1.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
2.
President of Austria
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The President of Austria is the federal head of state of Austria. The President of Austria is directly elected by adult suffrage once in every six years. The Presidents offices are located in the Leopoldine Wing of the Hofburg Imperial Palace, many presidents have gained tremendous popularity while in office, and no incumbent has ever lost a bid for re-election, although Kurt Waldheim did not run for a second term in office. Five presidents have died in office, from 2004 to 2016, the office was occupied by social democrat Heinz Fischer. The empire noticeably began to fracture in late 1917 and manifestly disintegrated into a number of independent nation states over the course of the following year, as chairman, he also became a member of the Austrian State Council. On 12 November 1918, the State Council collectively assumed the functions of head of state according to a resolution of the National Assembly, on 11 November, Emperor Karl I announced I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State. Likewise I have released the members of the Austrian Government from their offices, the next day, parliament proclaimed the Republic of German Austria. The assembly presidents continued to serve as acting heads of state until 4 March 1919, anton David and Seitz were the presidents of the National Constituent Assembly. Austrias first Bundespräsident proper thus was Michael Hainisch, Karl Seitz immediate successor, in a related note, many popular sources quote some more or less random date between October 1918 and March 1919 as the beginning of Seitz tenure. The constitution originally defined Austria to be a parliamentary republic, originally, the constitution was radically parliamentarian in character. The bicameral parliament, called the Federal Assembly, not only possessed legislative power, the cabinet was appointed by the National Council rather than the president, who in turn was elected by the both houses of the Federal Assembly rather than the people. The presidents term of office was four rather than six years, the president was answerable to the Federal Assembly and, in particular, had no authority to dissolve the National Council. Not even having much influence on the appointment of Constitutional Court justices. The role and nature of the President was the result of a compromise reached during the drafting of the constitution and it was under this constitutional framework that Michael Hainisch and Wilhelm Miklas assumed office on 9 December 1920 and 10 December 1928, respectively. The parliamentary system prescribed by the constitution was highly unpopular, however, the Heimwehr was in favor of a system granting more powers to the president. On 7 December 1929, under growing pressure from the Heimwehr and it also called for the office to be filled by popular vote for a term of six years. The first election was scheduled for 1934, however, owing to the growing worldwide financial crisis, all parties agreed to suspend the election in favour of having Miklas reelected by parliament. Though Austria now was a dictatorship in all but name, power was concentrated in the hands of the Chancellor, Wilhelm Miklas was stripped of the powers hed gained in 1929, but agreed to act as a figurehead of institutional continuity anyway
3.
Michael Mayr
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Michael Mayr was an Austrian politician, who served as Chancellor of Austria in the First Austrian Republic from July 1920 to June 1921. He was a member of the Christian Social Party, and by profession a historian, Mayr was born in Adlwang in Upper Austria, the son of a farmer. He studied history and geography at the University of Vienna and earned a doctorate in 1890, from 1897 through 1920 he served as director of the Tyrol State Archives. In 1900 he became a Professor of Modern History at the University of Innsbruck, mayrs political career began under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, when from 1907 to 1911 he was a member of the Imperial Council legislature and from 1908 to 1914 of the Tyrolean Landtag assembly. With the breakup of the Empire at the end of World War I, State Chancellor Karl Renner appointed him a state secretary in his grand coalition government on 17 October 1919. From 10 November 1920, with the Constitutions coming into force, on 20 November 1920, the newly established National Council parliament elected Mayr Chancellor of a Christian Social minority government. Mayr was succeeded as chancellor by non-partisan Johann Schober, backed by the Christian-Socials and he died about a year later in Waldneukirchen
4.
Johann Schober
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Johann Schober was an Austrian police official and politician who served as the 3rd Chancellor of Austria as well as Foreign Minister from 1921 to 1922 and again from 1929 to 1930. Schober was born in the Upper Austrian town of Perg, the 10th child of an usher at the district administration. From 1894 he studied law at the University of Vienna, as Assistant Commissioner in Vienna, he largely contributed to the clarification of espionage affaire around Alfred Redl, head of the Evidenzbureau intelligence agency, in May 1913. His cabinet mainly consisted of government officials, while Schober himself combined his head of government role with that of Foreign Minister of Austria. In October 1921, Schober after local unrest in Sopron by the Venice Protocol agreed to decide the status by a local plebiscite. The Schober cabinet had to resign on 26 January 1922, while Vice-Chancellor Walter Breisky assumed responsibility of government affairs, back in the police service, Schober returned to his role as President of police in Vienna. At the meeting it was agreed to establish the International Criminal Police Commission, Schober was chosen as the President of the Executive Committee whilst his countryman Oskar Dressler, a noted lawyer and at the time the Austrian Federal Police chief, became Secretary. Nevertheless, Schobers reputation for moderation was hit hard in July 1927 when his orders resulted in the deaths of almost 100 labour protestors in Vienna, the noted satirist, Karl Kraus, was so incensed by the police actions that he started a poster campaign calling for Schobers resignation. On 26 September 1929, Schober returned as Chancellor and Foreign Minister, during his term the Federal Constitution underwent a revision significantly broadening the prerogatives of the President. In January 1930, he achieved the end of World War I reparations to ease the impact of the Great Depression and he also signed agreements with both the German Weimar Republic and the fascist Kingdom of Italy. Nonetheless, he failed to convert the paramilitary Heimwehr forces under Waldemar Pabst into a force for pro-government moderation, Schobers 2nd term in office ended, after his CS deputy Carl Vaugoin resigned on 25 September 1930. In the Austrian legislative election held on 9 November 1930, Schober led an alliance of the Greater German Peoples Party. From 4 December he served Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the cabinets of Otto Ender, Schober left Bureschs government on 29 January 1932. When in May President Wilhelm Miklas entrusted Engelbert Dollfuss the formation of a government, on 19 August 1932, a few days upon the death of his rival Ignaz Seipel, Schober suddenly died aged 57. He was buried in his hometown Perg, auÃenminister Johann Schober, Haager Konferenz on YouTube
5.
Walter Breisky
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Walter Breisky was an Austrian civil servant and politician of the Christian Social Party. Breisky started his career as an official of the Lower Austrian government in 1895, after World War I he was promoted to a ministry department chief. On 7 July 1920 Breisky joined the Mayr cabinet as State secretary for the Interior, on November 20 he also served as Vice-Chancellor of Austria. He held both posts even after Chancellor Mayr was succeeded by non-partisan Johann Schober on 21 June 1921, when Schober resigned on 26 January 1922, Breisky had one day as acting Austrian chancellor, before he again joined Schobers second cabinet as Culture Minister and Vice-Chancellor. With the election of Chancellor Ignaz Seipel on 31 May 1922, Breisky resigned and went on to serve as President of the Austrian Statistical Service from 1923 to 1931
6.
Ignaz Seipel
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Ignaz Seipel was an Austrian prelate and politician of the Christian Social Party, who served as Federal Chancellor twice during the 1920s. Seipel studied theology at the University of Vienna and was ordained a Catholic priest in 1899, from 1909 until 1917 he taught moral theology at the University of Salzburg. At that time he wrote and published a number of famous works, including Nation und Staat. In these writings, unlike most contemporaries swept up by Wilsonian rhetoric, he saw the state as the vindication of sovereignty. In October 1918 he was appointed Minister for Labour and Social Affairs in the last Cisleithanian cabinet under Minister president Heinrich Lammasch, Party chairman from 1921 until 1930, he served as chancellor between 1922 and 1924, and again from 1926 until 1929, then also as Foreign Minister. In order to fight the hyperinflation of the Krone currency the government at the same time re-implemented the independent National Bank of Austria with the task of securing monetary stability. However, these policies let to growing discontent by socialist workers organizations and this alignment led to an increase in street violence and armed conflicts with the left-wing Republikanischer Schutzbund, culminating in the Vienna July Revolt of 1927 claiming numerous casualties. The Social Democratic opposition thereafter referred to Seipel as the Bloody Prelate and he finally resigned in 1929 and was succeeded by his party fellow Ernst Streeruwitz. In the following year he again served in a short-time term as Foreign Minister in the cabinet of Chancellor Carl Vaugoin. Seipel died during a stay at a sanatorium in the Vienna Woods and he is buried in an Ehrengrab at the Vienna Zentralfriedhof. Seipels antisemitic manners were the pattern for the character of Chancellor Dr. Schwerdtfeger in Hugo Bettauers 1922 novel Die Stadt ohne Juden, vol.12, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 2005, ISBN 3-7001-3580-7, p.142 f. Denken Ignaz Seipels zwischen Scholastik und Korporativismus, in F. S. Festa, E. Fröschl, T
7.
Rudolf Ramek
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Rudolf Ramek was an Austrian Christian Social politician, who served as Chancellor of Austria from 1924 to 1926. Ramek was born in Teschen in Austrian Silesia, a member of the National Council after the 1920 legislative election, he succeeded his party fellow Ignaz Seipel as Austrian chancellor on 20 November 1924. Under Rameks government, the Schilling became the official Austrian currency in 1925, the supervision of the countrys finances by a League of Nations Commissioner finished the next year, however, the depression continued and unemployment figures were rising. Ramek finally resigned during the crisis around the state-owned Österreichische Postsparkasse postal savings bank on 20 October 1926, upon the 1930 legislative election, Ramek became vice president of the National Council parliament. Ramek died in Vienna and was buried in the Salzburg Municipal Cemetery
8.
Karl Seitz
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Karl Seitz was born in Vienna, then capital of the Austro-Hungarian empire, as the son of a struggling small-time coal trader. Following the premature death of his father in 1875, the family was thrown into abject poverty, Seitz nonetheless received adequate education and earned a scholarship enabling him to enroll in a teacher training college in the Lower Austrian city of St. Pölten. In 1888, he took employment as an elementary school teacher in Vienna. Already an outspoken Social Democrat at that time, he was disciplined several times for his political activism, Seitz now turned to full-time politics and established himself as one of Austrian Social Democracys most eminent experts on educational policy. In 1901 Seitz was elected to the Imperial Council and in 1902 to the parliament of Lower Austria. Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Seitz developed pronounced pacifist leanings, Seitz entered history in 1918, when Austria-Hungary was breaking down and its disintegration into smaller independent nation states was becoming manifest. On October 21, the Imperial Council parliamentarians representing the empires ethnically German provinces moved to form a Provisional National Assembly for their paralyzed rump state, in its constituent session, the Provisional National Assembly appointed Seitz as one of its three chairmen. Barely more than a later, by October 30, Seitz had informally emerged as an acting head of state. By November 12, Emperor Karl had abdicated, the Republic of German Austria had been proclaimed, almost simultaneously, Seitz was also appointed provisional chairman of the Social Democratic Workers Party of Austria following the death of party nestor Victor Adler. In 1919, his positions both as President of Austria and as party chairman were formalized, following the implementation of the definitive Constitution of Austria on October 1,1920, Seitz declined to seek re-election, leaving office on December 9. He did, however, not retire from politics, retaining both his party chairmanship and his seat in the newly established National Council, Seitz now devoted his attention to Vienna local affairs, on November 13,1923, he was elected Mayor of Vienna. Having thus lost his party chairmanship, Seitz was also removed from his post as a mayor and taken into custody, even though a majority of Viennese considered his removal from office illegitimate, Seitzs political career had essentially been brought to an end. Continuing to live in Vienna, Seitz witnessed Austrias union with Nazi Germany in 1938, though by now of ill health, Seitz served the newly established Social Democratic Party of Austria as its honorary chairman and a nominal National Council member until his death at the age of 80. Media related to Karl Seitz at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Wilhelm Miklas
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Wilhelm Miklas was an Austrian politician who served as the third President of Austria from 1928 until the Anschluss to Nazi Germany in 1938. From 1905 to 1922 Miklas was headmaster of the Federal Secondary School in Horn, while serving in his role for the Christian Social Party, in 1907 he was elected to the Imperial Council parliament. Re-elected in 1911, Miklas held a seat in the provisional assembly of German-Austria. An opponent of German nationalist policies, he declared himself against a closer connection with the Weimar Republic, in 1919 Miklas was appointed state secretary in the Austrian government of Chancellor Karl Renner and from 1923 to 1928 was speaker of the National Council parliament. The assembly was no longer capable for actions and decisions, which gave Miklas party fellow Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss the pretext to declare the parliaments self-elimination. The prohibition of the Arbeiter-Zeitung and the measures against the Austrian labour movement led to the outbreak of the Austrian Civil War on 12 February 1934. As a result, also the Social Democratic Party was banned, the authoritarian measures had no effect on the office of the President. In his private records, Miklas clearly condemned the violation of the constitution by Dollfuss and his successor Kurt Schuschnigg, however, he did not openly criticise the governments policies. Miklas was highly unpopular among Austrian Nazis, as he refused to commute the sentences imposed on assassins of Chancellor Dollfuss after the failed July Putsch in 1934. In view of the pressure by Nazi Germany, the Austrofascist state approached the Kingdom of Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini. In 1936 Miklas entertained Regent Miklós Horthy at Wörthersee, however, when Hitler ordered Wehrmacht operations along the border, the president was forced to give in and installed Seyss-Inquart as Austrian Minister of the Interior. On 9 March 1938, Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on Austrian independence to be held four days. In turn, on 11 March Hermann Göring demanded that Seyss-Inquart replace Schuschnigg as chancellor, otherwise, while a Nazi mob invaded the chancellery, Schuschnigg declared his resignation. President Miklas again refused to appoint Seyss-Inquart, but was not able to present a non-Nazi candidate, after Hitler received the confirmation from Mussolini that Italy would not interfere, he gave orders that German troops would invade at dawn the following day. Miklas capitulated at midnight, announcing that he had instated Seyss-Inquart as new chancellor, Seyss-Inquart hectically spoke on the phone with the Nazi authorities in Berlin, but it was too late. When German troops rolled over the border at dawn the next day, Miklas for his initial refusal ended up under house arrest, protected from Nazi mistreatment by future Waffen-SS colonel Otto Skorzeny during the days of the Anschluss. With the promulgation of a law concerning the re-unification of Austria with the German Reich by Seyss-Inquart on 13 March both the offices of the Austrian chancellor and president were terminated, while Schuschnigg was imprisoned, Miklas abandoned the political sphere and retired, receiving his pension unmolested. After World War II, Miklas refused to run again for presidency and he died on 20 March 1956 in Vienna
10.
Gloggnitz
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Gloggnitz is a mountain town in the Neunkirchen district of Lower Austria, Austria. Gloggnitz is situated in the part of the Vienna Basin in Lower Austria. It is surrounded by the highest mountains in Lower Austria, Mount Rax, the town is also a major traffic junction, Gloggnitz is situated on the main Südbahn and the S6 motorway. Gloggnitz is famous for producing two of Austrias most distinguished Federal Presidents, Federal President Dr Michael Hainisch and the Chancellor of State and later Federal President Dr Karl Renner were both Gloggnitz citizens. Dr Karl Renner spent 42 years of his life in Gloggnitz, on the occasion of the anniversary of his hundredth birthday a monument was erected in Dr Karl Renner Square. A museum in his former residence also commemorates the life of this highly respected former Gloggnitz resident, Gloggnitz Provostry is a former medieval Catholic monastery and a later secularised complex of buildings, including the old Catholic parish church of Gloggnitz. It was also the home of the nationally renowned exhibition, Lower Austrian Landesausstellung 1992“ and this is the new Catholic parish church, designed by the world-famous Austrian architect Prof Clemens Holzmeister. This is one of Gloggnitzs oldest buildings, the estimated date of construction lies between 1001 and 1102 A. D. This date is dependent upon different historical appraisals and it is situated in the town centre. The Herrenhaus is a baroque manor-house and the birthplace of Dr. Michael Hainisch, unfortunately the building is now in ruins. The palace was restored in 1996 and this was the former residential mansion of Karl Renner, the first Federal President of the Second Republic of Austria. There have been changes in all branches of the Gloggnitz economy within the past 30 years. Within this period Gloggnitz developed from a commercial centre and railway junction into an economically active town. Today Gloggnitz can be proud of several companies, employing hundreds of people. The place name Gloggnitz descends from the Slavic word Klokati, which means bubble or murmur, clocniza or Glocniza means Murmuring River. Monks from the Bavarian monastery of Formbach built a hermitage near the River Schwarza and this led to the establishment of a provostry for Gloggnitz. In the 15th century the monks and local inhabitants were farmers, craftsmen. Later climate changes made the conditions for wine making less favourable, for over 900 years the economic and social life of Gloggnitz and its local area was highly influenced and controlled by the monasterial lords of the manor
11.
Lower Austria
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Lower Austria is the northeasternmost state of the nine states in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria since 1986 is Sankt Pölten, the most recently designated capital town in Austria, the capital of Lower Austria had formerly been Vienna, even though Vienna has not officially been part of Lower Austria since 1921. With a land area of 19,186 km2 and a population of 1.612 million people, it is the largest state in Austria, and in terms of population second only to the federal state of Vienna. Situated east of Upper Austria, Lower Austria derives its name from its location on the Danube River. Lower Austria has a border,414 km long, with the Czech Republic. The state has the second longest external border of all Austrian states and it also borders the other Austrian states of Upper Austria, Styria and Burgenland as well as surrounding Vienna. Lower Austria is divided into four regions, known as Viertel, Weinviertel or Tertiary Lowland Waldviertel or Bohemian Plateau Mostviertel Industrieviertel and these regions have different geographical structures. Whilst the Mostviertel is dominated by the foothills of the Limestone Alps with mountains up to 2,000 m high, semmering Wechsel The state border with Styria runs over both passes. Almost all of Lower Austria is drained by the Danube, the only river that flows into the North Sea is the Lainsitz in northern Waldviertel. The most important rivers north of the Danube are the Ysper, Kamp, Krems, Lainsitz, March, south of the Danube are the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Melk, Pielach, Traisen, Schwechat, Fischa, Schwarza, Triesting, Pitten and the Leitha. Ottenstein Reservoir Lunzer See Erlaufsee Erlauf Reservoir Wienerwaldsee Lower Austria is rich in natural caves, most of the caves have formed in limestone and dolomite rocks and are therefore called karst caves. Cavities also form in the marble of the Central Alps and the Bohemian Massif, the history of Lower Austria is very similar to the history of Austria. Many castles are located in Lower Austria, klosterneuburg Abbey, located here, is one of the oldest abbeys in Austria. Before World War II, Lower Austria had the largest number of Jews in Austria, Lower Austria is divided into four regions, Waldviertel, Mostviertel, Industrieviertel, and Weinviertel. The Wachau valley, situated between Melk and Krems in the Mostviertel region, is famous for its landscape, culture, administratively, the state is divided into 20 districts, and four independent towns. In total, there are 573 municipalities within Lower Austria
12.
Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
13.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
14.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
15.
Styria
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Styria is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. In area it is the second largest of the nine Austrian federated states and it borders Slovenia and the Austrian states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Burgenland, and Carinthia. The capital city is Graz which had 276,526 inhabitants at the beginning of 2015, the March of Styria derived its name from the original seat of its ruling Otakar dynasty, Steyr, in todays Upper Austria. In German, the area is still called Steiermark while in English the Latin name Styria is used, the ancient link between Steyr and Styria is also apparent in their nearly identical coats of arms, a white Panther on a green background. The term Upper Styria used by an Austrian refers to the northern and northwestern parts of the federal-state, the term West Styria is used for the districts to the west of Graz, the districts east of Graz are referred to as East Styria. The western and eastern parts of the district Graz-Umgebung may or may not be considered parts of West and East Styria, the southern parts of the Duchy of Styria, which have formed part of Yugoslavia or Slovenia since 1918, were referred to as Lower Styria. During early Roman times, Styria was inhabited by Celtic tribes, after its conquest by the Romans, the eastern part of what is now Styria was part of Pannonia, while the western one was included in Noricum. During the Barbarian invasions, it was conquered or crossed by the Visigoths, the Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Rugii, the Lombards, the Franks, in 595 the latter were defeated by the Slavs, who thenceforth ruled it. In 1180 Styria separated from the Duchy of Carinthia and became a Grand Duchy of its own, after the hereditary subdivision of the latter, Styria formed the central part of Inner Austria. Styria developed culturally and economically under John, Archduke of Inner Austria between 1809 and 1859, as elsewhere in the developed world, there has been a shift away from the manufacturing sector towards the service sector in Styria. This has had consequences for the industrial regions of upper Styria which have suffered a steady decline in population in recent years. Styria is home to more than 150 clean technology companies, of one dozen are world technology leaders in their field. The revenue of Styrian cleantech companies totals €2.7 billion and this equals to 8 percent of the Gross Regional Product, and is one of the highest concentrations of leading clean technology companies in Europe. The companies have a growth rate of 22 percent per year—well above the worldwide cleantech market growth of 18 percent per year. The region created roughly 2,000 additional green jobs in 2008 alone, the state is divided into 13 districts, one of them a statutory city. Graz however is a stronghold of the left-wing Communist Party, the governor has usually been an ÖVP member. In these elections, the KPÖ also received votes after it had gained much popularity through its role in local politics in Graz during the preceding few years. The two right-wing populist parties, the Freedom Party of Austria and the Alliance for the Future of Austria, gebirgsdivision Robert Stolz, composer born in Graz Getty Kaspers, lead vocals of Dutch band Teach-In, who won the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest
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Fabian Society
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Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of 15 socialist societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia, in Canada, in Sicily, the Fabian Society was founded on 4 January 1884 in London as an offshoot of a society founded a year earlier called The Fellowship of the New Life. Early Fellowship members included the visionary Victorian elite, among them poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, sexologist Havelock Ellis and they wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Some members also wanted to become involved to aid societys transformation, they set up a separate society. All members were free to both societies. The Fabian Society additionally advocated renewal of Western European Renaissance ideas, the Fellowship of the New Life was dissolved in 1899, but the Fabian Society grew to become the pre-eminent academic society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era. It was typified by the members of its vanguard Coefficients club, public meetings of the Society were for many years held at Essex Hall, a popular location just off the Strand in central London. The Fabian Society was named—at the suggestion of Frank Podmore—in honour of the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the wolf in sheep’s clothing symbolism was later abandoned, due to its obvious negative connotations. Its nine founding members were Frank Podmore, Edward R. Pease, William Clarke, Hubert Bland, Percival Chubb, Frederick Keddell, H. H. Champion, Edith Nesbit, and Rosamund Dale Owen. Havelock Ellis is sometimes mentioned as a tenth founding member. Even Bertrand Russell briefly became a member, but resigned after he expressed his belief that the Societys principle of entente could lead to war, at the core of the Fabian Society were Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Together, they wrote numerous studies of industrial Britain, including alternative co-operative economics that applied to ownership of capital as well as land, at the meeting that founded the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, the Fabian Society claimed 861 members and sent one delegate. In 1912 a student section was organised called the University Socialist Federation, the first Fabian Society pamphlets advocating tenets of social justice coincided with the zeitgeist of Liberal reforms during the early 1900s, including eugenics. The Fabian proposals however were more progressive than those that were enacted in the Liberal reform legislation. That the future battles of the Empire for commercial prosperity are already being lost, in 1900 the Society produced Fabianism and the Empire, the first statement of its views on foreign affairs, drafted by Bernard Shaw and incorporating the suggestions of 150 Fabian members. It was directed against the individualism of those such as John Morley. It claimed that the liberal political economy was outdated. The question was whether Britain would be the centre of an empire or whether it would lose its colonies
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Agricultural sector
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The primary sector of the economy is the sector of an economy making direct use of natural resources. This includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining, in contrast, the secondary sector produces manufactured goods, and the tertiary sector provides services. The primary sector is usually most important in less-developed countries, primary industry is a larger sector in developing countries, for instance, animal husbandry is more common in Africa than in Japan. Mining in 19th-century South Wales provides a study of how an economy can come to rely on one form of activity. Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its sector, with the logging. However, in recent years, the number of exchanges have heavily reduced Canadas primary industry. In developed countries primary industry has become more advanced, for instance the mechanization of farming as opposed to hand picking and planting. In more developed economies additional capital is invested in primary means of production, developed countries are allowed to maintain and develop their primary industries even further due to the excess wealth. For instance, European Union agricultural subsidies provide buffers for the inflation rates and prices of agricultural produce. This allows developed countries to be able to export their products at extraordinarily low prices. This makes them extremely competitive against those of poor or underdeveloped countries that maintain free market policies, such differences also come about due to more efficient production in developed economies, given farm machinery, better information available to farmers, and often larger scale. Three-sector hypothesis Resource curse Dwight H. Perkins, Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol.31, No
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Electrification
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Electrification is the process of powering by electricity and, in many contexts, the introduction of such power by changing over from an earlier power source. The broad meaning of the term, such as in the history of technology, economic history and this included the change over from line shaft and belt drive using steam engines and water power to electric motors. The electrification of particular sectors of the economy is called by such as factory electrification, household electrification. Electrification was called the greatest engineering achievement of the 20th Century by the National Academy of Engineering, the earliest commercial uses of electricity were electroplating and the telegraph. In the years of 1831–1832, Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic generators. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. Around 1832, Hippolyte Pixii improved the magneto by using a wire wound horseshoe, with the coils of conductor generating more current. André-Marie Ampère suggested a means of converting current from Pixiis magneto to DC using a rocking switch, later segmented commutators were used to produce direct current. William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone developed a telegraph around 1838-40, in 1840 Wheatstone was using a magneto that he developed to power the telegraph. Wheatstone and Cooke made an important improvement in electrical generation by using an electromagnet in place of a permanent magnet. The self-excited magnetic field dynamo did away with the battery to power electromagnets and this type of dynamo was made by several people in 1866. The first practical generator, the Gramme machine was made by Z. T Gramme, crompton improved the generator to allow better air cooling and made other mechanical improvements. Compound winding, which gave more stable voltage with load, improved operating characteristics of generators, the improvements in electrical generation technology increased the efficiency and reliability greatly in the 19th century. The first magnetos only converted a few percent of energy to electricity. By the end of the 19th century the highest efficiencies were over 90%, Sir Humphry Davy invented the carbon arc lamp in 1802 upon discovering that electricity could produce a light arc with carbon electrodes. However, it was not used to any extent until a practical means of generating electricity was developed. Carbon arc lamps were started by making contact between two electrodes, which were then separated to within a narrow gap. Because the carbon burned away, the gap had to be constantly readjusted, several mechanisms were developed to regulate the arc
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Tourism
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Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
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Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
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Culture
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Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
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Pan-Germanism
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Pan-Germanism or Pan-Germanicism is a pan-nationalist political idea. Pan-Germanists originally sought to unify all the German and possibly also Germanic-speaking peoples in a single known as Großdeutschland. As a result of the disaster of World War II, Pan-Germanism was mostly seen as an ideology in the postwar period in both West and East Germany. Today, Pan-Germanism is mostly limited to some nationalist groups in Germany, the word pan is a Greek word element meaning all, every, whole, all-inclusive. The word German in this context derives from Latin Germani originally used by Julius Caesar referring to tribes or a tribe in northeastern Gaul. In the Late Middle Ages it acquired a loose meaning referring to the speakers of Germanic languages most of whom spoke dialects ancestral to modern German, in English, Pan-German was first attested in 1892. In German there exists a synonym Alldeutsche Bewegung which is a calque using German instead of Latin, pan-Germanisms origins began with the birth of Romantic nationalism during the Napoleonic Wars, with Friedrich Ludwig Jahn and Ernst Moritz Arndt being early proponents. Advocates of the Großdeutschland solution sought to unite all the German-speaking people in Europe, Pan-Germanism was widespread among the revolutionaries of 1848, notably among Richard Wagner and the Brothers Grimm. For the Pan-Germanists this movement was seen as a Drang nach Osten, there is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit. – article published in the New York Times on 1 July 1866 By the 1860s the Kingdom of Prussia, both sought to expand their influence and territory. Under Prussian leadership Otto von Bismarck would ride on the coat-tails of nationalism to unite all of the northern German lands, after World War I the Pan-Germanist philosophy changed drastically during the ascendancy of Adolf Hitler. Georg Schönerer and Karl Hermann Wolf articulated Pan-Germanist sentiments in Austria-Hungary, there was also a rejection of Roman Catholicism with the Away from Rome. Movement calling for German-speakers to identify with Lutheran or Old Catholic churches, the organization achieved great support among the educated middle and upper class, it promoted German nationalist consciousness, especially among ethnic Germans outside Germany. In his three-volume work, Deutsche Politik, Hasse called for German imperialist expansion in Europe, the Munich professor Karl Haushofer, Ewald Banse, and Hans Grimm preached similar expansionist policies. Schönerers völkisch and racist German nationalism was an inspiration to Hitlers ideology, with Anschluss of Austria in 1938, the historic aim of Austrias German nationalists was achieved. After 1945, the German national camp was revived in the Federation of Independents, the idea of including the North Germanic-speaking Scandinavians into a Pan-German state, sometimes referred to as Pan-Germanicism, was promoted alongside mainstream pan-German ideas. He also pointed out that Germany had more solid historical claims to parts of France and England
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Anschluss
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Anschluss is the term used to describe the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. German spelling, until the German orthography reform of 1996, was Anschluß, the idea of an Anschluss began after the Unification of Germany excluded Austria and the Austrian Germans from the Prussian-dominated German nation-state in 1871. Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany on 12 March 1938, there had been several years of pressure from supporters in Austria and Germany for the Heim ins Reich movement. Earlier, Nazi Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party in its bid to seize power from Austrias Fatherland Front government. Infuriated, on 11 March, Adolf Hitler threatened invasion of Austria, and demanded Chancellor von Schuschniggs resignation, Hitlers plan was for Seyss-Inquart to call immediately for German troops to rush to Austrias aid, restoring order and giving the invasion an air of legitimacy. In the face of threat, Schuschnigg informed Seyss-Inquart that the plebiscite would be cancelled. Nevertheless, the German Führer underestimated his opposition, Schuschnigg did resign on the evening of 11 March, but President Wilhelm Miklas refused to appoint Seyss-Inquart as Chancellor. At 8,45 pm, Hitler, tired of waiting, around 10 pm, a forged telegram was sent in Seyss-Inquarts name asking for German troops, since he was not yet Chancellor and was unable to do so himself. Seyss-Inquart was not installed as Chancellor until after midnight, when Miklas resigned himself to the inevitable, clearly it was Hitler, and not Schuschnigg, who was terrified by the potential results of the scheduled plebiscite, and that was the best indication of where Austrians loyalty lay. The newly installed Nazis, within two days, transferred power to Germany, and Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss, Austrian citizens of Jewish origin were not allowed to vote. No military confrontation took place, and even the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France, the loudest verbal protest was voiced by the government of Mexico. Although Austria had never been a part of the German Empire, Austria was predominantly ethnically German, prior to annexing Austria in 1938, Nazi Germany had remilitarized the Rhineland, and the Saar region was returned to Germany after 15 years of occupation through a plebiscite. In March 1939, Hitler then dismantled Czechoslovakia by recognising the independence of Slovakia and that same year, Memelland was returned from Lithuania. With the Anschluss, the Republic of Austria ceased to exist as an independent state, at the end of World War II, a Provisional Austrian Government under Karl Renner was set up by conservatives, social democrats and communists on 27 April 1945. It cancelled the Anschluss the same day and was recognized by the Allies in the following months. In 1955 the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, the idea of grouping all Germans into a nation-state country had been the subject of debate in the 19th century from the ending of the Holy Roman Empire until the ending of the German Confederation. Austria had wanted a Großdeutsche Lösung, whereby the German states would be united under the leadership of the Austrian Germans and this solution would include all the German states, but Prussia would have to take second place. This controversy, called dualism, dominated Prusso-Austrian diplomacy and the politics of the German states, by 1871, the decision was to form a kleindeutsch German Empire based on Prussia and excluding Austria
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Nazi-Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Wilhelm Exner Medal
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The Wilhelm Exner Medal has been awarded by the Austrian Industry Association, Österreichischer Gewerbeverein, for excellence in research and science since 1921. In 1921, ÖGV established the Wilhelm Exner Medal, an Austrian award presented each year, the award dedicated to Wilhelm Exner, who was honorary president of ÖGV and professor of engineering with an exceptional influence on the policies in education and industry. The Wilhelm Exner Medal is awarded to scientists and researchers that have had a impact on business and industry through their scientific achievements. The award was created to honor the 60th anniversary of Wilhelm Exners association with ÖGV, since the Wilhelm Exner Medal was established, over 230 inventors, researchers and scientists have been honored, including 21 Nobel Prize awardees. The medal has a diameter of 7.5 cm and is made of bronze, sir Gregory Winter,2015 Thomas J. R. Hughes,2014 Joseph M
28.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
29.
First Austrian Republic
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The Republics constitution was enacted in October 1,1920 and amended on December 7,1929. The republican period was marked by violent strife between those with left-wing and right-wing views, leading to the July Revolt of 1927 and the Austrian Civil War of 1934. Despite Austrian protests this treaty also forbade Anschluss, or union of Austria with Germany, the new Republic was created by the will of Allies who did not want the defeated Germany to expand its borders. The new state managed to prevent two land claims from being taken by their neighbours, the first was the south-eastern part of Carinthia, which was inhabited partly by Slovenians. It was prevented from being taken over by the new SHS-state through a Carinthian plebiscite on October 10,1920, the second prevented land-claim was Hungarys claim to Burgenland, which, under the name Western Hungary, had been part of the Hungarian kingdom since 1647. It was inhabited mostly by a German-speaking population, but had also Croat-, through the Treaty of St. Germain it became part of the Austrian Republic in 1921. However, after a plebiscite which was disputed by Austria, the capital city of Sopron remained in Hungary. Many of them felt that with the loss of 60% of the territory of the prewar empire, Austria was no longer economically and politically viable as a separate state without union with Germany. In the country of 6.5 million, Vienna, with its population of almost 2 million, was left as a capital without an empire to feed it. For much of the early 1920s, Austrias survival was very much in doubt and this was partly because Austria had never been a German/Austrian nation state in the true sense of the term. The Federal President was elected for a four year tearm in a session of both houses, while Chancellor was elected by the Nationalrat. After 1920, Austrias government was dominated by the anti-Anschluss Christian Social Party which retained close ties to the Roman Catholic Church, the partys first Chancellor Ignaz Seipel came to power in May 1922 and attempted to forge a political alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Roman Catholic Church. After the legislative elections of October 17,1920 Social Democrats lost parliamentary majority and remained in the opposition until 1934, Christian Socials won 85, Social Democrats 69, Greater Germany Party 20 and Peasants Union 8 seats. Michael Hainisch was elected Federal President, after October 1923 elections Ignaz Seipel stayed in power and resigned in November 1924 when he was succeeded by Rudolf Ramek. After the 1930 legislative elections Social Democrats emerged as the largest party with 72 seats, country was dividen between conservative population of country side and Social Democrat controlled Red Vienna. In 1927, during a clash in Schattendorf, an old man. On July 14,1927 the shooters were acquitted and left-wing supporters began a massive protest during which the Ministry of Justice building was burned, to restore order police and army shot and killed 89 people and injured 600. The huge protest is known as the July Revolt of 1927, Social Democrats called for a general strike which lasted four days
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History of Austria
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The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states, from the early Stone Age to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria, Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg from 1273 to 1806, when the Holy Roman Empire came to an end. When this empire collapsed in 1918, Austria was reduced to the main German speaking areas of the empire, however this union was forbidden by the Allies at the Treaty of Versailles. Following the First Republic, Austrofascism tried to keep Austria independent from the German Reich, but in 1938 it was annexed by Nazi Germany with the support of the large majority of the Austrian people. After the Second World War Austria again became an independent republic as the Second Republic in 1955, the history of Austria raises a number of questions. Should it be confined to the current Republic of Austria, or to all lands formerly ruled by the rulers of Austria, should Austrian history include 1938–1945 when it did not exist. Within Austria there are regional variations, and parts of Austria have at various times wished to become part of adjacent countries. Human habitation of current Austria can be traced back to the first farming communities of the early Stone Age. In the late Iron Age it was occupied by a Celtic culture, at the end of the 1st century BC this became part of the Roman Empires lands to the south of the Danube, and was incorporated as the Province of Noricum around 40 AD. The most important Roman settlement was at Carnuntum, in the 6th century, another Germanic people, the Bavarii occupied these lands until it fell to the Frankish Empire in the 9th century. Around 800 AD Charlemagne established the outpost of Avar March in what is now Lower Austria, to hold back advances from Slavs and Avars. In the 10th century an eastern outpost of the Duchy of Bavaria, bordering Hungary, was established as the Marchia orientalis or Margraviate of Austria in 976 and this Eastern March, in German was known as Ostarrîchi or Eastern Realm, hence Austria. The first mention of Ostarrîchi occurs in a document of that name dated 996 CE, from 1156 the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa created an independent duchy under the House of Babenberg, until its extinction in 1246, corresponding to modern Lower Austria. The 15th and early 16th century saw expansion of the Habsburg territories through diplomacy and marriages to include Spain. This expansionism, together with French aspirations and the resultant Habsburg-French or Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry were important factors shaping European History for 200 years, by 1526 Ferdinand had also inherited the kingdoms of Bohemia, and Hungary after the Battle of Mohács which partitioned the latter. However the Ottoman Empire now lay directly adjacent to the Austrian lands, even after the unsuccessful first Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the Ottoman threat persisted for another one and a half centuries. The 16th Century also saw the spread of the Reformation, from around 1600 the Habsburg policy of recatholicisation or Catholic Renewal eventually led to the Thirty Years War. Originally a religious war, it was also a struggle for power in central Europe, eventually the pressure of the anti-Habsburg coalition of France, Sweden, and most Protestant German states contained their authority to the Austrian and Czech lands in 1648
31.
Karl Renner
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Karl Renner was an Austrian politician of the Socialist Party. Renner was born the 18th child of a German family of poor wine-growers in Unter-Tannowitz, then part of the Margraviate of Moravia, because of his intelligence, he was allowed to attend a selective gymnasium in nearby Nikolsburg, where one of his teachers was Wilhelm Jerusalem. From 1890 to 1896 he studied law at the University of Vienna, in 1895 he was one of the founding members of the Friends of Nature organisation and created their logo. In 1896 he joined the Social Democratic Workers Party of Austria and his interest in politics also led him to become a librarian for the Reichsrat. During these early years, he developed new perspectives on law — all the while cloaking his innovative ideas under a variety of pseudonyms lest he lose his coveted post as parliamentary librarian. He was especially interested in the problems of the Austrian state, whose existence he justified on geographical, economic, as a theorist he was reckoned as one of the leaders of Austro-Marxism. e. This name, however, was prohibited by The Entente, they crushed the resolution of the Constituent National Assembly in Vienna that German-Austria was to be part of the German Weimar Republic. Germain where the Republic of Austria was acknowledged but was declared to be the successor to Imperial Austria. State aid was provided for the disabled, together with health insurance for public employees. In addition, a law was passed provided for collective bargaining. From 1931 to 1933, Renner was President of Parliament, the National Council of Austria, after the authoritarian Austrofascism period from 1934, when his party was prohibited, he even welcomed the Anschluss in 1938. During World War II, however, he distanced himself from politics completely, on April 27, by a declaration, this Provisional Government separated Austria from Germany and campaigned for the country to be acknowledged as an independent republic. Thus Austria, having been invaded by Germany, was treated as an unwilling party, in late 1945, he was elected the first President of the Second Republic. Karl Renner died in 1950 in Vienna and was buried in the Presidential Tomb at the Zentralfriedhof, for most of his life, Renner alternated between the political commitment of a Social Democrat and the analytical distance of an academic scholar. Central to Renners academic work is the problem of the relationship between law and private property. With his Rechtsinstitute des Privatrechts und ihre soziale Funktion, Ein Beitrag zur Kritik des bürgerlichen Rechts, he became one of the founders of the discipline of the sociology of law. In this book, Renner developed a Marxist theory of the institution of private law, Renner argued that the separation of public and private law is a creation of capitalism, whereby the state enforces the interests of capital owners. His and Otto Bauers ideas about the protection of cultural minorities were taken up by the Jewish Bund
32.
Franz Jonas
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Franz Josef Jonas was an Austrian political figure. He served as the seventh President of Austria, between 1965 and 1974 and he was a typesetter by profession and a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria. After World War II he got involved in Viennese communal politics and was mayor of Vienna from 1951 to 1965, from 1965, he was federal president and was re-elected in 1971. He was a fervent supporter of Esperanto, and starting in 1923 and his address to the 1970 World Congress of Esperanto, which was held in Vienna, was delivered in Esperanto. In 1974, he died in office, the fourth consecutive President to do so, in Vienna, a large tram station officially called Schottentor which was built when he was mayor is colloquially named after him. In 1966 he was awarded the Grand Cross of The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav with Collar, and in 1969 the Pierre de Coubertin medal
33.
Kurt Waldheim
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Kurt Josef Waldheim was an Austrian diplomat and politician. Waldheim was the fourth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 to 1981, Waldheim was born in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, a village near Vienna, on 21 December 1918. His father was a Roman Catholic school inspector of Czech origin named Watzlawick who changed his name that year as the Habsburg monarchy collapsed, Waldheim served in the Austrian Army and attended the Vienna Consular Academy, where he graduated in 1939. Waldheims father was active in the Christian Social Party, Waldheim himself was politically unaffiliated during these years at the Academy. Three weeks after the German annexation of Austria in 1938, Waldheim applied for membership in the National Socialist German Students League, shortly thereafter he became a registered member of the mounted corps of the SA. On 19 August 1944, he married Elisabeth Ritschel in Vienna, their first daughter, a son, Gerhard, and another daughter, Christa, followed. In early 1941, Waldheim was drafted into the Wehrmacht and posted to the Eastern Front where he served as a squad leader, in December of that year, he was wounded but he returned to service in 1942. His service in the Wehrmacht from 1942 to 1945 was the subject of review in 1985 and 1986. After publication, documents and witnesses came to light that revealed Waldheim’s military service continued until 1945, by 1943, Waldheim was serving in the capacity of an aide-de-camp in Army Group E which was headed by General Alexander Löhr. He said that he had known some of the things that had happened, and had been horrified. Much historical interest has centered on Waldheims role in Operation Kozara in 1942, according to one post-war investigator, prisoners were routinely shot within only a few hundred meters of Waldheims office, and just 35 kilometres away at the Jasenovac concentration camp. Waldheim later stated that he did not know about the murder of civilians there, Waldheims name appears on the Wehrmachts honor list of those responsible for the militarily successful operation. The Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia, awarded Waldheim the Medal of the Crown of King Zvonimir in silver with an oak branches cluster. Waldheim denied that he knew war crimes were taking place in Bosnia at the height of the battles between the Nazis and Titos partisans in 1943, Waldheim joined the Austrian diplomatic service in 1945, after finishing his studies in law at the University of Vienna. He served as First Secretary of the Legation in Paris from 1948, in 1956 he was made Ambassador to Canada, returning to the Ministry in 1960, after which he became the Permanent Representative of Austria to the United Nations in 1964. For two years beginning in 1968, he was the Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs in Austria serving for the Austrian Peoples Party, shortly afterwards, he ran and was defeated in the 1971 Austrian presidential elections. After being defeated in his countrys presidential election, he was appointed to succeed U Thant as United Nations Secretary-General the same year. As Secretary-General, Waldheim opened and addressed a number of international conferences convened under United Nations auspices
34.
Thomas Klestil
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Thomas Klestil was an Austrian diplomat and politician. He was elected the tenth President of Austria in 1992 and was re-elected to the position in 1998 and his second—and final—term of office was due to end on 8 July 2004, but his death two days prior to his retirement from office cut his term short. Born in Vienna to a working class family—his father worked for the tramway—Klestil went to school in Landstraße where he made friends with Joe Zawinul and he studied at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration and received his doctorate in 1957. After entering the service he worked in Austria as well as abroad. In 1969, he established the Austrian consulate-general in Los Angeles, fluent in English, Klestil was the Austrian Ambassador to the United Nations and Ambassador to the United States prior to his election as president. After being nominated by the conservative Austrian Peoples Party to run for Federal President, as a matter of fact the Austrian Constitution does give far-reaching powers to the Federal President, but these had never been exercised by any of Klestils predecessors. In 1996 he was seriously ill but recovered. On 5 July 2004, three days before he was to leave office, he suffered an attack or heart failure, probably caused by his long-term lung problems. He died on 6 July at 23,33 local time at the AKH in Vienna from multiple organ failure, on 9 July 2004, he was interred in the presidential crypt at Viennas Central Cemetery. Klestil was the fifth President of Austria to die in office since 1950, michael and St. George Norway, Grand Cross of the Order of St
35.
Heinz Fischer
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Heinz Fischer GColIH is an Austrian politician. He took office as President of Austria on 8 July 2004 and was re-elected for a second and last term on 25 April 2010, Fischer previously served as Minister of Science from 1983 to 1987 and as President of the National Council of Austria from 1990 to 2002. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria, he suspended his party membership for the duration of his presidency, Fischer was born in Graz, Styria, which had recently become part of Nazi Germany, following Germany’s annexation of Austria in March 1938. Fischer attended a school which focused on humanities and graduated in 1956. He studied law at the University of Vienna, earning a doctorate in 1961, in 1963, at the age of 25, Fischer spent a year volunteering at Kibbutz Sarid, northern Israel. Apart from being a politician, Fischer also pursued an academic career, Fischer was a member of the Austrian parliament, the National Council, from 1971, and served as its president from 1990 to 2002. From 1983 to 1987 he was Minister of Science in a government headed by Fred Sinowatz. In January 2004 Fischer announced that he would run for president to succeed Thomas Klestil and he was elected on 25 April 2004 as the candidate of the opposition Social Democratic Party. He polled 52.4 per cent of the votes to defeat Benita Ferrero-Waldner, Fischer was sworn in on 8 July 2004 and took over office from the college of presidents of the National Council, who had acted for the President following Klestils death on 6 July. Fischers critics, foremost among them Norbert Leser, his university colleague, have derided him as a politician who has never been in touch with the real world. They claim that Fischer has always avoided controversy and conflict, even when that seemed required, on being nominated for president, Fischer said that he hated antagonising people and that he considered this quality an asset rather than anything else. In April 2010, Fischer was re-elected as President of Austria, the voter turnout of merely 53. 6% was a record low. Around a third of those eligible to vote voted for Fischer, some prominent ÖVP members, unofficially but in public, even suggested to cast a blanc vote, which some 7% of the voters did. Fischer identifies himself as agnostic and as a social democrat and he has been married to his wife Margit since 1968. The couple have two grown children, Fischer enjoys mountaineering and has been president of the Austrian Friends of Nature for many years
36.
Alexander Van der Bellen
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Alexander Van der Bellen is an Austrian politician and economist who is the 12th President of Austria since 26 January 2017. He was a professor of economics at the University of Vienna before he entered national politics, on 4 December 2016, he won the ensuing election, taking approximately 54% of the vote. Van der Bellen has described himself as a centrist liberal and supports green, as discussed in his 2015 book, he is supportive of the European Union and advocates European federalism. During the presidential election, he appealed to the centre and was endorsed by the leaders of both the conservative Austrian Peoples Party and the Social Democratic Party. Van der Bellen is the second president of a European Union country. Van der Bellen, who is known privately by the nickname Sascha, was born in Vienna, the son of Alexander Konstantin and his father was an aristocratic Russian-born banker of Baltic German, Russian German, Dutch, and Estonian descent, while his mother was Estonian. In Russia, the family was recognised as noble in the early 19th century, the surname was spelled von der Bellen in Imperial Russia, with von der being a nobiliary particle. In 1931, Van der Bellens divorced father married Estonian native Alma Siebold and he acquired naturalised Estonian citizenship in 1934. After Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Union in 1940, the fled to Germany. They eventually settled in Vienna, where Van der Bellen was born, before fleeing the approaching Red Army in 1945 and arriving in Tyrol. He has described himself as a child of refugees, for practical purposes the Van der Bellen family was stateless following the Soviet occupation of Estonia. Together with his parents Van der Bellen was granted Austrian citizenship in 1958, although his parents spoke Russian with each other, Van der Bellen only learned a few words in the language. He explained that his parents wanted to avoid everything that indicated that they were refugees, in 1962, he graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium in Innsbruck. He studied economics at the University of Innsbruck and received a doctorate in 1970 and he obtained his habilitation in economics in 1975. In 1976, he was appointed professor at the University of Innsbruck. In 1980, he became professor of economics at the University of Vienna, subsequently, he took over the chair for economics there. From 1990 to 1994 he was dean of the faculty for social sciences, a former member of the Social Democratic Party, Van der Bellen became Member of the National Council of Austria for the Austrian Green Party in 1994. On 13 December 1997 he became their spokesperson, and in 1999 became chairman of the Greens Parliamentary Party in the National Council
37.
Leopold Figl
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Leopold Figl was an Austrian politician of the Austrian Peoples Party and the first Federal Chancellor after World War II. He was also the youngest Federal Chancellor of Austria after the war, after the Anschluss, the Nazis deported Figl to Dachau concentration camp in 1938, from which he was released in May 1943. He then worked as an oil engineer, but in October 1944 Figl was rearrested, on 21 January 1945, he was brought to Vienna. The folder of his dossier was marked with the abbreviation VG indicating that a Volksgerichtshof trial was planned or in preparation. Figl was released on 6 April 1945, when troops of the Soviet Army advanced to the centre of Vienna in an operation which became known as the Vienna Offensive, after the defeat of the Nazis, the Allies occupied Austria at the end of World War II. The Soviet Military Commander, Tolbukhin, asked Figl to manage the provision of food for the population of Vienna, on 14 April 1945 he refounded the Bauernbund and integrated it into the Austrian Peoples Party, which was founded three days later. On 27 April he became interim Governor of Lower Austria and vice-minister, at the first free elections since 1934, held in December 1945, the ÖVP won a smashing victory, taking 49.8 percent of the vote and an absolute majority in the legislature. Figl was proposed as Chancellor, the Soviets agreed, because of his opposition to the Nazis and his managerial abilities, the coalition, remained in office until 1966 and did much to solve the serious economic and social problems left over from World War II. The USAs Marshall Plan was also a great help, after internal criticism, Figl resigned as Chancellor on 26 November 1953. His successor, Julius Raab, was less flexible towards the SPÖ, but was Chancellor when the Austrian State Treaty, however, Figl was strongly involved in its achievement, as he remained in the government as foreign minister. At the national elections of 1959 the SPÖ gained ground on the ÖVP, and this gave the SPÖ the bargaining power to demand that Bruno Kreisky succeed him as foreign minister. Figl then became president of the National Council 1959–1962, but soon returned to Lower Austria, Figl was patron of the Pfadfinder Österreichs between 1960 and 1964 and president of this Scout association from 1964 until his death. He died from cancer in 1965 in Vienna, and is buried in an Ehrengrab at the Zentralfriedhof. His son Johannes was International Commissioner of the Pfadfinder Österreichs and president of the Pfadfinder und Pfadfinderinnen Österreichs from 1994 to 2000
38.
Julius Raab
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Julius Raab was a conservative Austrian politician, who served as Federal Chancellor of Austria from 1953 to 1961. Raab steered Allied-occupied Austria to independence, when he negotiated and signed the Austrian State Treaty in 1955, in internal politics Raab stood for a pragmatic social partnership and the Grand coalition of Austrian Conservatives and Social Democrats. Raab was born into a middle-class Catholic family in Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria and he attended a Catholic high school and in 1911 enrolled at the Vienna University of Technology to study civil engineering. He was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army as an officer before graduation. After the defeat of Central Powers Raab returned to the university and he married Harmine Haumer in 1923. The death of his father and the beginning of his career in the First Austrian Republic compelled Raab to drop out of the university in 1925. From 1927 to 1934 he was a member of the National Council parliament as a Lower Austrian deputy of the Christian Social Party. Backed by Chancellor Ignaz Seipel, he was active in the Heimwehr paramilitary arm of right-wing political forces. However, his attempts to bind the paramilitary forces to the Christian Social Party ultimatively failed, in 1932 he joined the Catholic Ostmärkische Sturmscharen forces led by his party fellows Kurt Schuschnigg and Leopold Figl. In 1933 Raab joined the Fatherlands Front, the newly established right-wing coalition led by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss and he was never involved in the Austrian resistance but kept in touch with the old Christian Democrat elite and supported his fellow Leopold Figl after his release from imprisonment. In April 1945, Raab was made a member of Karl Renners provisional government, however, he represented the austrofascist forces of the past that were unacceptable to the Soviets, and for a while was relegated to the back seat. He clearly favored a free market and minimal government regulation of the economy, on the other hand, Raab also held talks with former Austrian Nazi officials like Wilhelm Höttl and Taras Borodajkewycz on their support for ÖVP politics. Raab succeeded Leopold Figl as ÖVP party chairman in 1951 and as Federal Chancellor in 1953, despite clearly Western attitudes, Raab established excellent relations with post-Stalin Soviet Union. In February 1955 Vyacheslav Molotov proposed resuming the talks on Austrian independence, Austria declared neutrality, as did all individual Bundesländer. The success of 1955 marked the peak of ÖVP influence, accompanied by an economic revival. The party won 46% of the vote in the 1956 elections. Despite criticism within the party, Raab strongly favored a tight coalition with the Social Democratic Party under Adolf Schärf, in 1957 he and trade union chief Johann Bohm co-founded the Joint Commission on Wages and Prices, the social partnership institution that became a cornerstone of Austrian corporatism. In 1957 Raab suffered a light stroke, by the end of the 1950s, his own career and his partys influence declined
39.
Bruno Kreisky
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Bruno Kreisky was an Austrian politician who served as Foreign Minister from 1959 to 1966 and as Chancellor from 1970 to 1983. He is considered perhaps Austrias most successful Socialist leader, and a figure who parlayed a small countrys neutrality into a moral and political role on the world stage. Aged 72 at the end of his chancellorship, he was the oldest acting Chancellor after World War II, Kreisky was born in Margareten, a district of Vienna, to a non-observant Jewish family. His parents were Max Kreisky and Irene Felix Kreisky and his father worked as a textile manufacturer. Shocked by the level of poverty and violence in Austria during the 1920s, in 1927, he joined the Young Socialist Workers against the wishes of his parents. In 1929, he began studying law at the University of Vienna at the advice of Otto Bauer and he remained politically active during this period. In 1931, he left the Jewish religious community, becoming agnostic, in 1934, when the Socialist Party was banned by the Dollfuss dictatorship, he became active in underground political work. He was arrested in January 1935 and convicted of high treason, in 1942, he married Vera Fürth. He returned to Austria in May 1946, but he was back in Stockholm. In 1951 he returned to Vienna, where Federal President Theodor Körner appointed him Assistant Chief of Staff, in 1953 he was appointed Undersecretary in the Foreign Affairs Department of the Austrian Chancellery. In this position he took part in negotiating the 1955 Austrian State Treaty, Kreisky was elected to the Austrian parliament, the Nationalrat as a Socialist during the 1956 election. He was elected to the Party Executive along with Bruno Pittermann, Felix Slavik, and Franz Olah, after the 1959 election, he became Foreign Minister in the coalition cabinet of Chancellor Julius Raab, a post he continued to hold under Raabs successors Alfons Gorbach and Josef Klaus. He played a role in setting up the European Free Trade Association, helped solve the South Tyrol question with Italy. In 1966, the ÖVP under Klaus won a majority in the Nationalrat. However, talks between Klaus and Kreisky broke down, Kreisky resigned from cabinet, and the ÖVP formed the first one-party government of the Second Republic. However, the Socialists were not completely out of power. In February 1967, Kreisky was elected chairman of the Socialist Party, at the March 1970 elections, the Socialists won a plurality of seats, and Kreisky became Chancellor of the first purely left-wing government in modern Austrian history. He was the first Jewish Chancellor of Austria, Kreiskys government was tolerated by the national-liberal Freedom Party of Austria in return for electoral reforms that were intended to give smaller parties a greater voice
40.
Bibsys
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
41.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
42.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
listen); 15 August 1858 – 26 February 1940) was an Austrian politician who was the second State President of Austria from 1920 to 1929, after the fall of the monarchy at the end of World War I..jpg)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). "Hainisch, Michael". Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). ".svg){kind=small}