1.
Spanish American wars of independence
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These conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War in 1898. The new republics from the abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century, criollos and mestizos replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions, both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in former French colony of St-Domingue, Haiti, a more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period. Political independence was not necessarily the outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. There was little interest in outright independence, humphreys and John Lynch note, it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. Since by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, because Spanish American independence did occur, there are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from kingdoms with independent standing with the crown to colonies and this meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crowns upending long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church, the crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. In the economic sphere, the sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo, in some areas—such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions, the Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire, the political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors
2.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
3.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
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He was a professor at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid and was ousted in 1792. He served in a church in Colima and then in Dolores, after his arrival, he was shocked by the poverty he found. He tried to help the poor by showing them how to grow olives and grapes, both of Hidalgos parents were descended from well-respected families within the criollo community. Hidalgos father was a manager, which presented Hidalgo with the opportunity to learn at a young age to speak the indigenous languages of the laborers. Eight days after his birth, Hidalgo was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in the church of Cuitzeo de los Naranjos. Hidalgos parents would have three sons, José Joaquín, Manuel Mariano, and José María. In 1759, enlightened despot Charles III of Spain ascended to the throne of Spain, he sent out a visitor-general with the power to investigate. During this period, Don Cristobal was determined that Miguel and his younger brother Joaquin should both enter the priesthood and hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, being of significant means he paid for all of his sons to receive the best education the region had to offer. After receiving private instruction, likely from the priest of the neighboring parish, at the age of fifteen Hidalgo was sent to Valladolid, Michoacán to study at the Colegio de San Francisco Javier with the Jesuits, along with his brothers. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, he entered the Colegio de San Nicolas and he completed his preparatory education in 1770. After this, he went to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in Mexico City for further study, earning his degree in philosophy and his education for the priesthood was traditional, with subjects in Latin, rhetoric and logic. Like many priests in Mexico, he learned some Indian languages, such as Nahuatl, Otomi and he also studied Italian and French, which were not commonly studied in Mexico at this time. He earned the nickname El Zorro for his reputation for cleverness at school, Hidalgos study of French allowed him to read and study works of the Enlightenment current in Europe but, at the same time, forbidden by the Catholic church in Mexico. Hidalgo was ordained as a priest in 1778 when he was 25 years old, from 1779 to 1792, he dedicated himself to teaching at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid, it was one of the most important educational centers of the viceroyalty. He was a professor of Latin grammar and arts, as well as a theology professor, beginning in 1787, he was named treasurer, vice-rector and secretary, becoming dean of the school in 1790 when he was 39. As rector, Hidalgo continued studying the liberal ideas that were coming from France, authorities ousted him in 1792 for revising traditional teaching methods there, but also for irregular handling of some funds. The Church sent him to work at the parishes of Colima and San Felipe Torres Mochas until he became the parish priest in Dolores, Guanajuato, succeeding his brother Felipe, who died in 1802. Although Hidalgo had an education for the priesthood, as an educator at the Colegio de San Nicolás, he had innovated in teaching methods
4.
Vicente Guerrero
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Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence. He fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century and he was of Afro-Mestizo and Filipino descent, championed the cause of Mexicos common people, and abolished slavery during his brief term as president. His execution in 1831 by the government that ousted him in 1829 was a shock to the nation. Guerrero was tall and robust, and dark complected, and he was at times called El Negro, the region where he grew up had a large concentration of indigenous groups, and as a young man he was more conversant in the local language than Spanish. His fathers family included landlords, rich farmers and traders with broad business connections in the south, members of the Spanish militia and gun, in his youth, he worked for his fathers freight business that used mules for transport. His travels took him to different parts of Mexico where he heard of the ideas of independence, vicentes father, Pedro, supported Spanish rule, whereas his uncle, Diego Guerrero, had an important position in the Spanish militia. As an adult, Vicente was opposed to the Spanish colonial government, mi patria es primero is now the motto of the southern Mexican state of Guerrero, named in honor of the revolutionary. Guerrero enlisted in José María Moreloss insurgent army of the south in December 1810, in 1810 Guerrero joined in the early revolt against Spain, first fighting in the forces of secular priest José María Morelos. Morelos described him as A young man with bronzed, tall and strong, aquiline nose, bright and light-colored eyes, when the War of Independence began, Guerrero was working as a gunsmith in Tixtla. He joined the rebellion in November 1810 and enlisted in a division that independence leader Morelos had organized to fight in southern Mexico. Guerrero distinguished himself in the battle of Izúcar, in February 1812, initial victories by Moreloss forces faltered and Morelos himself was captured and executed in December 1815. Guerrero joined forces with Guadalupe Victoria and Isidoro Montes de Oca, in 1816, the royal government under Viceroy Apodaca sought to end the insurgency, offering amnesty. Guerreros father carried one appeal for his son to surrender, and he remained the only major rebel leader still at large, keeping the rebellion going through an extensive campaign of guerrilla warfare. He won victories at Ajuchitán, Santa Fe, Tetela del Río, Huetamo, Tlalchapa and Cuautlotitlán, hoping to extinguish the rebellion, the royal government sent Agustín de Iturbide against Guerreros forces. Guerrero was victorious against Iturbide, who realized there was a military stalemate, Guerrero appealed to Iturbide to abandon his royalist loyalty and join the fight for independence. Events in Spain had changed in 1820, with Spanish liberals ousting Ferdinand VII, Guerreros appeal to join the forces for independence was successful. Guerrero and Iturbide allied under the Plan de Iguala and their forces merged as the Army of the Three Guarantees. The Plan of Iguala proclaimed independence, called for a monarchy and the continued place of the Roman Catholic Church
5.
Army of the Three Guarantees
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The decree creating this army appeared in the Plan de Iguala, which stated the three guarantees which it was meant to defend, religion, independence, and unity. Mexico was to be a Catholic country, independent from Spain, the Army of the Three Guarantees was created on February 24,1821, and continued battling Spanish royalist forces which refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan de ODonojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, the Army was a decisive force during the Battle of Azcapotzalco. The victory in this last battle of the war cleared the way to Mexico City, on September 27,1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees triumphantly entered Mexico City, led by Iturbide. The following day Mexico was declared independent, by that time, the Army of the Three Guarantees was composed of 7,616 infantrymen,7,755 cavalry,763 artillery with 68 cannons
6.
First Mexican Empire
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The Mexican Empire was a short-lived monarchy and the first independent post-colonial state in Mexico. It was the former colony of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after independence and for a short time, together with the Empire of Brazil. The First Mexican Empire was short-lived, lasting less than two years, the first and only monarch of the state was Agustín de Iturbide, reigning as Agustín I of Mexico, for less than eight months. The empire was briefly reestablished by the French in 1864, under the 24 February 1821 Plan of Iguala, to which most of the provinces subscribed, the Mexican Congress established a regency council which was headed by Iturbide. If the king refused the position, the law provided for another member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne, however, the goal was merely a political tactic to appease the last royalists, and a full independence was expected. King Ferdinand, however, refused to recognize Mexicos independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico, on 19 May 1822, Mexican Congress named Iturbide as a constitutional emperor. On 21 May it issued a decree confirming this appointment, which was officially a temporary measure until a European monarch could be found to rule Mexico, iturbides official title was, By Divine Providence and the National Congress, First Constitutional Emperor of Mexico. His coronation took place on 21 July 1822 in Mexico City, in August 1822 a plot to overthrow the monarchy was discovered and on August 25, plotters, including 16 members of Congress, were arrested. As factions in the Congress began to sharply criticise Iturbide and his policies, santa Anna and his troops revolted against Iturbide, calling for the restoration of the Congress on 1 December 1822. Santa Anna had secretly persuaded General Echávarri, the commander of the Imperial forces, to switch sides and support the revolution when it was ready to be proclaimed throughout Mexico. The independence heroes Vicente Guerrero, Nicolás Bravo and Guadalupe Victoria soon joined, signing the Plan of Casa Mata on February 1,1823, the insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial governments and requested their adherence to the plan. In the course of just six weeks, the Plan of Casa Mata traveled to remote places as Texas. Each provincial government that accepted the plan thereby withdrew its allegiance from the Imperial government and this left Emperor Agustín I isolated with little support outside of Mexico City and a few factions of the Imperial Army. Consequently, he reinstalled the Congress, which he had abolished, abdicated the throne. Santa Anna and the proponents of the Plan of Casa Mata went on to oversee the drafting of a new constitution. The territory of the Mexican Empire corresponded to the borders of Viceroyalty of New Spain, excluding the Captaincies General of Cuba, Santo Domingo, subsequent territorial evolution of Mexico over the next several decades would eventually reduce Mexico to less than half its maximum extent. The first Mexican empire was divided into the following intendances, History of Mexico Second Mexican Empire Federal Republic of Central America Imperial House of Mexico Mexican Empire
7.
Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
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The Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, is the document by which the Mexican Empire declared independence from the Spanish Empire. Three copies of the act were drafted, one copy remained in the Chamber of Deputies until it was destroyed in the fire of the Chamber in 1909. The other copy was stolen and sold in 1830 and that copy was recovered by Maximilian I of Mexico and after his execution it was taken out of the country by Agustín Fischer, confessor of the former emperor. Later, the Spanish antiquarian Gabriel Sánchez sold the act to the historian Joaquín García Icazbalceta who retained it, García Pimentel sold the act to Florencio Gavito and he stipulated in his will that after his death, the act should be given to the president Adolfo López Mateos. On November 14,1961, the result of two opinions were given to the president by which it was found that the act is one of the two originals drafted in 1821, on November 21, Florencio Gavito Jáuregui gave the document to President López Mateos. The third copy was owned by the Ruiz de Velasco family for 128 years and this document was passed down through generations from Nicolás Bravo. On August 22,1987, Pedro Ruiz de Velasco gave the document as a gift to Mexico, José Francisco Ruiz Massieu accepted this gift and secured this historical document in the Museo Historico de Acapulco Fuerte de San Diego in Acapulco in the State of Guerrero. The document, 20½ inches wide and 28¾ high, is kept at the General Archive of the Nation. On September 28, Iturbide installed the Provisional Governing Board formed by 38 people, the board was chaired by Antonio Pérez Martínez y Robles and Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros as secretary. The board immediately proceeded to elect the five members of the Regency of the Empire, on the afternoon of September 28, members of the Board met at the National Palace to draft the Declaration of Independence of the newly independent nation. The resulting two documents were drafted in its form by Juan José Espinosa de los Monteros, Secretary of the Board. The acts were signed by 33 of the 38 members of the Board, the signatures of other four members were not added. Juan Jose Espinoza de los Monteros signed twice in each act, once as a member of the Board and the second as secretary, so that the acts contain 35 signatures and the designated to ODonojú. A copy of the act was for the government and one for the board, Declaration of the independence of the Mexican Empire, issued by its Sovereign Junta, assembled in the Capital on September 28,1821. The Mexican Nation, which for three hundred years had neither had its own will, nor use of its voice, nor the freedom of religion. The following is the list of the people who signed the Declaration of Independence, Juan ODonoju did not sign but his name was written in the acts. Of the 38 members of the Provisional Governmental Board only 34 signed the document, the signatures of Francisco Severo Maldonado, José Domingo Rus, José Mariano de Almanza and Miguel Sánchez Enciso did not appear to have suffered a possible impairment due to illness. After being drafted, one copy was given to the Provisional Governmental Board, which was put on display in the Chamber of Deputies until 1909
8.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
9.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state
10.
Mexican Army
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The Mexican Army is the combined land and air branch and largest of the Mexican Armed Forces, it is also known as the National Defense Army. It was the first army to adopt and use a self-loading rifle, the Mexican Army has an active duty force of 766,750. Mexico has no major foreign nation-state adversaries and it officially repudiates the use of force to settle disputes and rejects interference by one nation in the affairs of another. Although it has not suffered a major international terrorist incident in recent decades, in the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all males, nobles as well as commoners. Itzcoatl Obsidian Serpent, fourth king of Tenochtitlán, organized the army defeated the Tepanec of Atzcapotzalco. His reign began with the rise of what would become the largest empire in Mesoamerica, then Moctezuma Ilhuicamina The arrow to the sky came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco, the Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship, these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings using drums or blowing into a sea shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common, for combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. In the early morning of September 16,1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement, Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence. The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, the insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. With this stunt, the managed to bring down the door and enter the building. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid, which was captured with little opposition, on November 29,1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army, he also issued a decree abolishing slavery. At Calderon Bridge near the city of Guadalajara Jalisco, insurgents held a battle with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the ammunition wagons exploded
11.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
12.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
13.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
14.
Ignacio Allende
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Ignacio José de Allende y Unzaga, born Ignacio Allende y Unzaga, was a captain of the Spanish Army in Mexico who came to sympathize with the Mexican independence movement. He attended the meetings organized by Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. He fought along with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in the first stage of the struggle, Allende was captured by Spanish colonial authorities while he was in Chihuahua and executed for treason. Allende was born on January 21,1769, to a wealthy Spanish criollo family in San Miguel el Grande in Guanajuato and his father was Domingo Narciso de Allende, a wealthy trader. In 1802, he joined the Viceregal army of New Spain, in 1806, he started to favor the possibility of independence from Spain. His attendance at a meeting in Valladolid was discovered, in 1809, by the Spanish. Regardless, Allende kept supporting the independence movement. He was eventually invited by the mayor of Querétaro, Miguel Domínguez and it was during one of these meetings where Allende met Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and his captain Juan Aldama. Originally, the movement was to be led jointly by Allende. A change of plans prompted by the discovery of the conspiracy forced Hidalgo to start the rebellion earlier than agreed, the Grito de Dolores uttered by Hidalgo signaled the beginning of the revolution, after which the conspirators rallied behind him. The rebel army quickly captured the town of Dolores and marched towards San Miguel el Grande, on September 22,1810, Hidalgo y Costilla was officially made captain general of the Revolutionary army while Allende was made lieutenant general. After the famous capture of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas, in Guanajuato, as a consequence of the rebels defeat in the Battle of Calderón Bridge, the leadership of the Revolutionary army demanded the replacement of Hidalgo as their leader. Allende took this new responsibility and, with a army, he decided to march north to the United States, hoping to gather more money, weapons. The rebels, however, were ambushed at the Wells of Baján due to the betrayal of Ignacio Elizondo, leading to the capture of Allende, Hidalgo, allendes illegitimate child Indalecio was killed during this ambush. Allende was taken to the city of Chihuahua where he was tried for insubordination and his body was decapitated and his head taken to the Alhóndiga de Granaditas where it was shown to the public inside a cage hung from one corner of the building. In 1824 his remains were buried in the reserved for the viceroys. His remains were moved in 1925 to the Independence Column in Mexico City, Allende is a national hero of Mexico. Places named in his honor include the municipality and town of San Miguel de Allende in the state of Guanajuato, history of Mexico Account of the Grito de Dolores, by Ignacio Allende
15.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
16.
Mariano Matamoros
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Mariano Matamoros y Guridi was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary rebel soldier of the Mexican War of Independence, who fought for independence against Spain in the early 19th century. Matamoros was born in Mexico City in 1770, where he studied art and he finished his studies in art in 1786, was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest in 1796 and served in several churches around the city. During this time, he started to sympathize with rebellious issues and for this reason and he managed to escape from prison and eventually joined the revolutionary army of José María Morelos in December 16 of 1811. One night Matamoros broke the siege and could join Miguel Bravo in Aculco, once the siege was lifted, the campaign continued in Oaxaca, it was surrounded in November 25 of 1812. After Matamoros won some battles, first in Santo Domingo Tonalá against Manuel Lambrini followed by San Juan Coscomatepec, Michoacán Matamoros was in the Battle of Valladolid close to the city of Valladolid in Michoacán, the present day city of Morelia, where the Spanish army won. Allegedly Morelos offered 200 Spanish prisoners in exchange for Matamoros, but was turned down by the Spanish colonial authorities, Matamoros was removed from the priesthood and tried for treason. He was executed by firing squad in Valladolid, Michoacán on February 3,1814, in 1823, Matamoros was honored as Benemérito de la Patria. His remains now rest in the Independence Column of Mexico City, Matamoros is a national hero of Mexico. History of Mexico Viceroyalty of New Spain Mexico Desconocido. com. mx, Mariano Matamoros Biography
17.
Guadalupe Victoria
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He was a deputy in the Mexican Chamber of Deputies for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power following the downfall of the First Mexican Empire. After the adoption of the Constitution of 1824, Victoria was elected as the first President of the United Mexican States, during his term as President he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, the United States, the Federal Republic of Central America, and Gran Colombia. He also abolished slavery, founded the National Museum, promoted education, Victoria was the only president who completed his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico. He died in 1843 at the age of 56 from epilepsy in the fortress of Perote, on 8 April of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies. Guadalupe Victoria was born as José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix on 29 September 1786 in Tamazula in the province of Nueva Vizcaya and his parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández and Alejandra Félix. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at time the priest of Tamazula. He studied at the Seminary of Durango, having no resources to pay for food, he made copies of a Latin grammar text to sell to other students for two reales. In 1807, he went to Mexico City, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso to pursue degrees in Canon Law and he studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On 24 April 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as a Bachelor of Laws, in 1812, he joined the insurgent forces of Hermenegildo Galeana and fought alongside José María Morelos at the Siege of Cuautla. He also participated in the assault on Oaxaca and joined the troops of Nicolás Bravo in Veracruz and he dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous for his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated. The assault of Oaxaca was an action which took place on 25 November 1812 in the city of Oaxaca. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist forces of Lieutenant General Gonzalez Saravia, other members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana, Nicolás Bravo, Mariano Matamoros, Manuel Mier y Terán, and Vicente Guerrero. He then swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge, due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix decided to change his name to Guadalupe, due his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, in 1815, Victoria commanded the insurgent movement in the region of Veracruz. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, he obtained control of Puente del Rey, when he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla in July of that year. In order to have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico, Victoria took control of the Boquilla de Piedras, a port located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for its defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, shortly after, Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents, and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco. Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City, in late 1816, Victoria held back Nautla, defeating the royalist garrison
18.
Ferdinand VII of Spain
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Ferdinand VII was twice King of Spain, in 1808 and again from 1813 to his death. He was known to his supporters as the Desired and to his detractors as the Felon King and he reestablished the absolutist monarchy and rejected the liberal constitution of 1812. He suppressed the liberal press 1814-33 and jailed many of its editors and writers, under his rule, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions, and the country entered into civil war on his death. His reputation among historians is very low, historian Stanley Payne says, He proved in many ways the basest king in Spanish history. Cowardly, selfish, grasping, suspicious, and vengeful, seemed almost incapable of any perception of the commonwealth and he thought only in terms of his power and security and was unmoved by the enormous sacrifices of Spanish people to retain their independence and preserve his throne. Ferdinand was ostensibly the eldest surviving child of Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand was born in the palace of El Escorial near Madrid. The Queens confessor Fray Juan Almaraz wrote in his last will that she admitted in articulo mortis that none, none of her sons and daughters, none was of the legitimate marriage. In his youth Ferdinand occupied the position of an heir apparent who was excluded from all share in government by his parents and their advisor and Prime Minister. National discontent with the government produced a rebellion in 1805, in October 1807, Ferdinand was arrested for his complicity in the El Escorial Conspiracy in which the rebels aimed at securing foreign support from the French Emperor Napoleon. When the conspiracy was discovered, Ferdinand submitted to his parents, following a popular riot at Aranjuez Charles IV abdicated in March 1808. Ferdinand ascended the throne and turned to Napoleon for support and he abdicated on 6 May 1808. Napoleon kept Ferdinand under guard in France for six years at the Chateau of Valençay, while the upper echelons of the Spanish government accepted his abdication and Napoleons choice of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, the Spanish people did not. Uprisings broke out throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War, provincial juntas were established to control regions in opposition to the new French king. After the Battle of Bailén proved that the Spanish could resist the French, on 24 August, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king of Spain again, and negotiations between the Council and the provincial juntas for the establishment of a Supreme Central Junta were completed. Subsequently, on 14 January 1809, the British government acknowledged Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, the Spanish people, blaming the policies of the Francophiles for causing the Napoleonic occupation and the Peninsular War by allying Spain too closely to France, at first welcomed Fernando. Ferdinand soon found that in the years a new world had been born of foreign invasion. In his name Spain fought for its independence and in his name as well juntas had governed Spanish America, Spain was no longer the absolute monarchy he had relinquished six years earlier. Instead he was now asked to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812, before being allowed to enter Spanish soil, Ferdinand had to guarantee the liberals that he would govern on the basis of the Constitution, but, only gave lukewarm indications he would do so
19.
Francisco Javier Venegas
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Venegas began studies for a literary career, but gave them up to serve in the military. He rose in rank to lieutenant colonel, taking part in the fighting against the French Republic and he had retired from service at the time of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, but returned then to active duty. He took part in the Battle of Bailén, and was named commander of a division in Andalucía and his services in the war with the French were valuable, and he demonstrated his intelligence, energy and courage. With the patronage of the minister Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, he advanced rapidly, on Christmas Day 1808, Venegas and his division attempted a surprise attack on a brigade of French dragoons at Tarancón. They surrounded the town but the French cavalrymen became aware of the trap, when the Spanish infantry formed into squares across their path, the enemy cavalry galloped through the gaps between the squares. The French escaped with the loss of about 60 troopers, the late arrival of Venegas cavalry prevented further damage from being inflicted on the dragoons. On 13 January 1809, Venegas with 9,500 infantry,1,800 cavalry, in the Battle of Uclés,12,500 French foot soldiers and 3,500 horsemen under Marshal Claude Perrin Victor crushed the force led by Venegas. Victor ordered one division and his cavalry to mount an assault while his second division attempted an envelopment. The frontal attack was successful in driving the Spanish force into the arms of the second division, for only 150 casualties, the French inflicted losses of 1,000 killed and wounded and captured 5,866 prisoners and all four guns. His superior officer, who had failed to come to Venegas aid with 9,000 troops, despite the setback, Venegas was given command of the Army of La Mancha after its previous commander was badly beaten at the Battle of Ciudad-Real on 27 March 1809. In mid-July 1809 Venegas and his 23,000 soldiers sparred with the French IV Corps, however, the IV Corps managed to elude Venegas and join the army of Joseph Bonaparte for the Battle of Talavera on 27–28 July. Fortunately the action resulted in an Anglo-Spanish victory, with only a handful of enemies in front of him, Venegas had a brief chance to recapture Madrid, but he allowed the opportunity to slip away. At the head of an army of 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, Venegas ignored Cuestas orders to retreat, Venegas believed that he faced only 14,000 Frenchmen, but in fact Josephs army consisted of 17,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. In the Battle of Almonacid the Spanish army was defeated with the loss of 800 killed,2,500 wounded,2,000 prisoners, French casualties numbered 319 killed and 2,075 wounded, indicating that the Spanish troops fought well. A few weeks later, Venegas was replaced in command by Juan Carlos de Aréizaga, during the French invasion of Andalusia in January 1810, Venegas was military governor of Cádiz. Before the powerful invading army, the Spanish defenders rapidly collapsed, fortunately, José María de la Cueva, 14th Duke of Albuquerque was able to bring 12,000 troops to reinforce the weak Cádiz garrison. A squabble arose between Venegas and Albuquerque over who was the superior officer and this problem was resolved when the Junta appointed Venegas to the position Viceroy of New Spain and gave Albuquerque command of Cádiz. Venegas was a man of few words, active, cruel, on February 20,1810 he was named viceroy of New Granada
20.
Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito
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Ruiz de Apodaca was born in Cádiz into a family of renowned Basque merchants. He entered the navy in 1767 and took part in the campaign against Algerian pirates, in 1770 he was promoted to the rank of ensign. He was in Peru from 1770 to 1778 and England in 1779, from 1781 to 1790 he was a captain, in charge of ships of the line, and afterward he was in charge of the reconstruction of the harbor at Tarragona. In October 1802 he was named commandant of the arsenal at Cadiz, now in command of a squadron, he made major improvements at Cadiz. He was subsequently ambassador plenipotentiary in Britain and Captain General of Florida and his reputation was that of a man of tact and good judgment. For his services he was awarded the military crosses of San Fernando, as a new viceroy Apodaca offered amnesty to the rebels. Thousands of insurgents accepted, with only Vicente Guerrero in the south and Guadalupe Victoria, the viceroy also reversed the harsh policies of Calleja and ordered that in no circumstances were rebel prisoners to be summarily shot. He banned the flying of kites and he closely reviewed the public accounts, finding that Calleja had kept them accurately and carefully. He paid off the debt, stopped relying on loans to fund the government. He revived the commercial and mining sectors of the economy, insofar as that was possible in a time of war, on April 17,1817, Spanish liberal Francisco Javier Mina and 308 volunteers arrived at Soto la Marina, Nuevo Santander, from London and New Orleans. Mina issued a manifesto saying he was not fighting against Spain, on May 24 his troops began a march into the interior to join with rebels under Pedro Moreno at Fuerte del Sombrero, northeast of Guanajuato. Apodaca sent a column against Mina and his allies, under the command of Field Marshal Pascual Liñán. After active fighting, Liñán killed Moreno and took Mina prisoner at the Rancho del Venadito, Mina was executed by firing squad on November 11. As the result of action, the viceroy received the title of Conde de Venadito. Once again it looked as though the insurrection might be over, therefore, Apodaca was given instructions to redouble the vigilance on the coasts. The insurgents managed to capture an armed trading ship from Veracruz, American William Robinson managed to occupy Altamira and Tampico, hoping to give new impetus to the revolution, but Robinson was taken prisoner in Tampico and sent to Cádiz. He escaped to Gibraltar, with the assistance of the British, later, Spain and the United States signed the Adams-Onís Treaty on February 22,1819. The treaty established boundaries between the United States and New Spain, which had been in dispute since the Louisiana Purchase, the U. S. obtained Florida and renounced its claim to Texas
21.
Battle of Monte de las Cruces
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The Battle of Monte de las Cruces was one of the pivotal battles of the early Mexican War of Independence, in October 1810. The battle marks the furthest advance of the first rebel campaign, before Hidalgo decided to retreat towards Guadalajara, the battlefield is now located in the La Marquesa National Park, which is officially called the Miguel Hidalgo National Park in honor of the event. The battle marks the end of the first offensive in the Mexican War of Independence, father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was the parish priest of Dolores, Guanajuato, involved with one of a number of conspiracies against the colonial government in the early 19th century. A particular conspiracy was called the Conspiracy of Querétaro, the plot, which was supposed to be launched in December 1810, was discovered. Fearing his arrest, Hidalgo decided to begin the insurrection early by calling upon parishioners to rise up against the colonial government. The Grito was a call to arms to better the lives of Mexicans, and it attracted the support of the lower classes in the town of Dolores. One reason for this was that Hidalgo had credibility among the classes, despite being an upper class Creole, due to his work to give the poor. This made Hidalgo leader of the insurgent movement instead of follow conspirator Ignacio Allende, the insurgent army was really an untrained mob with little or no discipline. This army passed through the Bajio region of what is now state of Guanajuato, capturing cities such as San Miguel el Grande, Celaya, all the while, more people joined the ranks of the insurgents, until upon leaving Celaya, Hidalgo had about 80,000 men. The response to Hidalgo’s call was so quick that royal authorities could not react at first, Hidalgo’s army then passed through Querétaro and into what is now the state of Mexico, heading south and east towards Mexico City, with still more volunteers joining along the way. Despite the early success, there were problems with the army. Only a month and a half after the Grito de Dolores, the insurgents’ rampage through Guanajuato terrified the elite in New Spain and even many of the lower classes of the more conservative valleys of Toluca and Mexico. The city of Toluca called upon viceregal authorities for help, which came in the form of contingent of royalist forces under the command of General Torcuato Trujillo, Trujillo’s royalist army took up strategic positions in the Sierra de las Cruces, which separate Toluca from Mexico City. These mountains are filled with steep valleys and thick forests and this allowed for advantages against the numerous insurgent army, such as the ability to place cannons above oncoming troops. It also allowed Trujillo to protect the road to Mexico City with troops on both sides, command of insurgent forces was put directly under Ignacio Allende, in order to take advantage of his military capabilities. The battlefield is a site called Los Llanos de Salazar in the current municipality of Ocoyoacac, the army was divided into three flanks. One was composed of 30,000 men who took the Temoaya/Jiquipilco road on the west side, another flank approached the battlefield from the south via Mexicaltzingo and the main troops commanded by Allende and Hidalgo between the two. The strategy was to encircle Trujillo’s troops, the battle began at about 8am on 30 October 1810 in a cold pine forest on rugged territory
22.
Battle of Zacatecas (1811)
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The Battle of Zacatecas was a military action of the Mexican War of Independence fought on 15 April 1811 at Zacatecas, Zacatecas. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the Mexican insurgents were commanded by General Ignacio López Rayón and the Spanish by José Manuel de Ochoa. The battle resulted in a victory for rebel forces, the meeting was convened for the purpose of naming a leader to coordinate the rebel forces from a base in the north with the end goal of achieving Mexican independence. Despite being career soldiers, both Mariano Abasolo and Joaquín Arias turned down nominations for the position, eventually, Ignacio López Rayón was named supreme chief of insurgent forces and José María Liceaga his second in command. After hearing news of the capture of insurgent commanders in Acatita de Baján, López Rayón left Coahuila on 26 March and his march to Zacatecas was pursued by the Royalist army of José Manuel Ochoa who López Rayón defeated at the Battle of Puerto de Piñones. The victory was not decisive and the Royalist army continued to harass the insurgents until they were defeated again at Zacatecas on 15 April 1811, López Rayón took the town of Zacatecas and used it as an industrial base to produce artillery, gunpowder, and uniforms for his soldiers. Cuadro histórico de la revolución mexicana, comenzada en 15 de septiembre de 1810 por el ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, méxico DF, Impr. de JM Lara
23.
Battle of El Veladero
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The Battle of El Veladero was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred from 1810 through 30 April 1811 at El Veladero, Acapulco de Juárez. Hidalgo had named Morelos a lieutenant and commissioned him to operate in the south of the country where the important port city of Acapulco was situated. Upon his return to Carácuaro, Morelos raised his own army, Morelos sent 700 men, under the command of Captain Rafael Valdovinos, to take the mountain. Valdovinos was unable to take the mountain and was dislodged by royalist forces. Whilst these actions were taking place, the Guerrero brothers, Bravo and Vicente, arrived at the battle, the information on this page was translated from its Spanish equivalent
24.
Battle of El Maguey
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The Battle of El Maguey was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred on 2 May 1811 at El Maguey, in the State of Aguascalientes. The battle resulted in a victory for the Spanish royalists, the Spanish caught up with the Mexican rebels in the area around the ranch of El Maguey on 3 May. The stand was meant to give his time to escape their pursuers so they could make an organized retreat from the Spanish. General Emparan gave battle and the two armies maneuvered for position around the ranch, rayón took advantage of the confusion caused by the smoke and dust in the air and fled the action whilst Emparan continued his advance. In the end, the royalists were able to take possession of all the rebel cannon left behind on the battlefield
25.
Battle of Llanos de Santa Juana
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The Battle of Llanos de Santa Juana was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred on 12 July 1811 in the area around Cuauhtémoc, Colima known as Llanos de Santa Juana. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the Mexican insurgents were commanded by General José Calixto Martínez y Moreno and the Spanish by Colonel Manuel del Río. The battle resulted in a victory for the Spanish royalists, the insurgents, commanded by General José Calixto Martínez y Moreno, were routed by the royalist forces of Manuel del Rio. The rebel forces suffered 300 soldiers killed out of 1,000, the majority of these being local villagers who were armed, Mexican War of Independence The information on this page has been translated from its Spanish equivalent. Cuadro histórico de la revolución mexicana, comenzada en 15 de septiembre de 1810 por el ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, méxico DF, Impr. de JM Lara
26.
Battle of Tecualoya
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The Battle of Tecualoya was a military action of the Mexican War of Independence fought between 17–20 January 1812 in the canyons of Tecualoya, Mexico. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the Mexican insurgents were commanded by General Hermenegildo Galeana and the Spanish by Rosendo Porlier y Asteguieta. The battle resulted in a victory for Spanish loyalists, the battle resulted in a humiliating defeat for Galeana and his army. The Mexican insurgents lost all their artillery, though they would later recover these field pieces at the Battle of Tenancingo where General José María Oviedo would be killed in action, Mexican War of Independence Bustamante, Carlos María de. Cuadro histórico de la revolución mexicana, comenzada en 15 de septiembre de 1810 por el ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, méxico DF, Impr. de JM Lara. México a través de los siglos
27.
Battle of Tenancingo
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The Battle of Tenancingo was a military action of the Mexican War of Independence fought on 22 January 1812 on the outskirts of Tenancingo de Degollado, Mexico. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the Mexican insurgents were commanded by General José María Morelos y Pavón and the Spanish by Rosendo Porlier y Asteguieta. The battle resulted in a victory for the Mexican rebels, Rosendo Porlier y Asteguieta initially met with success in this campaign, defeating the forces of Hermenegildo Galeana at the Battle of Tecualoya. His victorious army marched to Tenancingo de Degollado. Porlier was initially in a position to enter the town and recapture it for the Spanish crown, but he failed to do so. General José María Morelos y Pavón and his forces arrived at the city from the south after receiving pleas for help from Tenango del Valle and from Heroica Zitácuaro, after a bitter fight, Morelos army proved to be victorious. He went on to cancel his advance on Mexico as the rebel forces reorganized themselves following that crushing defeat, Mexican War of Independence Bustamante, Carlos María de. Cuadro histórico de la revolución mexicana, comenzada en 15 de septiembre de 1810 por el ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, méxico DF, Impr. de JM Lara. México a través de los siglos
28.
Siege of Cuautla
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The Siege of Cuautla was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred from 9 February through 2 May 1812 at Cuautla, Morelos. The Spanish royalist forces loyal to the Spanish, commanded by Félix María Calleja, besieged the town of Cuautla, the rebels were commanded by José María Morelos y Pavón, Hermenegildo Galeana, and Mariano Matamoros. The battle results are disputed, but it is agreed that the battle resulted more favorably for the Spanish whose siege was ultimately successful with the Mexican withdrawal on 2 May 1812. The siege had many consequences to the political, military and social environment in the contemporary Viceroyalty of New Spain which was ruled since 1810 by Francisco Xavier Venegas. Calleja was turned from military commander of all central Mexico to the commander of Mexico City after fears began of an insurgent attack on the capital. Morelos would continue gaining strength, reinforcing his army and taking new cities throughout the south of the such as Oaxaca. A further consequence came with the rise to the throne of Ferdinand VII of Spain, on 16 September 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rose in rebellion, rallying the town of Dolores to fight for independence from the Spanish crown. This series of events triggered the Mexican War of Independence and various cities began to fall to the rebel cause, on 28 September of the same year, the rebel forces took over Guanajuato, on 17 October and 25 respectively, the rebels captured Valladolid and Toluca. Loyalist soldiers under the command of Félix María Calleja defeated Hidalgos army for the first time at the Battle of Aculco, Hidalgos army marched towards Valladolid where various atrocities were committed against the local Spanish population. By January 17,1811, Calleja had once again defeated rebel forces at the Battle of the Puente de Calderón, on 21 March, Ignacio Elizondo, captured many of these fleeing rebels at Las Norias de Acatita de Baján. After being tried, Allende, Aldama and José Mariano Jiménez, for his part, Hidalgo himself was caught and executed on 30 July. Prior to his capture and subsequent execution, Hidalgo had confirmed José María Morelos as the commander of all forces in the south of Mexico. By November 1810, Morelos had conquered most of the territory of the Guerrero and it was there that his issued the Bando del Aguacatillo, the first edict in the history of Mexico dictating individual rights. In February 1811, Morelos failed to take the city of Acapulco and he then began a campaign throughout the center of the country, taking Izúcar in December whilst Hermenegildo Galeana took Taxco. Marching through the mountains surrounding Puebla, Morelos reached Cuautla In January 1812, Calleja fortified the area around Pasulco as he scrutinized the area around Cuautla for potential avenues of attack. Morelos, Galeana, Nicolás Bravo, and the insurgent army arrived to garrison the city on 31 January 1812. One Spanish farmer named Mateo Musitu attempted to attack the rebels with a cannon named el Matamorelos, leonardo Bravo began an extensive trench fortification network around Cuautla and ordered that loopholes be made in the convent and many of the principal buildings. Whilst Bravo was fortifying the town, Morelos went about procuring food, at this time, the rebel forces numbered around 2,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry who were commanded directly by Francisco Ayala and Colonel Cano respectively
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Battle of Tenango del Valle
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The Battle of Tenango del Valle was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred in May 1812 on the outskirts of Tenango del Valle, State of Mexico. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown, and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the forces of the Mexican insurgents under the command of Ignacio López Rayón were able to successfully rout the forces loyal to the Spanish crown. Mexican War of Independence Bustamante, Carlos María de, cuadro Histórico de la Revolución Mexicana, comenzada en 15 de Septiembre de 1810 por el Ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Cura del pueblo de los Dolores. México DF, Impr. de JM Lara
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Battle of Escamela
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The Battle of Zitlala was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred on 26 October 1812 in the area around Escamela, Ixtaczoquitlán, Veracruz. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown, and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the battle resulted in a victory for the Mexican rebels. The insurgents, under the command of José María Morelos y Pavón, the Spanish troops were made up of peninsulares and loyalists from Nueva Espana. The battle served as a precursor in the goal of the Capture of Orizaba later in 1812. The battle resulted in a Mexican rebel victory and an exit of royalist forces from Ixtaczoquitlán, Mexican War of Independence Bustamante, Carlos María de. Cuadro Histórico de la Revolución Mexicana, comenzada en 15 de Septiembre de 1810 por el Ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, méxico DF, Impr. de JM Lara
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Battle of Zitlala
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The Battle of Zitlala was a battle of the War of Mexican Independence that occurred on 4 July 1812 on the outskirts of Zitlala, Guerrero. The battle was fought between the royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown, and the Mexican rebels fighting for independence from the Spanish Empire, the battle resulted in a victory for the Mexican rebels. When José María Morelos was advancing on the capital of Oaxaca, he routed a Spanish loyalist force at Zitlala, after his escape from the 72-day siege at Cuautla, Morelos joined his army together with 800 men under the command of Hermenegildo Galeana and Miguel Bravo at Chiautla. He then moved to march against the loyalist commander General José María Añorve de Salas at Chilapa de Álvarez followed by General Cerro at Tixtla de Guerrero. The regional Mexican commander, Juan Francisco París, did not move to defend these towns as his army was occupied defending Ayutla de los Libres. The insurgents advanced on the town in two sections and eventually were successful in obliging the loyalist forces, who were on horseback, the retreating Spanish forces left behind weapons and prisoners which were then taken to Zacatula. Mexican War of Independence Bustamante, Carlos María de, cuadro Histórico de la Revolución Mexicana, comenzada en 15 de Septiembre de 1810 por el Ciudadano Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Cura del pueblo de los Dolores. México DF, Impr. de JM Lara
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Capture of Oaxaca (1812)
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The Capture of Oaxaca was a battle during the War of Mexican Independence that occurred on 25 November 1812 at Oaxaca, Oaxaca. The battle resulted in a victory for the Mexican rebels, while José María Morelos was in Tehuacán, Puebla, he discovered that loyalist Spanish troops were en route to attack him. He decided to regroup his forces and abandon Tehuacán, all of his forces were able to join together creating an army of over 5,000 soldiers and 40 pieces of artillery. This army proceeded to march to Oaxaca on 10 November 1812, before departing for Oaxaca, Morelos named the substitute for Leonardo Bravo who had fallen prisoner to royalist troops. After his arrival at Villa de Etla, Oaxaca, Morelos developed a plan to attack the capital at Oaxaca. He sent an ultimatum to the Spanish defender of the city, the message went unanswered and Morelos decided to take the city by force. On 25 November 1812, the insurgent forces took position and began their assault, General Hermenegildo Galeana took command of the vanguard, Miguel Bravo took command of the center column, Mariano Matamoros y Guridi commanded the rearguard. For his part, Morelos himself commanded a section of cavalry, a good portion of the infantry remained in reserve to be used if necessary later in the battle. The fort at Cerro de la Soledad, which was at time in Spanish loyalist control, was able to check the main advance for some time with its artillery cover barrages. Morelos, thinking that his position was unfavorable for attack, sent the colonels Ramón Sesma and they attempted to move a cannon close to the fort to assist in their attack but soon discovered that they were under heavy fire from two sides and abandoned the gun. Morelos thereafter decided to reinforce the main advance by Mier. Once that position had been taken by the insurgents, the attack on Oaxaca began supported by an eight-pound cannon. The royalist troops initially returned fire but as the battle progressed, the last skirmish, referred to as the Juego de Pelota, was the taking of a fortified position that was surrounded by a moat and trenches. Insurgent forces were initially hesitant to advance on the fortified position until Guadalupe Victoria hurled his sword across the pit exclaiming - ¡va mi espada en prenda. Swimming across the moat, he incited his comrades to follow him, the loss of Oaxaca was a significant strategic victory for the rebel insurgents and a severe setback for the Viceroyalty of New Spain. México a través de los siglos
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Army of the Three Guarantees (1821)
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