1.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
2.
Navy
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A navy or maritime force is a fleet of waterborne military vessels and its associated naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the branch of an armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare, namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations. The strategic offensive role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a countrys shores, the strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deterrence by use of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In most nations, the naval, as opposed to navy, is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military forces, e. g. navy, marine / marine corps. First attested in English in the early 14th century, the navy came via Old French navie, fleet of ships, from the Latin navigium, a vessel. The word naval came from Latin navalis, pertaining to ship, cf. Greek ναῦς, ship, ναύτης, seaman, the earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word
3.
Secretariat of the Navy
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The Mexican Secretariat of the Navy is a member of the federal executive cabinet with responsibility for managing the countrys navy and marine forces. The secretary is appointed by the President of the Republic and heads the Secretariat of the Navy, organizes, administers and prepares the Navy. Exercising sovereignty in territorial seas, its air space and Mexicos coasts
4.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
5.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
6.
Mexican Drug War
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The Mexican Drug War is the Mexican theater of the United States War on Drugs, involving an ongoing low-intensity asymmetric war between the Mexican Government and various drug trafficking syndicates. Since 2006, when the Mexican military began to intervene, the principal goal has been to reduce the drug-related violence. Additionally, the Mexican government has claimed that their focus is on dismantling the powerful drug cartels, rather than on preventing drug trafficking. Mexican drug cartels now dominate the wholesale illicit drug market and in 2007 controlled 90% of the entering the United States. Arrests of key leaders, particularly in the Tijuana and Gulf cartels, has led to increasing drug violence as cartels fight for control of the trafficking routes into the United States. Analysts estimate that wholesale earnings from illicit drug sales range from $13.6 to $49.4 billion annually, by the end of Felipe Calderóns administration, the official death toll of the Mexican Drug War was at least 60,000. Estimates set the death toll above 120,000 killed by 2013, given its geographic location, Mexico has long been used as a staging and transshipment point for narcotics and contraband between Latin America and U. S. markets. Towards the end of the 1960s, Mexican narcotic smugglers started to smuggle drugs on a major scale, during the 1970s and early 1980s, Colombias Pablo Escobar was the main exporter of cocaine and dealt with organized criminal networks all over the world. By the mid-1980s, the organizations from Mexico were well-established and reliable transporters of Colombian cocaine, transporters from Mexico usually were given 35% to 50% of each cocaine shipment. This arrangement meant that organizations from Mexico became involved in the distribution, as well as the transportation of cocaine, currently, the Sinaloa Cartel and the Gulf Cartel have taken over trafficking cocaine from Colombia to the worldwide markets. The balance of power between the various Mexican cartels continually shifts as new organizations emerge and older ones weaken and collapse, a disruption in the system, such as the arrests or deaths of cartel leaders, generates bloodshed as rivals move in to exploit the power vacuum. The fighting between rival drug cartels began in earnest after the 1989 arrest of Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, there was a lull in the fighting during the late 1990s but the violence has steadily worsened since 2000. The center-left PRI party ruled Mexico for around 70 years until 2000, during this time, drug cartels expanded their power and corruption, and anti-drug operations focused mainly on destroying marijuana and opium crops in mountainous regions. It is estimated that about 110 people died in Nuevo Laredo between January and August 2005 as a result of the fighting between the Gulf and Sinaloa cartels. The same year, there was another surge in violence in the state of Michoacán as the La Familia Michoacana drug cartel established itself, on December 11,2006, the newly elected President Felipe Calderón sent 6,500 Mexican Army soldiers to Michoacán to end drug violence there. As time passed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in there are now about 45,000 troops involved along with state. Mexico is a drug transit and producing country. It is the main supplier of cannabis and an important entry point of South American cocaine
7.
Mexican Armed Forces
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The Mexican Armed Forces are composed of two independent entities, the Mexican Army and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Army includes the Mexican Air Force, the Presidential Guard, Military Police, and Special Forces are part of the Army, but have their own chains of command. The Mexican Navy includes the Naval Infantry Force and the Naval Aviation, there are three main components of the Army, a national headquarters, territorial commands, and independent units. The Minister of Defense commands the Army by means of a centralized system. The Army uses a modified continental staff system in its headquarters, the Army is the largest branch of Mexicos armed services. Presently, there are 12 Military Regions, which are broken down into 44 subordinate Military Zones. In both cases, a system is used for designation. There is no set number of zones within a region, the Air Force national headquarters is embedded in the Army headquarters in Mexico City. It also follows the continental system, with the usual A1, A2, A3. The tactical forces form what is called an Air Division, but it is dispersed in four regions, Northeast Mexico, Northwest Mexico, Central Mexico. The Air Force maintains a total of 18 air bases, and has the capability of opening temporary forward operating bases in austere conditions for some helicopters. The Ministry of the Navy, the Navys national headquarters, is located in Mexico City and they are a very tightly knit group, and great importance is placed on consultation among the factions within these year groups. The Navys operational forces are organized as two independent groups, the Gulf Force and the Pacific Force, each group has its own headquarters, a destroyer group, an auxiliary vessel group, a Marine Infantry Group, and a Special Forces group. The Gulf and Pacific Forces are not mirror images of each other, both are subdivided into regions, with Regions 1,3, and 5 on the Gulf, and 2,4, and 6 on the Pacific. Each region is divided into sectors and zones, so a proliferation of headquarters. The Navy also has an air arm with troop transport, reconnaissance, the Navy maintains significant infrastructure, including naval dockyards that have the capability of building ships, such as the Holzinger class offshore patrol vessel. These dockyards have a significant employment and economic impact in the country, the Naval Infantry are the marine corps and amphibious infantry force of the Mexican Navy. The Naval Infantry are responsible for security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe
8.
Pemex
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Pemex has a total asset worth of $415. Asphalt and pitch had been worked in Mexico since the time of the Aztecs, small quantities of oil were first refined into kerosene around 1876 near Tampico. In 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas sided with oil workers striking against foreign-owned oil companies for an increase in pay and he framed expropriation as a necessary national response to the injustice of the operations of foreign companies operating on Mexican soil. Expropriation was not outright confiscation, since the Mexican government promised to compensate companies, however, in retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil. In spite of the boycott, Pemex developed into one of the largest oil companies in the world and helped Mexico become the fifth-largest oil exporter in the world. In an interview on the oil news website in November 2005, annual production has dropped each year since 2004. Furthermore, it has reported the 2005-2006 daily oil production was down by approximately 500,000 barrels per day on the previous year. Pemex averaged 3.71 MMBPD in 2006, Pemex has never produced 4 MMBPD or higher for a yearly average. Pemex has been replaced as Latin America’s largest company by Petrobras, President Calderón made clear at the beginning of his presidency that he would try his best to open up the sector to private investment. Pemex is Latin America’s second largest company measured by revenues, according to a ranking of the region’s 500 largest companies by Latin Business Chronicle, in June 2009, Pemex has asked for an extra $1.5 billion state aid to finance oil fields investments, reported Bloomberg. President Felipe Calderón called for change in Mexico’s oil industry after output at Pemex fell at the fastest rate since 1942. His comments came after Petrobras and London-based BP said they made a giant oil find of as much as 3 billion barrels in the Gulf of Mexico southeast of Houston. In February 2016, Emilio Lozoya Austin stepped down as CEO of Pemex, in addition to a failing infrastructure, dwindling reserves have created urgency in completing some type of reform. In February 2015, the board approved a $4.16 billion spending cut, the company also said it will delay deepwater exploration plans and cut jobs in response to weak oil prices. In 1979, Pemex’s Ixtoc I exploratory oil well in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout resulting in one of the largest oil spills in history, Pemex spent $100 million to clean up the spill and avoided most compensation claims by asserting sovereign immunity as a state-run company. On 19 September 2012 an explosion at the Pemex gas plant in Reynosa, Tamaulipas killed 30, Pemex Director Juan Jose Suarez said that there was no evidence that it was a deliberate incident, or some kind of attack. On January 31,2013, an explosion occurred at the offices of Pemex in Mexico City. At least 37 people were killed and at least 126 were injured, the cause has not been confirmed
9.
Oil well
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An oil well is a boring in the Earth that is designed to bring petroleum oil hydrocarbons to the surface. Usually some natural gas is produced along with the oil, a well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas well. The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE and these wells had depths of up to about 240 metres and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt, by the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century, arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century, some sources claim that from the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha for the petroleum industry. These places were described by Marco Polo in the 13th century, when Marco Polo in 1264 visited Baku, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, he saw oil being collected from seeps. He wrote that on the confines toward Geirgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great abundance, in 1846, Baku the first ever well was drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration. In 1848, the first modern oil well was drilled on the Aspheron Peninsula north-east of Baku, the earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by repeatedly raising and dropping a cable tool into the earth. In the 20th century, cable tools were replaced with rotary drilling. The record-depth Kola Borehole used non-rotary mud motor drilling to achieve a depth of over 12,000 metres, until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and mechanical imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly from true vertical. However, modern directional drilling technologies allow for strongly deviated wells which can, given sufficient depth and with the proper tools, before a well is drilled, a geologic target is identified by a geologist or geophysicist to meet the objectives of the well. For a production well, the target is picked to optimize production from the well, for an exploration or appraisal well, the target is chosen to confirm the existence of a viable hydrocarbon reservoir or to ascertain its extent. The target will be matched with a location, and a trajectory between the two will be designed. When the well path is identified, a team of geoscientists and these properties include pore pressure, fracture gradient, wellbore stability, porosity, permeability, lithology, faults, and clay content. The well is created by drilling a hole 12 cm to 1 meter in diameter into the earth with a rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of pipe, slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole
10.
Campeche
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Campeche, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Campeche, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It has a coastline to the west with the Gulf of Mexico, the state capital, also called Campeche, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997. The formation of the state began with the city, which was founded in 1540 as the Spanish began the conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula, during the colonial period, the city was a rich and important port, but declined after Mexico’s Independence. Campeche was part of the province of Yucatán but split off in the mid-19th century, today, much of the state’s economic comeback is due to the finding of petroleum offshore in the 1970s, which has made the coastal cities of Campeche and Ciudad del Carmen important economic centers. The state has important Mayan and colonial sites but they are not as well known or visited as others in the Yucatán. The states executive power rests in the governor of Campeche and the legislative power rests in the Congress of Campeche which is a legislature composed of 35 deputies. The state of Campeche is located in southeast Mexico, on the west side of the Yucatan Peninsula, the territory is 56,858. 84km2, which is 2. 6% of Mexico’s total. It borders the states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Tabasco, with the country of Belize to the east, Guatemala to the south and the Gulf of Mexico to the west. Politically, it is divided into municipalities, Calkiní, Calakmul, Campeche, Candelaria, Champotón, Ciudad del Carmen, Escárcega, Hecelchakán, Hopelchén, Palizada. Campeche is a flat area of Mexico with 523 km of shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the surface is of sedimentary rock much of which is from marine origin, the area with the highest elevations is near the borders with Guatemala and Quintana Roo. Notable elevations include Cerro Champerico, Cerro los Chinos, Cerro El Ramonal, Cerro El Doce, however, these hills are separated by large expanses of lower flat land. In the south of the municipality of Champotón begin a series of rolling hills known as the Sierra Alta or Puuc and these have only an average altitude of between forty and sixty meters with some reaching 100 meters. There other areas of rolling hills, near the city of Campeche with main ones known as Maxtum, Boxol. Another set is called the Sierra Seybaplaya in the center of the state, away from the coast, these rainforests are interspersed with savannah areas and along the coast are accompanied by areas with sand dunes, mangrove wetlands and estuaries. Species that can be found in the various rainforests include huapaque, cedar, pukte, sapote, dyewood, dzalam and it also includes a number of precious tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, mahogany, ciricote and guayacán. Along the coastal areas, palms such as the coconut. The main wildlife species in the state are the jaguar, ocelot, puma, deer, wild boar, raccoon, hare, ring-tailed cat, there are many bird species including the chachalaca, ducks, quail, pelican, toucan, buzzard and many more
11.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
12.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state
13.
Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
14.
Mexican Army
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The Mexican Army is the combined land and air branch and largest of the Mexican Armed Forces, it is also known as the National Defense Army. It was the first army to adopt and use a self-loading rifle, the Mexican Army has an active duty force of 766,750. Mexico has no major foreign nation-state adversaries and it officially repudiates the use of force to settle disputes and rejects interference by one nation in the affairs of another. Although it has not suffered a major international terrorist incident in recent decades, in the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all males, nobles as well as commoners. Itzcoatl Obsidian Serpent, fourth king of Tenochtitlán, organized the army defeated the Tepanec of Atzcapotzalco. His reign began with the rise of what would become the largest empire in Mesoamerica, then Moctezuma Ilhuicamina The arrow to the sky came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco, the Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship, these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings using drums or blowing into a sea shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common, for combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. In the early morning of September 16,1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement, Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence. The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, the insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. With this stunt, the managed to bring down the door and enter the building. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid, which was captured with little opposition, on November 29,1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army, he also issued a decree abolishing slavery. At Calderon Bridge near the city of Guadalajara Jalisco, insurgents held a battle with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the ammunition wagons exploded
15.
Pastry War
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It ended several months later in March 1839 with a British-brokered peace. The intervention followed many claims by French nationals of losses due to unrest in Mexico, during the early years of the new Mexican republic there was widespread civil disorder as factions competed for control of the country. The fighting often resulted in the destruction or looting of private property, average citizens had few options for claiming compensation as they had no representatives to speak on their behalf. However, France had yet to secure trade agreements similar to those that the United States and England had, in complaint to King Louis-Philippe, a French pastry chef known only as Monsieur Remontel, claimed that in 1832 Mexican officers looted his shop in Tacubaya. Remontel demanded 60,000 pesos as reparations for the damage, French forces captured Veracruz by December 1838 and Mexico declared war on France. With trade cut off, the Mexicans began smuggling imports via Corpus Christi, Republic of Texas, fearing that France would blockade the Republics ports as well, a battalion of Texan forces began patrolling Corpus Christi Bay to stop Mexican smugglers. One smuggling party abandoned their cargo of about a hundred barrels of flour on the beach at the mouth of the bay and he offered his services to the government, which ordered him to fight the French by any means necessary. He led Mexican forces against the French, in a skirmish with the rear guard of the French, Santa Anna was wounded in the leg by French grapeshot. His leg was amputated and buried with military honors. Exploiting his wounds with eloquent propaganda, Santa Anna catapulted back to power, the French forces withdrew on 9 March 1839 after a peace treaty was signed. As part of said treaty the Mexican government agreed to pay 600,000 pesos as damages to French citizens while France received promises for future trade commitments in place of war indemnities. However, this amount was never paid and that was used as one of the justifications for the second French intervention in Mexico of 1861. Media related to Pastry War at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Texas Navy
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The Texas Navy was the official navy of the Republic of Texas. It was created to protect and defend the coastline of Texas and offer protection for the shipping, during the Texas Revolution, the provisional government in San Felipe de Austin issued an ordinance in November 1835 to establish an official navy. In January 1836, agents purchased four schooners, Invincible, Brutus, Independence, according to Teddy Roosevelt, the Texas Navy succeeded in preventing reinforcements and provisions at their naval base at Matamoros from reaching General Santa Annas forces then occupying Texas. This forced Santa Anna to disperse his army, to forage for food. This in turn is what led to his defeat at San Jacinto by General Sam Houston, by October 1837, all of the ships had been lost at sea, sunk by the Mexican Navy, run aground, captured, or sold, and replacements were being procured. The six vessels were known as the second Texas Navy, for three years the Texas Navy raided the Mexican coast and kept the Mexican fleet focused on defending its own coastline. This battle is believed to be unique, marking the occasion in which a sailing warship engaged. When Texas joined the United States in 1846, the Texas Navy was merged into the United States Navy, the founders of the Republic of Texas attempted to bolster recruitment into the armed forces through the generous inducement of land for military service. The policy in Texas was inconsistent, as not all Texas veterans were treated equally, Texas passed its first bounty act on November 24,1835, when the general council created a regular army and promised those who served in it for two years 640 acres of land. After the revolution, the Texas government distributed the public lands, in all,9,874,262 acres was granted to veterans of the Texas army, or to Confederate soldiers in Texas. Not one of those nearly 10 million acres was granted for naval service, “The fact remains that Texas could not have won her independence and maintained it as she did, without the navy, ” said Texas Navy historian Alex Dienst. It has been said that if the United States was Texas’s biological parent, historians point out that the Texas Navy was of vital importance to the war effort with approximately three-fourths of all troops, supplies and cash originating from the ports of New Orleans. Navy vessels protected against marauding Mexican warships looking to cut the cord that flowed to Texas through Galveston, keeping the war effort. Additionally, military leaders knew the importance of the Texas coast to winning a revolution, or quashing a rebellion. In fact, Mexican General Vicente Filisola remarked, “. the posts of Texas are not sustainable, whilst a maritime force does not co-operate with the operations of the land service. ”On the other side, Commander James Fannin, in an August 1835 letter, wrote that provisions were scarce for the Mexican army on dry land. He requested naval assistance to the army, asking, “Where is your navy. ”He pointed out that if Texas ships could block access to ports, “they are ruined. The battle for bounty lands was a struggle that culminated six years after the revolution. Naval policy was another in a line of differing views between Sam Houston and Mirabeau Lamar
17.
Naval Battle of Campeche
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The Naval Battle of Campeche took place on April 30,1843, and May 16,1843. Texas had declared its independence in 1836 but by 1843 Mexico had refused to recognize it, in Yucatán, a similar rebellion had begun and was fought off-and-on from 1836 to 1846. The battle ended in a combined Yucatecan and Texan victory, a scene from this battle is engraved on the cylinder of every Colt 1851 Navy and 1861 Navy revolver. Moore could only fully refit and rearm his ships by expending his own funds when he put in at New Orleans, the government of Texas refused him more funds and Sam Houston ordered him back to Texas so the fleet could be sold. The fleet, upon being put up for auction in Galveston, was not sold at that time because the citizens of Galveston rioted, thereby preventing the auction. Moore disregarded Houstons orders, and allied himself with the government of the Republic of Yucatan, Yucatan paid Texas $8,000 a month for the services of the Texas Navy. Moore, now fully funded, sailed to lift the Mexican naval blockade of the port of Campeche, the initial battle lasted a few hours and was a draw, as both sides retired. After three hours of broadsides, the battle was essentially a draw, with both sides again withdrawing after sustaining damage and casualties. The Texas ships suffered some damage, but the Mexican. They were acclaimed as heroes on their return, even though Texas President Sam Houston had declared Commodore Moore, however, after a court martial, Commodore Moore was acquitted of all piracy charges
18.
Second French intervention in Mexico
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It followed President Benito Juárezs suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered these three major creditors of Mexico. Emperor Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade, for him, a friendly government in Mexico would ensure European access to Latin American markets. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire, Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain while the U. S. was deeply engaged in its civil war. The three European powers signed the Treaty of London on 31 October 1861, to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico, on 8 December the Spanish fleet and troops arrived at Mexicos main port, Veracruz. When the British and Spanish discovered that France planned to all of Mexico. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire, after heavy guerrilla resistance led by Juárez, which continued even after the capital had fallen in 1863, the French eventually withdrew from Mexico and Maximilian I was executed in 1867. The British, Spanish and French fleets arrived at Veracruz, between 8 and 17 December 1861 intending to pressure the Mexicans into settling their debts, the Spanish fleet seized San Juan de Ulúa and subsequently the capital Veracruz on 17 December. The European forces advanced to Orizaba, Cordoba and Tehuacán, as they had agreed in the Convention of Soledad, the city of Campeche surrendered to the French fleet on 27 February 1862, and a French army, commanded by General Lorencez, arrived on 5 March. When the Spanish and British realised the French ambition was to conquer Mexico, they withdrew their forces on 9 April, in May, the French man-of-war Bayonnaise blockaded Mazatlán for a few days. Mexican forces commanded by General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French army in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862, the pursuing Mexican army was contained by the French at Orizaba, Veracruz, on 14 June. More French troops arrived on 21 September, and General Bazaine arrived with French reinforcements on 16 October, the French occupied the port of Tampico on 23 October, and unopposed by Mexican forces took control of Xalapa, Veracruz on 12 December. The French bombarded Veracruz on 15 January 1863, two months later, on 16 March, General Forey and the French Army began the siege of Puebla. They were forced to make a defence in a nearby hacienda, danjou was mortally wounded at the hacienda, and his men mounted an almost suicidal bayonet attack, fighting to nearly the last man, only three French Legionnaires survived. To this day, the anniversary of 30 April remains the most important day of celebration for Legionnaires. The French army of General François Achille Bazaine defeated the Mexican army led by General Comonfort in its campaign to relieve the siege of Puebla, at San Lorenzo, Puebla surrendered to the French shortly afterward, on 17 May. On 31 May, President Juárez fled the city with his cabinet, retreating northward to Paso del Norte, having taken the treasure of the state with them, the government-in-exile remained in Chihuahua until 1867. French troops under Bazaine entered Mexico City on 7 June 1863, the main army entered the city three days later led by General Forey. General Almonte was appointed the provisional President of Mexico on 16 June, the Superior Junta with its 35 members met on 21 June, and proclaimed a Catholic Empire on 10 July
19.
First Battle of Topolobampo
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The First Battle of Topolobampo was a bloodless engagement and one of the few naval battles of the Mexican Revolution. The small action occurred off Topolobampo, Mexico and involved three gunboats, two from the Mexican Navy and another which mutinied from the armada and joined the rebel Constitutionalists. It was fought on the morning of March 4,1914 and was the first battle of the campaign in the Gulf of California. Guaymas Mutiny On Sunday 22 February 1914, off Guaymas, Mexico a mutiny began at about 8,00 pm when the Mexican Navy gunboat Tampico was refitting for a cruise. Half of the officers and crew were still enjoying shore leave when Executive Officer Lieutenant Hilario Rodríguez Malpica, the mob of sailors then headed for their captain, whom they arrested with violence. Malpica, who had assumed command of the mutineers, informed Captain Manuel Azueta that he intended to sail Tampico to join the Constitutionalists, the Tampico started and intended to head westward. Just then the Huerista gunboat Guerrero, under Captain Navio Torres, was spotted in front of Tampico, Malpica steamed Tampico straight for Guerrero, hoping to ram and sink her. Unfortunately for Tampico, her steering gear malfunctioned and she was forced to turn around, the mutineers transferred Tampicos former captain to a merchant vessel, the SS Herrerias, which took him to Mazatlán, which was still in federal hands at the time. Tampico made it to Topolobampo, which became her home throughout the subsequent naval campaign. Because Tampico was short half of her crew, twenty-five Sinaloan insurgents were ordered to her to become sailors, Guerrero arrived on March 2, where she anchored outside the bar and waited for Morelos which would arrive the following day. Tampico was not in sight however, apparently she was conducting a mission against federal Mexican forces elsewhere, so the two gunboats waited in Topolobampo Bay until the next morning, on March 4, they sighted Tampico as she entered the channel. Guerrero was immediately ordered underway, Morelos followed along Guerrero astern, just seconds after lifting anchor, Guerrero opened fire from around 9,000 yards with her main gun battery. A running battle ensued, Tampico did not stop to fire until after passing Shell Point, once on the other side, Tampico had one other 6-pounder on board but only the one would be used in the battle. Upon receiving fire, Captain Torres, ordered his ship to maneuver into position for an attack with his six 4 inch guns, Guerrero fired. At this time Morelos was about 800 yards off Guerreros portside when she opened fire, a gunnery duel continued for sometime, ultimately no hits were made by either side who were firing at each other from a range of 8,000 to 9,000 yards away. Guerrero had a better armament than Tampico, Guerreros guns were in better condition which gave her a farther range than that of Tampico. This would become a factor in the coming battles which gave the federals a distinct advantage over the Constitutionalist gunboat. Eventually Tampico made for the protection of Topolobampos port, she entered past the bar, the gunboat Guerrero again anchored outside the bar, to initiate a naval blockade while Morelos left for Guaymas for coal and provisions, she would return a few days later
20.
Second Battle of Topolobampo
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The Second Battle of Topolobampo was a bloodless naval engagement during the Mexican Revolution. In March 1914, a rebel Constitutionalist gunboat attempted to break the blockade of Topolobampo, the attack forced federal gunboats to a further distance but failed to lift the blockade. On March 13,1914, at 8,50 am, Tampico was spotted sailing out past the bar and as fast as possible the two federal warships were underway in Tampicos direction. The Guerrero fired the first shots at 9,00 am with her gun battery of six 4 inch guns. Just like during the First Battle of Topolobampo, as soon as the Tampico cleared Shell Point and her first shot landed about twenty yards too short at a range of 9,000 to 10,000 yards, none of the others hit Morelos. The Guerrero and Morelos followed Tampico until stopping so Morelos could return Tampicos broadside with some of her own fire, Morelos fires and then turned about to retreat southwestward, none of her shots hit either. During the retreat, Tampico continued to fire on Morelos which put the USS New Orleans, realizing that he may hit a neutral vessel, Lieutenant Malpica shifted Tampicos fire to the Guerrero. Captain Torres in the Guerrero, receiving fire again, chose to do the same as Morelos by turning around and fleeing, the New Orleans, shifted berth as well, to a safer position in the battle area. Tampico steamed back to the side of the bar and the two federal gunboats anchored farther south than their prior anchorage. All the firing ceased by 9,12 am, the Guerrero fired a total of thirteen shells, the Morelos nine, the range varied between 9, 000-10,000 yards and no hits were made. This time the officers of USS New Orleans noted in their log that the gunnery of the Tampico was considerably better than that of the Guerrero or Morelos, Tampico won a tactical victory by forcing the federal gunboats away though the federal gunboats continued a naval blockade of Topolobambo. The Morelos left for Altata on March 30, a day before the Third Battle of Topolobampo, First Battle of Topolobampo Third Battle of Topolobampo Fourth Battle of Topolobampo http, //www. semar. gob. mx/informes/politicas_armada/parte_dos/capitulo_3. htm Stefoff, Rebecca
21.
Third Battle of Topolobampo
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The Third Battle of Topolobampo was a single ship action during the Mexican Revolution. At the end of March 1914, a Constitutionalist gunboat attempted to break the blockade of Topolobampo, Sinaloa after failing in the First, Constitutionalist warship, Tampico, was sunk in a battle lasting a few hours by a Huertista gunboat. Despite the promotion, Captain Malpica still had the problem of fighting two gunboats, just outside Topolobampos harbor bar, the Morelos and Guerrero, under Captain Navio Torres on Guerrero, were conducting a naval blockade of the port. The Guerrero had blockaded Topolobampo continually since March 2,1914, Morelos arrived a couple days after Guerrero and occasionally left the blockade for provisioning and coal. On March 30, Morelos left again for supplies, leaving Guerrero alone and this gave Captain Malpica a chance to finally lift the blockade of his home port. At 4,32 pm on March 31,1914, the day after Morelos left, Tampico steamed out of the harbor and attacked Guerrero. At this time, Captain Navio Torres was returning an official call from the United States protected cruiser, USS New Orleans, Tampicos fire from two 4 inch guns and one 6-pounder failed to hit the target but were not far off. Guerrero returned with six 4 inch guns and quickly New Orleans turned towards the Huertista vessel and got under way immediately, the Guerrero took up a position off the channel with her broadside towards Tampico. At around 5,30 pm, Captain Malpica in Tampico reached a position abreast of Shell Point, there she opened fire on the Guerrero again at a range of 9,000 yards. Immediately she was answered by Guerreros broadsides, shots managed to hit the officers quarters twice, Tampico suffered four more hits to her bow, and one struck underneath the waterline. Five other shots struck Tampico at the waterline, one amidship, amazingly neither Captain Malpica or any of her sixty other officers and crew sustained injuries. All of the said hits reportedly occurred while Tampico made the first dash towards Guerrero, despite the damage, the ships continued to fire at this position until 6,00 pm came before turning around. After a few more moments Tampico got underway again and headed straight for the Guerrero, Tampico went right on over the bar and proceeded till grounding below the entrance of the harbor. By 6,15 pm, Tampico managed to free herself of the bar and headed northwest, again straight for the Guerrero and under wild fire as USS New Orleans reported. When almost 6,30 pm, because of the darkness, Captain Navio Torres, in the bridge of Guerrero. Guerrero was struck three times by the Tampico, one 4 inch armor-piercing shot, entered the starboard side of the berth deck but failed to detonate. Another landed on deck amid ship and also failed to explode, the third and final hit struck a stanchion outside the bridge, this one did explode. Because it struck above the top-side, the crew of Guerrero, none of Guerreros crew were killed but at least three were wounded
22.
Action of 9 April 1914
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The Action of 9 April 1914 was an important turning point in naval and aviation history. On the said one of the first naval/air skirmishes took place. This engagement took place off the coast of western Mexico during the Mexican Revolution, the action was part of the naval campaign off Topolobampo at the edge of the Gulf of California. A Constitutionalist biplane dropped bombs on two Huertista gunboats, they all missed, after four engagements with the Federals, Lieutenant Hilario Malpica, of the gunboat Tampico, was awarded the rank of Captain, apparently by a Constitutionalist commander, General Álvaro Obregón. Tampico sat inside the bar at Topolobampo, partially sunk and blockaded, madero took office, he sponsored five Mexicans to travel to Long Island, New York, to train as pilots at the Moisant International Aviators School. The Famous Five were Gustavo Salinas Camiña, Alberto Salinas Carranza, Camina would eventually be in service during the Mexican Revolution where he was summoned by General Obregon to break the blockade of Topolobampo. Camina was armed with five explosives, which when dropped would detonate upon impact and he flew a Glenn L. Martin Company biplane. The Guerrero was armed with four 4 inch guns, it is not known what Morelos was armed with, in addition, the crews of the gunboats had rifles and pistols. Captain Camina entered Topolobampo Bay, there he sighted the two Huertista gunboats at anchor, little is known but Camina remained high in the air. The aircraft was spotted by lookouts aboard Guerrero and Morelos, the crews were ordered to take up small arms, the bombs fell and Camina turned and headed for home. It is believed the rebel biplane was not hit by small arms fire, the bombs all failed to hit the target, although a couple did detonate near Guerrero. Captain Camina was too high in the sky to have a chance of hitting the gunboats. Either way, the engagement became one of the first naval actions involving aircraft. The commanders of Guerrero and Morelos would be forced to abandon the blockade of Topolobampo, in order to resupply. The end of the blockade gave Tampico a chance to take the fight to the federal gunboats and she would encounter only one, the Guerrero, at the final Fourth Battle of Topolobampo. Morelos would not participate, she was destroyed during the Siege of Mazatlan, Action of 17 February 1864 Villard, Henry Serrano Contact. The Story of the Early Birds, New York, Thomas Y Crowell Company, as quoted on Ralph Coopers website The Early Birds of Aviation on the page devoted to Moisants Cross-Channel Flight,1910
23.
Fourth Battle of Topolobampo
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The Fourth Battle of Topolobampo was a single ship action fought during the Mexican Revolution and the last naval battle of the Topolobampo Campaign. In June 1914, a Huertista gunboat sank a Constitutionalist gunboat off Topolobampo, several United States Navy ships were in the area, observing the campaign. Flagship USS California, USS New Orleans, USS Preble and USS Perry were all present and were under the Pacific Fleet commander Rear Admiral Thomas B, USS Yorktown was also in the area. Much of the campaign is remembered by Rear Admiral Howards and his officers reports of the battles, on June 11,1914, the Tampico was sighted by Howard when off Mazatlán while commanding his flagship. On Sunday, June 14,1914, Howard received a report that Tampico was steaming away from Topolobampo to Altata and he ordered the destroyer USS Preble, under Lieutenant Junior Grade Vance Duncan Chapline, to find Tampico and follow her. Preble immediately got underway at about 3,30 pm, from Mazatlán, she steamed north toward Topolobampo. The destroyer Perry, which was off La Paz, was ordered to head for Topolobampo, Prebles commander, did not know what course or speed Tampico was making, so he slowly proceeded to Topolobampo, hoping to sight the ship at around daylight the next morning. At roughly 7,30 am on June 15, Tampico was sighted to the west at latitude 25°14 north, Preble approached to within two miles of Tampico and stopped. Tampicos crew spotted Preble and also stopped, a few moments later, a lifeboat was dropped and a Mexican officer named Rebatet boarded Preble and presented the compliments of Captain Malpica. Rebatet also told Lieutenant Chapline how Tampico had been underwater for two months as result of the action off Topolobampo. On June 14, Tampico left Topolobampo under one boiler and proceeded to sea en route to Altata, there Captain Malpica expected to retube Tampicos boilers and improve the quality of her machinery. From there, Malpicas mission would be to attack the Huerista gunboat Guerrero, after destroying the Guerrero, Tampico would begin a commerce raiding campaign against targets along the west coast of Mexico. Tampico had steamed only thirty miles when her one remaining boiler had burned out of action, repairs to the boiler were attempted, but proved fruitless, eventually Captain Malpica requested that the American destroyer tow Tampico into Altata, eighty miles away. By this time, USS Perry had arrived, so Lieutenant Chapline was forced to deny Malpicas request, the Mexicans then asked Chapline to send a radio message to Rear Admiral Howard. Captain Malpica also asked if Prebles commander would come to see him, Prebles radioman sent the message as requested. At about 5,30 pm, Chapline boarded Tampico, at the time, Malpicas leg was covered in bandages, a week or so earlier, he had accidentally fired his revolver into his foot and could barely walk during the final battle. The captain was happy to learn that a message had sent to Rear Admiral Howard. The U. S. Navy officers inspected the Mexican gunboat, the Tampico had a raised deck forward and aft, each of which mounted one of the 4 inch rapid-fire guns
24.
United States occupation of Veracruz
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For other battles at Veracruz see Battle of Veracruz. The United States occupation of Veracruz began with the Battle of Veracruz and lasted for seven months, the incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. The Tampico Affair was set off when nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, the unarmed sailors were arrested when they entered a fuel loading station. The sailors were released, but the U. S. naval commander demanded an apology, the apology was provided but not the salute. In the end, the response from U. S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U. S. Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz, while awaiting authorization from the U. S. As a result, Wilson issued an order to seize the ports customs office. Huerta had usurped the presidency of Mexico with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup détat in February 1913 known as La decena trágica. The arms shipment to Mexico, in fact, in part originated from the Remington Arms company in the U. S. went to Odessa, Russia to Hamburg, where De Kay added to the load. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped via Hamburg, Germany, the landing of the arms was blocked at Veracruz but they were discharged a few weeks later in Puerto Mexico, a port controlled by Huerta at the time. On the morning of April 21,1914, warships of the United States Atlantic Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, began preparations for the seizure of the Veracruz waterfront. At 11,12 hrs, consul William Canada watched from the roof of the American Consulate that the first boatload of Marines were leaving the auxiliary vessel USS Prairie, by 11,30, with whaleboats swung over the side,502 U. S. As the landing party moved toward pier 4, Veracruzs main wharf, the invaders encountered no resistance as they exited the whaleboats, formed ranks into a Marine and a seaman regiment, and began marching toward their objectives. This initial show of force was enough to prompt the retreat of the Mexican forces led by General Gustavo Maass, in the face of this, Commodore Manuel Azueta encouraged cadets of the Veracruz Naval Academy to take up the defense of the port for themselves. Also, about 200 line soldiers of the Mexican Army remained behind to fight the invaders along with the citizens of Veracruz, Arms were distributed to the population, who were largely untrained in the use of Mausers and had trouble finding the correct ammunition. In short, the defense of the city by its populace was hindered by the lack of central organization and a lack of adequate supplies. The defense of the city included the release of the prisoners held at the La Galera military prison. Although the landing had been unopposed as U. S. forces marched into the city. Just after noon, fighting began with the 2nd Advance Base Regiment under Colonel Wendell C, neville becoming heavily involved in a firefight in the rail yards
25.
Mexican corvette Zaragoza
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Zaragoza was a corvette of the Mexican Navy in commission from 1892 until 1926. Although designed as a ship of war, she spent most of her career serving as a training ship. The vessel was ordered by the Mexican government, and built in 1891 by the French Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard at Le Havre. It was a vessel, with sails and a steam engine, armed with six Schneider-Canet 10 cm cannon. The corvette was commissioned in France by Commodore Ángel Ortiz Monasterio, Zaragoza acted as guard to the Spanish Royal Yacht and was visited by Queen Maria Cristina. On returning to Mexico, Zaragoza made two voyages, to New Orleans and to France, before becoming the first Mexican Navy ship to circumnavigate the world. She sailed from Tampico on 5 April 1894, still under Captain Brentons command, south along the coast of South America and through the Strait of Magellan, on 23 April 1896, now again under the command of Commodore Ortiz, she sailed from Guaymas. After visiting San Francisco she sailed west across the Pacific, calling at Hawaii, Japan and Hong Kong, before stopping at Singapore, India and Egypt. She sailed through the Suez Canal entering the Mediterranean Sea, and headed for France, an account of the voyage was published by Zaragozas medical officer Dr. Carlos Glass. Between 1898-1905 Zaragoza took part in operations against the Maya rebels of Yucatán, transporting troops, supplies, in 1905 Zaragoza was part of the squadron that accompanied President Porfirio Díaz in his visit to Yucatán. During the Mexican Revolution Zaragoza served under the government of President Francisco I. Madero, and assisted in suppressing the revolt led by Félix Díaz, in April 1914, Zaragoza was at Tampico when United States troops landed in nearby Veracruz, but took no offensive action. In 1923-24, Zaragoza took part in Adolfo de la Huertas failed uprising against the government of Álvaro Obregón, in October 1919 she escorted the Uruguayan cruiser Uruguay, as she returned the remains of the poet Amado Nervo, who died while serving as Mexicos ambassador to Uruguay. After 34 years service, and in condition, the Zaragoza was finally decommissioned on 6 March 1926 in a ceremony led by the Secretary of War Joaquín Amaro. The ship was stripped, and the hulk towed to sea to be sunk by gunfire
26.
Gunboat
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In the age of sail, a gunboat was usually a small undecked vessel carrying a single smoothbore cannon in the bow, or just two or three such cannons. A gunboat could carry one or two masts or be oar-powered only, but the version of about 15 m length was most typical. Some types of gunboat carried two cannons, or else mounted a number of guns on the railings. The gun that such boats carried could be heavy, a 32-pounder for instance. For example, in the Battle of Alvøen during the Gunboat War of 1807-1814, Gunboats used in the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain during the American Revolutionary War were mostly built on the spot, attesting to the speed of their construction. All navies of the era kept a number of gunboats on hand. Gunboats saw extensive use in the Baltic Sea during the late 18th century as they were well-suited for the extensive coastal skerries and archipelagoes of Sweden, Finland and Russia. The rivalry between Sweden and Russia in particular led to an expansion of gunboat fleets and the development of new gunboat types. The majority of these were developed from the 1770s and onwards by the naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for the Swedish archipelago fleet. The designs, copied and refined by the rival Danish and Russian navies, spread to the Mediterranean, British ships engaged larger 22 m Russian gunboats off Turku in southeast Finland in 1854 during the Crimean War. The Russian vessels had the distinction of being the last oared vessels of war in history to fire their guns in anger, Gunboats played a key role in Napoleon Bonapartes plan for the invasion of England in 1804. Denmark-Norway used them heavily in the Gunboat War, between 1803 and 1812 the United States Navy had a policy of basing its navy on coastal gunboats, experimenting with a variety of designs. President Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party opposed a strong navy and they proved useless against the British blockade during the War of 1812. With the introduction of power in the early 19th century. Initially, these vessels retained full sailing rigs and used steam engines for auxiliary propulsion, the British Royal Navy deployed two wooden paddle-gunboats in the Lower Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River during the Rebellions of 1837 in Upper and Lower Canada. The United States Navy deployed an iron-hulled paddle gunboat, the USS Michigan, the Von der Tann became the first propeller-driven gunboat in the world. Conradi shipyards in Kiel built the steam-powered 120 long tons gunboat in 1849 for the navy of Schleswig-Holstein. 1, Von der Tann was the most modern ship in the navy and she participated successfully in the First Schleswig War of 1848-1851
27.
President of Mexico
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The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote
28.
Naval Infantry Force
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The Naval Infantry Force are the marine corps and amphibious infantry force of the Mexican Navy. The main task of the Infantería de Marina is to guarantee the security of the countrys ports. To accomplish these responsibilities, the corps is trained and equipped to take on any type of operations from Sea, Air, the Naval Infantry are responsible for port security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe, and patrolling major waterways. The Naval Infantry execute the tasks, Command and Control, Planning, preparation. Amphibious assault, To execute amphibious operations as part of a Naval Force, Air assault, To run infiltration operations in areas of difficult access. Amphibious command, To execute special operations such as, reconnaissance, incursions, urban combat, immediate Response, To run operations in emergency situations, to help the civilian population. The navy has carried out permanent intense anti-narcotic operations, one of its big seizures was in late October 2007, when navy personnel in a joint operation with other agencies seized 23 tons of cocaine in the port city of Manzanillo, Colima. Due to its actions, the Navy and in kind the Naval Infantry Force has risen in stature in the United States, the vessel was found to be loaded with 5.8 tons of cocaine and was towed to Huatulco, Oaxaca, by a Navy patrol boat. The shield anchor, crossed with the carbine, has part of the Naval Infantry since 1823. The shield of the Naval Infantry, as today, is the essence of their integration into the meaning of heraldry, together they represent the dedication to serve Mexico by air, land and sea. The color red has always characterized the Marines around the world, the Iconography of the Marines of Mexico has developed a description of the banner as follows, the center, the Marine Shield with its original colors, scarlet red cloth with gold-colored robes. In addition to being waved at official ceremonies, the flag of the Marines accompanying the forces in the Operations are entrusted, parades, moreover, it is waving in the offices of Command Units IM, General Coordinator of Marine and offices of the Secretary of the Navy. The overall head of the Naval Infantry is the President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto, the development plan of the Ministry of the Navy presented by the Executive C. Secretary of the Navy admiral, stated that the Navy of Mexico should be organized, equipped and trained to anticipate. It falls into a concept which states that given the need to respond as a projection of naval power. According to the task, units are integrated to meet requirements identified in a variety of environments, their capacity to be transported by air, sea. Each has a manpower of 3,000 men. The 24th Marine Battalion Presidential Guards, created in 1983, is responsible for providing security to the President and it is quartered in the Mexico City, like the BIMFUSPAR
29.
Mexican Naval Aviation
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The Mexican Naval Aviation, is the naval air arm of the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Navy is divided into two fleets, Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. Naval aviation for Mexico dates back its roots all the way to 1918, when an indigenous made float biplane was successfully tested at the Port of Veracruz, in the year 1926 a squadron of float planes were designed and made for the Mexican Navy, but without personnel. Carlos Castillo Breton, became the very first Naval pilot in 1927 after training in The U. S. between 1927 and 1943, some aircraft were acquired, with a total of seven naval officers gaining their wings, although some of these joined the Mexican Air Force. World War II saw the creation of the Naval Aviation school in 1943 at Las Bajadas and these were also ex-FAM aircraft, used to patrol the Gulf of Mexico for German submarines and were later used for training at the Naval Aviation School. In 1999, the Mexican navy started a programme to build kit planes and light helicopters at Las Bajadas, more recent purchases to the fleet were three ex-IDF/AF E-2C Hawkeyes, the first arriving in early July 2004. At the end of the month, the first two EADS upgraded C212-200 Aviocars flew back to Mexico, with the remainder six being upgraded at BAN Las Bajadas. The most recent purchase are two AS565 Panthers and these helicopters will perform shipborne duties. The factor of the geographical position, requires the deployment of units and aircraft facilities
30.
Maritime Search and Rescue (Mexico)
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The Mexican Maritime Search and Rescue is the Mexican Navys SAR Unit, it is responsible for improving the quality and effectiveness of the Navys response to Mexicos maritime emergencies. The Mexican Navy historically has been responsible for the search and rescue operations using its available resources, there are two types of Search and Rescue Naval Stations Estaciones Navales de Búsqueda y Rescate. Type A Naval Stations are equipped with one 47-Foot Motor Lifeboat and 2 33-Foot Defender Class boats, Type B are equipped with 33-Foot Defender Class boats. The first Naval Station to be active was opened on April 6,2007 in Puerto Vallarta, in Total the Maritime SAR unit goal is 19 ENSAR stations,6 Type As and 13 Type Bs
31.
Heroica Escuela Naval Militar
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The Heroica Escuela Naval Militar is the officer training academy of the Mexican Navy. It began operations on 1 June 1897 with a group of cadets from the Armys Colegio Militar who had expressed an interest in training as naval officers and it was originally located on the premises of the military garrison in Veracruz. Its original staff comprised one commandant, two officers, six teachers, and 26 cadets and it was given the appellation Heroica for its efforts in defending the port during the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz. On 11 November 1952 the Academy relocated to new premises in Antón Lizardo, Veracruz Before graduating, last year cadets take an instructional journey on the ARM Cuauhtémoc
32.
Drug cartel
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A drug cartel is any criminal organization with the intention of supplying drug trafficking operations. They range from loosely managed agreements among various drug traffickers to formalized commercial enterprises, the term was applied when the largest trafficking organizations reached an agreement to coordinate the production and distribution of cocaine. Since that agreement was broken up, drug cartels are no longer actually cartels, the basic structure of a drug cartel is as follows, Falcons, Considered the eyes and ears of the streets, the falcons are the lowest rank in any drug cartel. They are responsible for supervising and reporting the activities of the police, the military, lieutenants, The second highest position in the drug cartel organization, responsible for supervising the hitmen and falcons within their own territory. They are allowed to carry out low-profile executions without permission from their bosses, Drug lords, The highest position in any drug cartel, responsible for supervising the entire drug industry, appointing territorial leaders, making alliances, and planning high-profile executions. It is worth noting that there are other operating groups within the drug cartels, for example, the drug producers and suppliers, although not considered in the basic structure, are critical operators of any drug cartel, along with the financiers and money launderers. In addition, the arms suppliers operate in a completely different circle, nigerian mafia The United States of America is the worlds largest consumer of cocaine and other illegal drugs. S. According to the United Nations, there was an increase of trafficking through Venezuela since 2002. In 2005 Venezuela severed ties with the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, following the departure of the DEA from Venezuela and the expansion of DEAs partnership with Colombia in 2005, Venezuela became more attractive to drug traffickers. Between 2008 and 2012, Venezuelas cocaine seizure ranking among other countries declined, Venezuela has its own Cosa Nostra family as if it is Sicilian territory, according to the Italian police. The structure and hierarchy of the Mafia has been reproduced in Venezuela. The Cuntrera-Caruana clan had direct links with the ruling Commission of the Sicilian Mafia, pasquale, Paolo and Gaspare Cuntrera were expelled from Venezuela in 1992, almost secretly smuggled out of the country, as if it concerned one of their own drug transports. It was imperative they could not contact people on the outside who could have used their connections to stop the expulsion. Their expulsion was ordered by a commission of the Venezuelan Senate headed by Senator Cristobal Fernandez Dalo and they were arrested in September 1992 at Fiumicino airport, and in 1996 were sentence to 13–20 years. Norte del Valle Cartel, In 2008 the leader of the Colombian Norte del Valle Cartel, in 2010 Venezuela arrested and deported to the United States Jaime Alberto Beto Marin, then head of the Norte del Valle Cartel. The Cartel of the Suns According to Jackson Diehl, deputy Editorial Page Editor of The Washington Post, the Bolivarian government of Venezuela shelters one of the world’s biggest drug cartels. There have also been allegations that former president Hugo Chávez and Diosdado Cabello being involved with drug trafficking, blood, Death, Drugs and Sex in Old Mexico. Mexico, Drug Cartels a Growing Threat
33.
Xalapa
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Xalapa is the capital city of the Mexican state of Veracruz and the name of the surrounding municipality. In the 2005 census the city reported a population of 387,879, the municipality has an area of 118.45 km². Xalapa lies near the center of the state and is the second-largest city in the state after the city of Veracruz to the southeast. The name Xalapa comes from the Nahuatl roots xālli sand and āpan water place and it is classically pronounced in Nahuatl, though the final /n/ is often omitted, the /ʃ/ sound was written x in the 16th century. This does not occur in modern Spanish, and its counterpart is the or sound, the spelling Xalapa reflects the archaic pronunciation. The full name of the city is Xalapa-Enríquez, named in honor of 19th-century Governor Juan de la Luz Enríquez, the citys nickname, La ciudad de las flores, was bestowed by Alexander von Humboldt, who visited the town on 10 February 1804. The reference is also related to the earlier colonial history. In folklore, the Spaniards believed that Xalapa was the birthplace and home of the Florecita, residents of Xalapa are called Xalapeños or Jalapeños, which is the name given to the popular long peppers cultivated in this area. The Totonacs were the first people to establish themselves around the Macuiltepetl and this mountain, an extinct volcano, received its name after the Aztecs used it as the fifth reference mountain to get to the gulf of Mexicos shores. Today it is preserved within a park, during the 14th century, four cultures of indigenous peoples settled in the territory today known as Xalapa. Eventually around 1313, the four villages grew and joined, forming one big village which was given the name Xallapan, moctezuma Ilhuicamina, the fifth Aztec emperor, invaded the territory during the second half of the 15th century. All the land was ruled as part of the Aztec Empire before the arrival, in 1519 Hernán Cortés passed through Xalapa en route to Tenochtitlan. In 1555 Spanish Franciscans completed construction of a convent, the second-most important event in time in Nueva España. When the Spanish arrived, Xalapa was barely populated, the population rose after the conquest and colonial settlement. When the Spanish improved the Mexico-Orizaba-Veracruz route, Xalapa declined in importance as a transport hub, from 1720 Xalapa became increasingly important, due to trade with numerous retailers of the New Spain arriving to sell products and to buy products cultivated and made in the peninsula. At this time numerous resident Spanish families in the near towns settled in Xalapa, so that by 1760 the population had increased to over 1,000 inhabitants, including mestizo and Spanish. The growth of Xalapa in population, culture, commerce and importance, responding to residents requests, Carlos IV of Spain elevated the status of Xalapa to a town on 18 December 1791. In 1772, the construction of Xalapa Cathedral began, on 18 May 1784, José María Alfaro lifted the first air balloon in the Americas, in Xalapa
34.
Camouflage
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Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a pattern, making the object visible. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of changing their skin pattern and colours. Military camouflage was spurred by the range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill, in the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the First World War. On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes, at sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the targets speed, range, and heading. During and after the Second World War, a variety of schemes were used for aircraft. The use of radar since the century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete. Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive, patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature, in ancient Greece, Aristotle commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium, The octopus. Seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the adjacent to it, it does so also when alarmed. Camouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century, the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration, especially camouflage. In his 1890 book The Colours of Animals, he classified different types such as special protective resemblance and his experiments showed that swallowtailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae. Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the alluring coloration of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly. He wrote that the scattered green spots upon the surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant. The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayers Law, Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt
35.
Fuerzas Especiales
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The Fuerzas Especiales, also known as FES, is a special operations unit of the Mexican Navy officially established in late 2001. Its motto is Fuerza, Espíritu, Sabiduría and its origin lies in the Marine Airborne Battalion of the early 1990s. The units mission is to carry out special operations in order to protect the nations maritime interests. The group has 460 members divided in two groups of 230 members for each Naval Force, the special forces course lasts 53 weeks. They are units organized, trained and equipped to operate independently in maritime, lake, riverine or terrestrial scenarios
36.
47-foot Motor Lifeboat
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The 47-foot MLB is the standard lifeboat of the United States Coast Guard. The 47′ MLB is the successor to the 44′ MLB, at Station Chatham where the new 47-foot boat would draw too much to get over the bar, the 42-foot Near Shore Lifeboat was designed to replace the 44 MLB. The 47 MLB is designed to weather hurricane force winds and heavy seas, capable of surviving winds up to 60 knots, breaking surf up to 6 m, if the boat should capsize, it self-rights in less than ten seconds with all equipment fully functional. The boats hull and superstructure are constructed entirely from 5456 marine grade aluminum, designed with a hard chined deep V planing hull, the 47 MLB exceeds its hull speed. The frame is composed of 17 vertical bulkhead frames, each of which is welded to the deck and hull, employing fly-by-wire control systems, the boat can be operated from four different locations, two from the enclosed bridge, and two amidships from an open bridge. Situated less than 1 ft above the line are recessed retrieval wells, allowing for easier recovery of persons and jetsam. A watertight survivors compartment is equipped for comprehensive first aid and it is situated at the combined center of rotation of the ship. com
37.
Defender-class boat
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The Defender-class boat, also called Response Boat – Small and Response Boat – Homeland Security, is a standard boat introduced by the United States Coast Guard in 2002. The boats serve a variety of missions, including search and rescue, port security, the design length of the hull is 25 feet and the boat is officially referred to as such. However, the length with engines mounted is approximately 29 feet. Powered by twin 225 hp outboard motors, they are capable of speeds in excess of 46 knots and have a range of 150 to 175 nautical miles, the boat requires a minimum crew of two persons, but has a carrying capacity for 10 persons. The boat is easily trailerable and can be transported by a C-130 Hercules aircraft or truck, although similar in appearance to a rigid-hulled inflatable boat, the Defender is actually an aluminum-hulled vessel, equipped with a rigid foam-filled flotation collar. The first generation of boats were built by SAFE Boats International of Bremerton, Washington, the replacement second generation was ordered in 2011 from Metal Shark Boats. The Defender class utilizes a rigid deep-V hull constructed of marine grade aluminum, while similar in appearance to the sponson of a rigid-hulled inflatable boat the Defenders collar is actually made from rigid polyethylene foam. The boat is powered by two 225 horsepower outboard engines, usually Honda four-strokes though Mercury and Johnson engines have also been used, tow bitts are fitted forward and aft which also serve as mounting points for M240B or M60 machine guns. The Defender A class or Response Boat - Homeland Security was the first version of the Defender class, some A-class boats in service with the Maritime Security Response Team have gray collars instead of the more common orange. The Defender B-class, also known as the Response Boat - Small is a development of the A class. First entering service in 2003 it has a longer cabin, additional spotter windows aft, shock mitigating cabin seats, a smaller 105 gallon fuel tank. It is the most common of the three classes, the first C-class boats were delivered to Port Security Unit 305 in May 2008 for testing and entered operational service at Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba in 2009. With the Defender-class boats nearing the end of their 10-year service life, the request called for a 25–30 foot boat, with weapon mounts, a minimum speed of 40 knots, and a range of at least 150 nautical miles. Equipment of the United States Coast Guard Response boat-medium U. S. Coast Guard, Response boat-small fact sheet Defender Class | bdmilitary. com
38.
Fast-roping
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Fast-roping, also known as Fast Rope Insertion Extraction System, is a technique for descending a thick rope. It is useful for deploying troops from a helicopter in places where the helicopter itself cannot touch down, Fast roping is particularly useful for marines, who can use the technique to board ships at sea as well as to reach destinations on land. First developed by the British with UK rope manufacturer Marlow Ropes, the original rope was a thick nylon that could be used in a manner akin to a firepole. The special ropes used today are braided, which results in a pattern on the circumference that is not smooth. Originally, each person would hold the rope for the next person and it is quicker than abseiling, although more dangerous, particularly if the person is carrying a heavy load, because the rope is not attached to them with a descender. The person holds onto the rope with his hands and feet. The rope must be thick, typically 40 millimetres diameter, to prevent it from being wildly jerked about from the rotor blast of the helicopter, heat-resistant gloves are required for fast-roping, to protect the individual descending from friction-generated heat. Heat-resistant gloves are generally not dextrous enough to be useful after the descent has been completed, more often, a glove-inside-glove technique is used, with tactical gloves worn inside heavy leather metalworking gloves. After descending the rope, the wearer removes the gloves to regain dexterity. US Marines are trained to control the speed of descent by using their legs, fast-roping of around 25 US Marines onto a ship can take approximately 30 seconds. The British military advises against use of the feet as this can make the descent for following personnel more dangerous, specifically, boot polish or the leather of the boot can make the rope extremely slippery
Mexico
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United States - ex-US Navy Bronstein-class frigate, transferred in 1993
Netherlands - Ships being built in The Netherlands and Mexico. At least 4 ships planned for fleet modernisation plan.
Israel – ex-Israeli Navy Sa'ar 4.5-class missile boat
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