicology is a term applied since the late 1980s to a body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis. Such work may be based on feminist, gender studies, queer theory, or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor Adorno. Charles Rosen, however, retorts that McClary, sets up, like so many of the new musicologists, a man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning. Ethnomusicology, formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context and it is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of making music. Some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, but the majority are involved in long-term participant observation, or combine ethnographic, therefore, ethnomusiological scholarship can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive fieldwork component, often involving long-term residence within the community studied. Closely related to ethnomusiology is the branch of sociomusicology. For instance, Ko proposed the hypothesis of Biliterate and Trimusical in Hong Kong sociomusicology, the first journal focusing on popular music studies was Popular Music, which began publication in 1981. The same year an academic society devoted to the topic was formed
27.
The Lonely Tree
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The Lonely Tree is an 1822 oil-on-canvas painting by German painter Caspar David Friedrich. It measures 55 ×71 centimetres, the work depicts a panoramic view of a romantic landscape of plains with mountains in the background. A solitary oak tree dominates the foreground, an ancient oak stands at the centre of the painting, clearly damaged but still standing. The trees branches, dark in silhouette, project into the largely overcast morning sky, banks of cloud seem to form a dome above the tree. The crown of the tree is dead, and the top of its trunk, a shepherd shelters under the leaf-bearing lower branches. His flock of sheep graze beside a pond in the grassy meadow around the tree. In the middle distance, villages and a town nestle among other trees and bushes, tree-clad hills pile up into blue-grey mountains in the background. It was completed before November 1822 and has held by the Berlin National Gallery since 1861. It is now in the Alte Nationalgalerie of the Staatliche Museen in Berlin, Friedrich painted the mountains several times between 1806 and 1810. The double peak may be Jeschken, the painting has drawn a number of interpretations. Der einsame Baum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Caspar David Friedrich, Moonwatchers, p. 38-39
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Caspar David Friedrich
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Caspar David Friedrich was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation. He is best known for his mid-period allegorical landscapes which typically feature contemplative figures silhouetted against night skies, morning mists, barren trees or Gothic or megalithic ruins. His primary interest as an artist was the contemplation of nature, Friedrich was born in the Pomeranian town of Greifswald at the Baltic Sea, where he began his studies in art as a young man. He studied in Copenhagen until 1798, before settling in Dresden and he came of age during a period when, across Europe, a growing disillusionment with materialistic society was giving rise to a new appreciation of spirituality. Friedrichs work brought him early in his career, and contemporaries such as the French sculptor David dAngers spoke of him as a man who had discovered the tragedy of landscape. Nevertheless, his work fell from favour during his years, and he died in obscurity. The early 20th century brought a renewed appreciation of his work, beginning in 1906 with an exhibition of thirty-two of his paintings and sculptures in Berlin. By the 1920s his paintings had been discovered by the Expressionists and it was not until the late 1970s that Friedrich regained his reputation as an icon of the German Romantic movement and a painter of international importance. Caspar David Friedrich was born on 5 September 1774, in Greifswald, Swedish Pomerania, the sixth of ten children, he was brought up in the strict Lutheran creed of his father Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich, a candle-maker and soap boiler. Records of the financial circumstances are contradictory, while some sources indicate the children were privately tutored. Caspar David was familiar with death from an early age and his mother, Sophie Dorothea Bechly, died in 1781 when he was just seven. A year later, his sister Elisabeth died, while a sister, Maria. Some accounts suggest that Johann Christoffer perished while trying to rescue Caspar David, Quistorp took his students on outdoor drawing excursions, as a result, Friedrich was encouraged to sketch from life at an early age. Through Quistorp, Friedrich met and was influenced by the theologian Ludwig Gotthard Kosegarten. Quistorp introduced Friedrich to the work of the German 17th-century artist Adam Elsheimer, whose works often included religious subjects dominated by landscape, during this period he also studied literature and aesthetics with Swedish professor Thomas Thorild. Four years later Friedrich entered the prestigious Academy of Copenhagen, where he began his education by making copies of casts from antique sculptures before proceeding to drawing from life, living in Copenhagen afforded the young painter access to the Royal Picture Gallerys collection of 17th-century Dutch landscape painting. At the Academy he studied under such as Christian August Lorentzen. Mood was paramount, and influence was drawn from sources as the Icelandic legend of Edda
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Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
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Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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Sylvia Plath
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Sylvia Plath was an American poet, novelist, and short story writer. Born in Boston, she studied at Smith College and Newnham College at the University of Cambridge before receiving acclaim as a poet and she was married to fellow poet Ted Hughes from 1956 until they separated in September 1962. They lived together in the United States and then in England and had two children, Frieda and Nicholas, Plath was clinically depressed for most of her adult life, which was treated multiple times with electroconvulsive therapy. Plath is credited with advancing the genre of poetry and is best known for her two published collections, The Colossus and Other Poems and Ariel. She also wrote The Bell Jar, a novel published shortly before her death. In 1982, she won a posthumous Pulitzer Prize for The Collected Poems, Plath was born on October 27,1932, in Bostons Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Her mother, Aurelia Schober Plath, was a second-generation American of Austrian descent, Plaths father was an entomologist and a professor of biology at Boston University who authored a book about bumblebees. On April 27,1935, Plaths brother Warren was born, Plaths mother, Aurelia, had grown up in Winthrop, and her maternal grandparents, the Schobers, had lived in a section of the town called Point Shirley, a location mentioned in Plaths poetry. While living in Winthrop, eight-year-old Plath published her first poem in the Boston Heralds childrens section, over the next few years, Plath published multiple poems in regional magazines and newspapers. At age 11, Plath began keeping a journal, in addition to writing, she showed early promise as an artist, winning an award for her paintings from The Scholastic Art & Writing Awards in 1947. Even in her youth, Plath was ambitiously driven to succeed, Otto Plath died on November 5,1940, a week and a half after Plaths eighth birthday, of complications following the amputation of a foot due to untreated diabetes. He had become ill shortly after a friend died of lung cancer. Comparing the similarities between his friends symptoms and his own, Otto became convinced that he, too, had lung cancer, raised as a Unitarian Christian, Plath experienced a loss of faith after her fathers death and remained ambivalent about religion throughout her life. Her father was buried in Winthrop Cemetery, Massachusetts, a visit to her fathers grave later prompted Plath to write the poem Electra on Azalea Path. After Ottos death, Aurelia moved her children and her parents to 26 Elmwood Road, Wellesley, Massachusetts in 1942. In one of her last prose pieces, Plath commented that her first nine years sealed themselves off like a ship in a bottle—beautiful inaccessible, obsolete, Plath attended Bradford Senior High School in Wellesley, graduating in 1950. Just after graduating high school, she had her first national publication in the Christian Science Monitor. In 1950, Plath attended Smith College and excelled academically and she wrote to her mother, The world is splitting open at my feet like a ripe, juicy watermelon
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Red coat (military uniform)
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Red coat or Redcoat is a historical item of military clothing used widely, though not exclusively worn, by most regiments of the British Army from the 17th to the 20th centuries. From the mid-17th century to the 19th century, the uniform of most British soldiers included a red coat or coatee. From 1873 onwards, the more vivid shade of scarlet was adopted for all ranks, having previously been worn only by officers, sergeants, the Red Coat has evolved from being the British infantrymans ordinary uniform to a garment retained only for ceremonial purposes. Its official adoption dates from February 1645, when the Parliament of England passed the New Model Army ordinance. The new English Army was formed of 22,000 men, divided into 12 foot regiments of 600 men each, one regiment of 1000 men. The infantry regiments wore coats of Venetian red with white facings, a contemporary comment on the New Model Army dated 7 May 1645 stated the men are Redcoats all, the whole army only are distinguished by the several facings of their coats. There had been many isolated instances of red military clothing pre-dating its general adoption by the New Model Army, the uniforms of the Yeoman of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders have traditionally been in Tudor red and gold. The Gentlemen Pensioners of James I had worn red with yellow feathers, at Edgehill, the first battle of the Civil War, the Kings people had worn red coats, as had at least two Parliamentary regiments. None of these constituted the national uniform that the red coat was later to become. However, in Ireland during the reign of Elizabeth, the soldiers of the queens Lord Lieutenant of Ireland were referred to as red coats by the native Irish from the colour of their uniforms and this is clear from both Irish and English primary sources. Note the Irish word is casóg but the word may be translated as coat, cloak, or even uniform and this is not an isolated reference. OSullivan alludes to two other encounters in which the Irish won the day against English red coats, the other relates to a rout by William Burke, Lord of Bealatury in 1599 of English recruits clad in red coats. English sources confirm that Crown troops in Ireland wore red coats/cloaks/uniforms/clothing, outside of Ireland, the English Red Coat made its first appearance on a European continental battlefield at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. A Protectorate army had landed at Calais the previous year and every man had a new red coat. The English name from the battle comes from the major engagement carried out by the red-coats, to the surprise of continental observers they stormed sand-dunes 150 feet high fighting experienced Spanish soldiers from their summits with musket fire and push of pike. The adoption and continuing use of red by most British/English soldiers after the Restoration was the result of rather than policy. Red was by no means universal at first, with grey, There is no known basis for the myth that red coats were favoured because they did not show blood stains. Blood does in fact show on red clothing as a black stain, prior to 1707 colonels of regiments made their own arrangements for the manufacture of uniforms under their command
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Robert Frost
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Robert Lee Frost was an American poet. His work was published in England before it was published in America. He is highly regarded for his depictions of rural life. His work frequently employed settings from rural life in New England in the twentieth century. One of the most popular and critically respected American poets of the century, Frost was honored frequently during his lifetime. He became one of Americas rare public literary figures, almost an artistic institution and he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 1960 for his poetic works. On July 22,1961, Frost was named laureate of Vermont. Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, California, to journalist William Prescott Frost, Jr. and his mother was a Scottish immigrant, and his father descended from Nicholas Frost of Tiverton, Devon, England, who had sailed to New Hampshire in 1634 on the Wolfrana. Frosts father was a teacher and later an editor of the San Francisco Evening Bulletin, and an unsuccessful candidate for city tax collector. After his death on May 5,1885, the family moved across the country to Lawrence, Massachusetts, under the patronage of William Frost, Frost graduated from Lawrence High School in 1892. Frosts mother joined the Swedenborgian church and had him baptized in it, although known for his later association with rural life, Frost grew up in the city, and he published his first poem in his high schools magazine. He attended Dartmouth College for two months, long enough to be accepted into the Theta Delta Chi fraternity. Frost returned home to teach and to work at various jobs, including helping his mother teach her class of boys, delivering newspapers. He did not enjoy these jobs, feeling his true calling was poetry, in 1894, he sold his first poem, My Butterfly. Proud of his accomplishment, he proposed marriage to Elinor Miriam White, Frost then went on an excursion to the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and asked Elinor again upon his return. Having graduated, she agreed, and they were married at Lawrence, Frost attended Harvard University from 1897 to 1899, but he left voluntarily due to illness. In 1912, Frost sailed with his family to Great Britain, settling first in Beaconsfield and his first book of poetry, A Boys Will, was published the next year. In England he made important acquaintances, including Edward Thomas, T. E. Hulme
