1.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
2.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
4.
Fantasy
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Fantasy is a fiction genre set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Most fantasy uses magic or other elements as a main plot element, theme. Magic and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds, in popular culture, the fantasy genre is predominantly of the medievalist form. In its broadest sense, however, fantasy works by many writers, artists, filmmakers. Fantasy is studied in a number of disciplines including English and other studies, cultural studies, comparative literature, history. The identifying trait of fantasy is the reliance on imagination to create narrative elements that do not have to rely on history or nature to be coherent. This differs from realistic fiction in that whereas realistic fiction has to attend to the history and natural laws of reality, an author applies his or her imagination to come up with characters, plots, and settings that are impossible in reality. Fantasy has often compared with science fiction and horror because they are the major categories of speculative fiction. Fantasy is distinguished from science fiction by the plausibility of the narrative elements, a science fiction narrative is unlikely, though seeming possible through logical scientific and/or technological extrapolation, whereas fantasy narratives do not need to be scientifically possible. The imagined elements of fantasy do not need an explanation to be narratively functional. Authors have to rely on the suspension of disbelief, an acceptance of the unbelievable or impossible for the sake of enjoyment. Despite both genres heavy reliance on the supernatural, fantasy and horror are distinguishable, horror primarily evokes fear through the protagonists weaknesses or inability to deal with the antagonists. Beginning perhaps with the earliest written documents, mythic and other elements that would come to define fantasy. MacDonald was an influence on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, lord Dunsany established the genres popularity in both the novel and the short story form. Many popular mainstream authors also began to write fantasy at this time, including H. Rider Haggard, Rudyard Kipling and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Indeed, juvenile fantasy was considered more acceptable than fantasy intended for adults, nathaniel Hawthorne wrote fantasy in A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys, intended for children, though works for adults only verged on fantasy. Political and social trends can affect a societys reception towards fantasy, in the early 20th century, the New Culture Movements enthusiasm for Westernization and science in China compelled them to condemn the fantastical shenmo genre of traditional Chinese literature
5.
New Worlds (magazine)
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New Worlds was a British science fiction magazine that began in 1936 as a fanzine called Novae Terrae. It adopted its current title in 1939, after John Carnell became editor, first published professionally in 1946, it became the leading publication of its type, the period to 1960 has been described by historian Mike Ashley as the magazines Golden Age. Carnell joined the British Army in 1940 following the outbreak of the Second World War and he negotiated a publishing agreement for the magazine with Pendulum Publications, but only three issues of New Worlds were subsequently produced before Pendulums bankruptcy in late 1947. A group of science fiction fans formed a company called Nova Publications to revive the magazine, New Worlds continued to appear on a regular basis until issue 20, published in early 1953, following which a change of printers led to a hiatus in publication. It was not until early 1954, when Maclaren & Sons acquired control of Nova Publications, New Worlds was acquired by Roberts & Vinter in 1964, when Michael Moorcock became editor. He featured a good deal of experimental and avant-garde material, reaction among the science fiction community was mixed, with partisans and opponents of the New Wave debating the merits of New Worlds in the columns of critical journals such as Speculation. Several of the contributors during this period, including Brian Aldiss, J. G. Ballard and Thomas M. Disch. By 1970 Moorcock was too deeply in debt to be able to continue with the magazine, the title has been revived multiple times, with Moorcocks direct involvement or approval, as of 2012,22 additional issues have appeared in various formats, including several anthologies. In 1926, Hugo Gernsback launched Amazing Stories, the first science fiction magazine and it was soon followed by other US titles also specializing in sf, such as Astounding Stories and Wonder Stories. These were distributed in the UK, and British fan organizations began to appear, in 1936, Maurice K. Hanson, a science fiction fan living in Nuneaton, founded a fanzine called Novae Terrae for the local branch of the Science Fiction League. Hanson subsequently moved to London and his became the official publication of the Science Fiction Association. Clarke, John Carnell and William F, temple became involved in Novae Terraes production. In 1939 Hanson gave up the editorship to Carnell, who retitled the fanzine New Worlds and restarted the numbering at volume 1 number 1, the first issue under Carnells control was dated March 1939. Carnell wanted to turn New Worlds into a magazine, and through W. J. Passingham. In January 1940 Carnell was asked to put together three issues, and Carnell and Passingham each put up £50 towards costs, alfred Greig, the director, returned to his native Canada without repaying Carnell and Passingham, and no issues were ever printed. Carnell joined the army in 1940, serving with the Royal Artillery, Combined Operations, after his return to civilian life in January 1946 he met writer Frank Edward Arnold, who had been working with Pendulum Publications on a new science fiction line. Arnold introduced Carnell to Stephen D. Frances, Pendulums director, the first issue appeared in July 1946, although there was no date on the magazine. The initial print run was 15,000, but only 3,000 copies were sold—a very disappointing return, Carnell felt that the cover artwork, which he considered to be weak, was partly responsible for the poor sales
6.
English people
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The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD, England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become England along with the later Danes, Normans, in the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England was succeeded by the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become closely aligned with British customs. The English people are the source of the English language, the Westminster system and these and other English cultural characteristics have spread worldwide, in part as a result of the former British Empire. The concept of an English nation is far older than that of the British nation, many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word English to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as English and it is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. Following complaints about this, the 2011 census was changed to allow respondents to record their English, Welsh, Scottish, another complication in defining the English is a common tendency for the words English and British to be used interchangeably, especially overseas. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say English, I mean British. He notes that this slip is made only by the English themselves and by foreigners. Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of Englands dominant position with the UK and it tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles. In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago and it meant indiscriminately England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so, bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as Prime Minister of England Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of England except for a geographic area brings protests and this version of history is now regarded by many historians as incorrect, on the basis of more recent genetic and archaeological research. The 2016 study authored by Stephan Schiffels et al, the remaining portion of English DNA is primarily French, introduced in a migration after the end of the Ice Age
7.
Bug Jack Barron
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Bug Jack Barron is a 1969 science fiction novel written by Norman Spinrad, and was nominated for the 1970 Hugo awards. The book was serialised in the British New Wave science fiction magazine New Worlds during Michael Moorcocks editorship and its explicit language and cynical attitude toward politicians, as well as the fact that the magazine was partially funded by the British Arts Council, angered British Members of Parliament. Jennie Lee, Baroness Lee of Asheridge, then head of the Arts Council, later, it was banned by W. H. Smith, a major British chain of bookstores. Feminist typesetters at New Worlds rejected the story as sexist, the future world portrayed in this book is chaotic and self-regulating, and Spinrad shows a future where greater freedom allows interaction via electronic democracy to bring about good results. Rufus accuses the Foundation of being a racist organization, unwilling to offer Freezer contracts to African Americans even if they have the $500,000 required payment. Jack Barron is appalled to hear this and makes several live calls using his studio Vidphone to hear all sides of Mr. Johnsons claim and he first calls Benedict Howards, but is told that he is unavailable. Jack is transferred to John Yarborough, Public Relations Director for the Foundation, Barron quickly dismisses Yarboroughs counter-claims, and then calls the Governor of Mississippi, Lukas Greene. The Governor feels the Foundation is not only racist, but destined to abuse rights of one kind or another if they succeed in getting their Freezer Utility Bill through Congress, should the bill pass, the Foundation would gain monopoly status. To stop this injustice, Greene supports a Public Freezer system, hoping not to anger the FCC, Barron calls Senator Theodore Hennering, a supporter of Benedict Howards and his Freezer Utility bill. The following day, Howards visits Jack in his office and they exchange casual threats to destroy each other, after which Howards requests Jacks support for his Freezer Utility bill in Congress. Jack is insulted by this and refuses, but Howards continues by offering Jack a free Freezer Contract, though tempted, Jack refuses the bribe. Howards gives Jack more time to think about it, and leaves Jack to consider the offer, from that meeting, Howards deduces that Jack and Sara are still in love. He believes he can exploit that relationship to his benefit, shortly afterwards, Howards calls Sara to his office, where he offers her a free Freezer contract if she can get Jack to agree to the bribe. As part of the Social Justice Coalition, she despises Benedict Howards and her plan is to tell Jack that Howards coerced her into service. That fact would infuriate Jack enough to destroy Howards, and allow them to rekindle their relationship, back together, Sara dreams about being frozen together with Jack, and being revived together after an immortality treatment has been discovered. Upon waking up the morning, Jack Barron receives a call from the Governor of California. To Jacks utter surprise, Morris suggests that Jack consider running as the next President of the United States, by having Jack as a candidate, Morris hopes to unify the SJC and the Republican party on a single political platform. He feels this is the way to win against the Democratic party, even though he personally finds Jack
8.
Norman Spinrad
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Norman Richard Spinrad is an American science fiction author, essayist, and critic. His fiction has won the Prix Apollo and been nominated for awards, including the Hugo Award. Born in New York City, Spinrad is a graduate of the Bronx High School of Science, in 1957 he entered City College of New York and graduated in 1961 with a Bachelor of Science degree as a pre-law major. He has lived in San Francisco, Los Angeles, London, Paris and he married fellow novelist N. Lee Wood in 1990, they divorced in 2005. Spinrad served as President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America from 1980 to 1982 and he has also worked as a radio phone show host, a vocal artist, a literary agent, and President of World SF. In an interview with Locus magazine in 1999, Spinrad described himself as an anarchist, some critics have noted utopian themes in Spinrads works. In a 1999 interview, he talked about his hopes for the role of science fiction in society, not that have bigger shopping malls or faster space ships, but where the characters are morally superior, where the society works better, is more just. It becomes difficult to do it, and thats a feedback relationship with whats happening in the culture, not just better gizmos and more virtual reality gear, but better societies. People dont believe the future will be a better place, according to critic Galen Strickland, Spinrad has never taken the easy course of artistic repetition, nor tailored his thoughts to the dictates of any editor. Each of his books are unique, and explore avenues of thought, sex and power are usually his primary themes. Consciousness altering drugs often feature prominently in his stories and its hard to be critically or biographically courageous when so much creative work was done under the influences of jailable offenses. Spinrad has often had problems finding publishers for his novels and he had difficulty finding a publisher willing to print Bug Jack Barron as a book. Publisher Michael Moorcock printed the novel in installments in the magazine New Worlds, the newsstand company WHSmith refused to distribute one of the issues because of the installment of Spinrads novel. The British Arts Council, which subsidized New Worlds, put pressure on WHSmith. This led to denunciations of Spinrad, The Arts Council, Spinrad could not find an American publisher for his 2007 novel Osama the Gun. Ne rejection letter, foaming at the mouth, declared that no American publisher would touch it and he decided to self-publish the novel as an e-book. The book, which several passages in Paris, has been published in French, by a very much mainstream edition. With its explicit language and cynical attitude to politicians, it roused one British Member of Parliaments ire at the magazines partial funding by the British Arts Council, a memorable quote from this novel is, The saddest day of your life isnt when you decide to sell out
9.
Hawkwind
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Hawkwind are an English rock band and one of the earliest space rock groups. Their lyrics favour urban and science fiction themes, formed in November 1969, Hawkwind have gone through many incarnations and they have incorporated different styles into their music, including hard rock, progressive rock and psychedelic rock. They are also regarded as an influential proto-punk band, dozens of musicians, dancers and writers have worked with the band since their inception. They are best known for the song Silver Machine, which became a number three UK hit single in 1972, but they scored further hit singles with Urban Guerrilla, twenty-two of their albums charted in the UK from 1971 to 1993. BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel was in the audience and was impressed enough to tell event organiser, Douglas Smith, Smith signed them up and got them a deal with Liberty Records on the back of a deal he was setting up for Cochise. Pretty Things guitarist Dick Taylor was brought in to produce the 1970 debut album Hawkwind, although it was not a commercial success, it did bring them to the attention of the UK underground scene finding them playing free concerts, benefit gigs, and festivals. Their use of drugs, however, led to the departure of Harrison, Crimble played on a few BBC sessions before leaving to help organise the Glastonbury Free Festival 1971, he sat in during the bands performance there. Lloyd-Langton also quit, after a bad LSD trip at the Isle of Wight Festival led to a nervous breakdown and their followup album, 1971s In Search of Space, brought greater commercial success, reaching number 18 on the UK album charts. Science fiction author Michael Moorcock and dancer Stacia also started contributing to the band, dik Mik had left the band, replaced by sound engineer Del Dettmar, but chose to return for this album giving the band two electronics players. Anderson and Lloyd-Langton then formed the short-lived band Amon Din, meanwhile, Ollis quit, unhappy with the commercial direction the band were heading in. The addition of bassist Ian Lemmy Kilmister and drummer Simon King propelled the band to greater heights, one of the early gigs this band played was a benefit for the Greasy Truckers at The Roundhouse on 13 February 1972. A live album of the concert Greasy Truckers Party was released, and after re-recording the vocal and this generated sufficient funds for the subsequent album Doremi Fasol Latido Space Ritual tour. The show featured dancers Stacia and Miss Renee, mime artist Tony Carrera, dik Mik departed during 1973 and Calvert ended his association with the band to concentrate on solo projects. Dettmar left after a European tour and emigrated to Canada, whilst Alan Powell deputised for an incapacitated King on that European tour, but remained giving the band two drummers. At the beginning of 1975, the band recorded the album Warrior on the Edge of Time in collaboration with Michael Moorcock, however, during a North America tour in May, Lemmy was caught in possession of amphetamine crossing the border from the USA into Canada. The border police mistook the powder for cocaine and he was jailed, fed up with his erratic behaviour, the band fired the bass player replacing him with their long-standing friend and former Pink Fairies guitarist Paul Rudolph. Lemmy then teamed up with another Pink Fairies guitarist, Larry Wallis, to form Motörhead, Robert Calvert made a guest appearance with the band for their headline set at the Reading Festival in August 1975, after which he chose to rejoin the band as a full-time lead vocalist. Stacia, on the hand, chose to relinquish her dancing duties
10.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
11.
British literature
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British literature is literature in the English language from the United Kingdom, Isle of Man, and Channel Islands. There is also some discussion of major figures who wrote in Scots. The article Literature in the languages of Britain focusses on the literatures written in the other languages that are. There are also articles on these various literatures, Latin literature in Britain, Anglo-Norman, Cornish, Guernésiais, Jèrriais, Latin, Manx, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, for some this includes works by authors from Northern Ireland. The nature of British identity has changed over time, the island that contains, England, Scotland, and Wales, has been known as Britain from the time of the Roman Pliny the Elder. Though the original inhabitants spoke mainly various Celtic languages, English as the language had its beginnings with the Anglo-Saxon invasion of c.450 A. D. The various constituent parts of the present United Kingdom joined at different times, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1542. However, it was not until 1707 with a treaty between England and Scotland, that the Kingdom of Great Britain came into existence and this merged in January 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Works written in the English language by Welsh writers, especially if their subject matter relates to Wales, has been recognised as a distinctive entity since the twentieth-century, the need for a separate identity for this kind of writing arose because of the parallel development of modern Welsh-language literature. Various Celtic languages were spoken by many of British people at time and among the most important written works that have survived are Y Gododdin i. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, Vikings and Norse settlers and their descendents colonised parts of what is now modern Scotland. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066, that is, c. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, oral tradition was very strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were very popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf, is the most famous work in Old English and has achieved national status in England. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, Cædmons only known surviving work is Cædmons Hymn, which probably dates from the late 7th century. Chronicles contained a range of historical and literary accounts, and an example is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is the name given to a work, of uncertain date, celebrating the real Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion
12.
Notting Hill Gate
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Notting Hill Gate is one of the main thoroughfares of Notting Hill, in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Historically the street was a location for toll gates, from which it derives its modern name, at Ossington Street/Kensington Palace Gardens, the Bayswater Road becomes Notting Hill Gate, continuing westward until it becomes Holland Park Avenue, just before it reaches Ladbroke Grove. In fact, however, the street named Notting Hill Gate is well to the south of the hill gives its name to the area known as Notting Hill. It is the location of the legendary Record and Tape Exchange shops presided over by multi-millionaire eccentric Brian Abrams, much of the street was redeveloped in the 1950s with two large tower blocks being erected on the north and south sides of the street. The new tube station also acts as a subway under the widened Notting Hill Gate, the subway leading to the ticket office, a toilet. Not all of Notting Hill Gates original features were lost when it was redeveloped however, previously a theatre, it was converted into a cinema in 1923, and was saved from demolition by local activists in 1972 and 1989. In 2004, its future was secured by the Kensington Temple who acquired the site with the intention of continuing to provide independent cinema. The Coronet is one of two cinemas on Notting Hill Gate, the other being the Gate which opened in 1911 and still retains its Edwardian plasterwork. Notting Hill Gate is the site of Notting Hill Gate tube station which is on the Central, District and Circle lines. It is also on the route of the 27,28,31,52,70,94,148,328,390,452, N28, N31, N52, there are several bus stops along both sides of Notting Hill Gate. Although there are no taxi ranks on Notting Hill Gate itself it is easy to hail a black cab anywhere on the street, to the south of Notting Hill Gate lies Kensington Church Street, with its restaurants and antique shops, Hillgate Village and Campden Hill Road. North from the station lies Pembridge Road, which leads to Westbourne Grove. This area is packed with tourists heading to the nearby Portobello Road market. However, the London Evening Standard reported on 17 May 2010 that Land Securities and Delancey have put their Notting Hill Gate estate up for sale, the 4. 4-acre freehold estate includes about two-thirds of Notting Hill Gate and part of Kensington Church Street. The Gate Bar, which is located in the basement of the Gate Cinema, was used as a location in the television comedy Absolutely Fabulous. The loft at 18 Powis Terrace was used as the cast residence for the American reality TV show, The Real World, London, the ground floor of the building is leased to ScreenFace, a professional make-up supply company. Van Morrison mentions Notting Hill Gate in his songs Friday’s Child, history of the Coronet Theatre in Notting Hill Gate with many original archive images
13.
Ladbroke Grove
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Ladbroke Grove is a North-west London road in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, running north/south between Holland Park Avenue and Harrow Road. It is also the given to the immediate surrounding area of Notting Hill and North Kensington, straddling the W10. Ladbroke Grove tube station is located on the road, at the point where it is crossed by the Westway, the adjacent bridge and nearby section of the Westway was regenerated in 2007 in a partnership including Urban Eye, Transport for London and London Underground. It is also the nearest tube station to Portobello Road Market and it is the main road on the route of the annual Notting Hill Carnival in August. The northern tip of the road is located in Kensal Green, the street is named after James Weller Ladbroke, who developed the Ladbroke Estate in the mid-19th century, until then a largely rural area on the western edges of London. The Anglican church of St Michael and All Angels in the road was designed by James Edmeston, hablot Knight Browne, the cartoonist who illustrated Charles Dickens novels as Phiz, lived at No.99 in 1872-80. The Serbian Orthodox Church of St Sava is on Lancaster Road, the church building was originally built in 1903 as the Anglican church of St Columba, in 1952 it was re-consecrated as Saint Savas, to serve a growing community of post-war refugees. It was the venue for the baptism of Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia, son of Peter II, in 1945, Princess Maria Tatiana, daughter of Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia, was baptised there in 1957. In 2013, it was the venue for the service of Princess Margarita of Baden. The psychedelic rock band Hawkwind were formed here in 1969, the Deviants and Pink Fairies were musical groups out of the Ladbroke Grove UK underground movement, from which a number of bands would emerge, influenced by anarchistic singer/writer Mick Farren. Punk group The Clash also formed locally in 1976, the Roughler magazine emerged in the 1980s and 1990s to chronicle the antics of the more Bohemian residents, including the legendary Portobello Pantos. Ladbroke Grove features as the scene of Van Morrisons 1968 song Slim Slow Slider from Astral Weeks, the Pulp song I Spy, from the album Different Class, features the line your Ladbroke Grove looks turn me on. The Blur song Fools Day also features Ladbroke Grove in its lyrics, the Slits song Ping Pong Affair also features Ladbroke Grove in its lyrics. LDN by Lily Allen mentions Ladbroke Grove in a chorus of London placenames. Killing Joke have recently released an EP that features two mixes of a song called Ghost Of Ladbroke Grove, the novels of author Michael Moorcock often contain references to Ladbroke Grove, the location being the headquarters of his fictional characters Jerry Cornelius and Colonel Pyat. Popular grime artist AJ Tracey features Ladbroke Grove in many of his songs including, AJ grew to fame with his EP The Front,2015, where he constantly links his music to where he grew up from. Siting it at Kensal Rise, rather than next to Paddington itself, tfL is conducting a feasibility study on the station and the project is backed by National Grid, retailers Sainsburys and Cath Kidston, and Jenny Jones. The plans were resurrected by Boris Johnson in 2016, Ladbroke Grove is served by London Buses routes 7,23,52,70,228,295,316,452 and N7
14.
The Gods of Mars
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The Gods of Mars is a science fantasy novel by American writer Edgar Rice Burroughs, the second of his Barsoom series. It was first published in All-Story as a serial in the issues for January–May 1913. It was later published as a novel by A. C. As in many of his novels, Burroughs begins with a story that explains how he came into possession of the text. At the end of the first book, A Princess of Mars, unfortunately, Carter materializes in the one place on Barsoom from which nobody is allowed to depart, the Valley Dor, which is the Barsoomian afterlife. After John Carters arrival, a boat of Green Martians on the River Iss are ambushed by the previously unknown Plant Men, the lone survivor is his friend Tars Tarkas, the Jeddak of Thark, who has taken the pilgrimage to the Valley Dor to find Carter. Most arrivals are killed by the beasts of Valley, and the survivors enslaved or eaten by Therns. Carter and Tars Tarkas rescue Thuvia, a girl, and attempt to escape. During the attack, Tars Tarkas and Thuvia hijack a Black Pirate flier, while Carter fights his way aboard another, killing all but one of the Pirates, and rescuing a captive Thern princess. Issus takes Phaidor as a handmaiden for one Martian year, whereas Carter is imprisoned, thereafter Carter treats him with honor, and thus gains his friendship. Upon hearing of the revolt, Xodar rejects Issus’ divinity and joins the others in escape, upon later abandoning their aircraft, they encounter Thuvia, who describes the capture of Tars Tarkas by the green warriors of Warhoon. Carter goes to rescue Tars Tarkas, but is discovered by his enemies, after a chase, Thuvia is sent on alone, mounted, while the men attempt a stand against the Warhoons. They are rescued by the Heliumetic navy but do not find Thuvia, Tardos Mors, the Jeddak of Helium, and Mors Kajak, the Jed of Hastor are absent from Helium, having led fleets in search of Carthoris. Later, Carter discovers that Dejah Thoris may have taken the pilgrimage to the Valley Dor to find him. Upon returning to Helium, Carter is tried for heresy by the Zodangans, but the people of Helium do not tolerate this, thereafter he goes to rescue Dejah Thoris but is kidnapped by the Zodangans. Carter refuses Zat Arras’ offer of freedom in exchange for endorsing Zat Arras as Jeddak of Helium, after half a year, Carter escapes, and embarks to Omean, with secretly raised troop levies, ships, and soldiers lent by Tars Tarkas. Thereafter the Heliumites and Tharks defeat the First Born, and Issus herself is killed, Carter and his men scramble to find the keys to their cell in time, but are unsuccessful. Immediately before their room closes, Phaidor attempts to kill Dejah Thoris, the story is thence continued in the third book of Burroughs’ Martian series, The Warlord of Mars
15.
Edgar Rice Burroughs
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Edgar Rice Burroughs was an American writer best known for his creations of the jungle hero Tarzan and the heroic Mars adventurer John Carter, although he produced works in many genres. Burroughs was born on September 1,1875, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Major George Tyler Burroughs, a businessman and Civil War veteran. His middle name is from his grandmother, Mary Rice Burroughs. Burroughs was of almost entirely English ancestry, with a line that had been in North America since the early colonial era. Through his grandmother Mary Rice, he was descended from Edmund Rice and he once remarked, I can trace my ancestry back to Deacon Edmund Rice. The Burroughs side of the family was also of English origin, many of his ancestors fought in the American Revolution. He had other ancestors who settled in Virginia during the colonial period, Burroughs was educated at a number of local schools, and during the Chicago influenza epidemic in 1891, he spent half a year at his brothers ranch on the Raft River in Idaho. He then attended Phillips Academy, in Andover, Massachusetts, graduating in 1895, and failing the entrance exam for the United States Military Academy at West Point, he became an enlisted soldier with the 7th U. S. Cavalry in Fort Grant, Arizona Territory. After being diagnosed with a problem and thus ineligible to serve. After his discharge, Burroughs worked a number of different jobs and he drifted and worked on a ranch in Idaho. He found work at his fathers firm in 1899 and he married his childhood sweetheart, Emma Hulbert, in January 1900. In 1904, he left his job and worked regularly, first in Idaho. By 1911, after seven years of low wages, he was working as a pencil-sharpener wholesaler, by this time, he and Emma had two children, Joan, who later married the Tarzan film actor James Pierce, and Hulbert. During this period, he had spare time and began reading pulp fiction magazines. In 1929 he recalled thinking that. if people were paid for writing rot such as I read in some of those magazines, in 1913, Burroughs and Emma had their third and last child, John Coleman Burroughs, later known for his illustrations of his fathers books. In the 1920s Burroughs became a pilot, purchased a Security Airster S-1, Burroughs divorced Emma in 1934, and in 1935 he married the former actress Florence Gilbert Dearholt, the former wife of his friend Ashton Dearholt. Burroughs adopted the Dearholts two children and he and Florence divorced in 1942. Burroughs was in his late 60s and was in Honolulu at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
16.
The Apple Cart
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The Apple Cart, A Political Extravaganza is a 1928 play by George Bernard Shaw. It is satirical comedy about several political philosophies which are expounded by the characters, Magnus opposes the corporation Breakages, Limited, which controls politicians and impedes technical progress. Shaws preface describes the play as, the Kings reply is that rather than be a cipher he will abandon his throne and take his obviously very rosy chance of becoming a popularly elected Prime Minister himself. The play was completed in December 1928 and first performed at Warsaw the following June and its English première was at the first Malvern Drama Festival in August 1929. Shaw based King Magnus largely on himself and he modeled enigmatic and pivotal character Orinthia, the Kings mistress, on Mrs Patrick Campbell, the actor who had created the role of Eliza Doolittle in Shaws Pygmalion. The Powermistress-General is said by the biographers of Beatrice Webb to be modeled on Susan Lawrence, the play had premiere November 11th,2012,7 p. m. The Apple Cart was presented as part of the BBC Televisions Play of the Month series in 1975, nigel Davenport starred as King Magnus and Helen Mirren as Orinthia. It is included in the Helen Mirren at the BBC DVD box set, the Apple Cart at the Internet Broadway Database gutenberg. net. au Full text of the play, including a preface and articles relating to the play
17.
George Bernard Shaw
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He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman, Pygmalion and Saint Joan. With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, born in Dublin, Shaw moved to London in 1873, where he established himself as a writer and novelist. By the mid-1880s he was a theatre and music critic. Following a political awakening, he joined the gradualist Fabian Society, Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success, 1894s Arms and the Man. Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, he sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas. By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctors Dilemma and Caesar, Shaws expressed views were often contentious, he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform while opposing vaccination and organised religion. He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable and he castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period, and became a citizen of the Irish Free State in 1934, maintaining dual citizenship. He was prolific, finishing during the years a series of often ambitious plays which achieved varying degrees of popular success. Since Shaws death, opinion has varied about his works and he has at times been rated as second only to William Shakespeare among English-language dramatists, analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of playwrights. The word Shavian has entered the language as encapsulating Shaws ideas, Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello, a lower-middle-class part of Dublin. He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw and his elder siblings were Lucinda Frances and Elinor Agnes. The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, George Carr Shaw and his relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service, from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s, thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant. In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly, in the view of Shaws biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great-aunt, if, as Holroyd and others surmise, Georges motives were mercenary, then he was disappointed, as Bessie brought him little of her familys money. She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband, with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of shabby-genteel poverty. By the time of Shaws birth, his mother had become close to George John Lee, Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father, there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this. The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother, but he recalled that her indifference. He found solace in the music that abounded in the house, Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing, Bessie had a fine mezzo-soprano voice and was much influenced by Lees unorthodox method of vocal production. The Shaws house was filled with music, with frequent gatherings of singers and players
18.
Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America
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When it developed a serious purpose that was to promote the popularity and respectability of Sword and Sorcery fiction. Originally it was more than an in-group, with members gathering for drinks at science fiction conventions and bestowing pompous. Membership was soon extended to other authors sharing their taste for fantasy, such as Michael Moorcock, the group remained fairly informal, with few expectations of its members, Moorcock has noted he wasnt really an active member. Several sword and sorcery anthologies edited by L. Sprague de Camp for Pyramid Books and Putnam from 1963 to 1970 featured stories by SAGA members along with other, most noteworthy may be The Spell of Seven, in which four of the seven pieces were by members. Another early anthology including works by members of the group was Swords Against Tomorrow and it comprised one novella and three novelettes by SAGA members and a novelette by Leigh Brackett. SAGA later showcased the work of its members in the Flashing Swords, anthology series edited by Carter and published by Dell Books from 1973 to 1981. Carter and SAGA created and sponsored the Gandalf Awards administered by the annual World Science Fiction Convention according to the Hugo Award procedures, from 1974 to 1981 the Gandalf Grand Master Award was annually presented to one person for life achievement in high fantasy writing. The Gandalf Award for Book-Length Fantasy was conferred in 1978 and 1979 upon one published during the previous calendar year. It was dropped by Worldcon because it duplicated the Hugo Award for Best Novel. With the collapse of Carter’s health in the 1980s the anthology series, the Gandalf award, membership was extended by invitation to selected living heroic fantasy authors. Most early members were celebrated more for their science fiction writings than for fantasy, Sprague de Camp – the Pusadian series and the revival and promotion of Robert E. J. L. Sprague de Camp Swords Against Tomorrow, ed. Robert Hoskins Flashing Swords. #3, Warriors and Wizards Flashing Swords, #4, Barbarians and Black Magicians Flashing Swords. #5, Demons and Daggers Gandalf Award
19.
Heroic fantasy
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Heroic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy which chronicles the tales of heroes in fantasy settings. Frequently, the protagonist is reluctant to be a champion, and/or is of low or humble origin, though events are usually beyond their control, they are thrust into positions of great responsibility where their mettle is tested in a number of spiritual and physical challenges. Although it shares many of the themes of Sword and Sorcery. Other writers of note added to the still unnamed genre, William Morris, ER Eddison, Evangeline Walton, Heroic fantasy as a genre began to codify and accrue genre conventions following the upsurge of popularity of J. R. R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings, which led to an increase in popularity of fiction in general. The scholarship of writers and editors Lin Carter & L. Sprague De Camp also exerted vast influence on the Robert E. Howard unfinished Conan Stories, Carter restored writers such as Eddison and Walton from obscurity. From the 1970s onwards, a number of authors began publishing longer, sometimes formulaic, fantasy works, despite being a science fiction masterpiece, the Star Wars films exert a considerable metaphor of heroic fantasy. At the same time, sword and sorcery underwent a short resurgence, michael Moorcock, a sharp critic of Tolkien and his school, which he considered inherently politically conservative, took pains to distance himself from it. Many new authors now shed, at least partly, the concepts of heroes and even of good. They tend, like George RR Martin, Robert Jordan, Andrzej Sapkowski, or Robin Hobb, to use several viewpoints, of heroes or villains, jacqueline Carey has, in her The Sundering duology, portrayed an evil god and his army as the protagonists. She shows them not as evil, but as the victims of betrayal. On the other hand, the side are shown as arrogant, narrow-minded. In other words, there is not much difference between the two sides, even the evil god has been forced into the role, not by fate, but because of his brothers pride. Another one of Careys protagonists, Phèdre, is a virtuous, Martin has offered a revisionist presentation of the usual heroes, such as the chivalric knight, by showing some as murderers, bullies, and rapists. Some kings and regents are uncaring manipulators, while a few struggle to be decent while fulfilling a greater duty, powerless commoners, who struggle to survive during a civil war that does not concern them, are often as brutal as their overlords, but are sometimes heroic. A popular example of self-parodying heroic fantasy is provided by the British writer Terry Pratchett, in recent years, heroic fantasy has matured somewhat out of its staid image as sub-par fat fantasy, becoming a genre of its own, the best examples of which have received much praise. Salvatore Brandon Sanderson David C. Smith Richard L. Tierney Janet Morris Chris Morris Heroic fantasy is the name I have given to a subgenre of fiction, otherwise called the sword-and-sorcery story. It is a story of action and adventure laid in a more or less imaginary world, where magic works and where modern science and technology have not yet been discovered
20.
Lin Carter
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Linwood Vrooman Carter was an American author of science fiction and fantasy, as well as an editor, poet and critic. He usually wrote as Lin Carter, known pseudonyms include H. P. Lowcraft and he is best known for editing the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series in the 1970s, which introduced readers to many overlooked classics of the fantasy genre. Carter was born in St. Petersburg, Florida and he was an avid reader of science fiction and fantasy in his youth and became broadly knowledgeable in the field. He was also active in fandom. Carter served in the United States Army, after which he attended Columbia University and he was a copywriter for some years before writing full-time. He married twice, first to Judith Ellen Hershkovitz and later to Noel Vreeland and he was an advertising and publishers copywriter. From 1969 he was a writer and editorial consultant. During much of his career he lived in Hollis, New York. He was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, Carter himself was the model for the Mario Gonzalo character. He was also a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers Guild of America, in the 1970s Carter issued his own fantasy fanzine, titled Kadath, after H. P. Lovecrafts fictional setting. Only one issue appeared, it was well-printed but in low numbers. The magazine contained Carters Cthulhu Mythos story The City of Pillars, in 1985, his quality of life was severely reduced when he developed oral cancer and had to endure extensive surgery to have it removed. Only his status as a Korean War veteran enabled him to receive treatment, despite these successes, Carter had increased his alcohol intake, becoming a borderline alcoholic and further weakening his body, already ravaged by his cancer and therapy. The disease subsequently resurfaced, spreading to his throat and leading to his death in 1988 and he resided in East Orange, New Jersey in his final years, and died in nearby Montclair, New Jersey. The editor of Crypt of Cthulhu, Robert M. Price, had published a Lin Carter special issue - Vol 5, No 2. Price, who was appointed Carters literary executor, was preparing a second all-Carter issue when Carter died, it was turned into a memorial issue - Vol 7, two further issues of the magazine were devoted to Carter alone, totaling four special Carter issues. A longtime science-fiction and fantasy fan, Carter first appeared in print with entertaining letters to Startling Stories and other pulp magazines in the late 1940s—one in 1943. Another early collaborative story, The Slitherer from the Slime, by Carter as H. P. Lowcraft and Dave Foley, is a sort of parody of H. P. Lovecraft
21.
Colin Greenland
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Colin Greenland is a British science fiction writer, whose first story won the second prize in a 1982 Faber & Faber competition. Colin Greenlands first published book was a look at the New Wave, based on his Ph. D thesis, The Entropy Exhibition, Michael Moorcock. His most successful work is the Plenty series that starts with Take Back Plenty and continues with Seasons of Plenty, The Plenty Principle. Besides his work on fiction, Greenland has continued to write books and has been active in the Science Fiction Foundation. He has been a guest speaker at four separate Microcons,1988,1989,1993 and 1994 and his partner is the novelist Susanna Clarke, with whom he has lived since 1996. He is good friends with Neil Gaiman, and is cited among Gaimans acknowledgments pages. Daybreak seriesDaybreak on a Different Mountain, ISBN 0-04-823346-3 The Hour of the Thin Ox. ISBN 0-04-440165-5 Plenty series Take Back Plenty, ISBN 0-00-649906-6 The Entropy Exhibition, Michael Moorcock and the British New Wave in Science Fiction. ISBN 0-7100-9310-1 Storm Warnings, Science Fiction Confronts the Future, with Eric S. Rabkin, carbondale, IL, Southern Illinois University Press,1987. ISBN 0-8093-1376-6 Michael Moorcock, Death is No Obstacle, ISBN 0-86130-087-4 Interzone, The First Anthology, with John Clute and David Pringle
22.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
23.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
24.
Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
25.
Pragmatism
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Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870. Charles Sanders Peirce, generally considered to be its founder, later described it in his pragmatic maxim, then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object. Pragmatism rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, instead, pragmatists consider thought an instrument or tool for prediction, problem solving and action. The philosophy of pragmatism “emphasizes the practical application of ideas by acting on them to actually test them in human experiences”, Pragmatism focuses on a “changing universe rather than an unchanging one as the Idealists, Realists and Thomists had claimed”. Pragmatism as a movement began in the United States in the 1870s. Charles Sanders Peirce is given credit for its development, along with later twentieth century contributors, William James and its direction was determined by The Metaphysical Club members Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and Chauncey Wright, as well as John Dewey and George Herbert Mead. The first use in print of the name pragmatism was in 1898 by James, James regarded Peirces 1877–8 Illustrations of the Logic of Science series as the foundation of pragmatism. Peirce wrote that from this definition, pragmatism is scarce more than a corollary, then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object, which he later called the pragmatic maxim. It equates any conception of an object to the extent of the conceivable implications for informed practice of that objects effects. Peirce lectured and further wrote on pragmatism to make clear his own interpretation, yet in a 1906 manuscript he cited as causes his differences with James and Schiller. And, in a 1908 publication, his differences with James as well as literary author Giovanni Papini. Peirce in any case regarded his views that truth is immutable and infinity is real, as being opposed by the other pragmatists, Pragmatism enjoyed renewed attention after Willard Van Orman Quine and Wilfrid Sellars used a revised pragmatism to criticize logical positivism in the 1960s. Contemporary pragmatism may be divided into a strict analytic tradition and a neo-classical pragmatism that adheres to the work of Peirce, James. W. F. Hegel who introduced temporality into philosophy J. S. Metaphysics, not to be confused with pragmatics, a sub-field of linguistics with no relation to philosophical pragmatism. Additionally, forms of empiricism, fallibilism, verificationism, and a Quinean naturalist metaphilosophy are all elements of pragmatist philosophies. This causes metaphysical and conceptual confusion, from the outset, pragmatists wanted to reform philosophy and bring it more in line with the scientific method as they understood it. They argued that idealist and realist philosophy had a tendency to present human knowledge as something beyond what science could grasp and they held that these philosophies then resorted either to a phenomenology inspired by Kant or to correspondence theories of knowledge and truth. Pragmatists criticized the former for its a priorism, and the latter because it takes correspondence as an unanalyzable fact, Pragmatism instead tries to explain the relation between knower and known
26.
No gods, no masters
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No gods, no masters is an anarchist and labor slogan. Its English origin comes from a pamphlet handed out by the Industrial Workers of the World during the 1912 Lawrence Textile Strike, the phrase is derived from the French slogan Ni dieu ni maître. Coined by the socialist Louis Auguste Blanqui in 1880, when he published a journal by that name, in Joseph Conrads novel The Secret Agent, first published in 1907, the anarchist character The Professor says, My device is, No God. The French phrase appears twice in Friedrich Nietzsches 1886 work Beyond Good and it appears first in Section 22, in a critique of the notion that nature dictates a morality of equality before the law. It appears again in section 202 where he identifies it with the anarchists and as indicative of their herd mentality, which he is criticizing. It is also the inspiration behind English poet A. E Housemans The laws of God, the laws of man, the poem effectively dramatises the psychological urge behind the saying, but also ends with a reflection on the impracticality criticism often levelled at anarchist philosophy. In 1914, Margaret Sanger launched The Woman Rebel, a monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan No Gods. Sanger insisted that every woman was the mistress of her own body, women without superstition, No gods – No Masters. By Annie Laurie Gaylor is a collection of writings by women freethinkers during the 19th and 20th century, today the slogan continues to find use in anarchist politics. An anthology of anarchist writing was collected under the title No Gods, No Masters, the slogan has also found use in musical cultures, largely associated with the punk movement. But it was used in the first place in the French chanson field, by the anarchist poet, the slogan was rephrased as No Gods, No Managers, as an album title by American crust punk band Choking Victim. An injury to one is an injury to all No God, No Master, a 2014 film based on the First Red Scare
27.
Activism
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Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
28.
WHSmith
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Its headquarters are in Swindon, Wiltshire. Smiths is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index and it was the first chain store company in the world, and was responsible for the creation of the ISBN book catalogue system. In 1792, Henry Walton Smith and his wife Anna established the business as a vendor in Little Grosvenor Street. The firm took advantage of the boom by opening news-stands on railway stations. In 1850, the firm opened depots in Birmingham, Manchester and it also ran a circulating library service for a century, from 1860 to 1961. The younger W. H. Smith also used the success of the firm as a springboard into politics, becoming an MP in 1868 and serving as a minister in several Conservative governments. After the death of W. H. Smith the younger, his widow was created Viscountess Hambleden in her own right, their son inherited the business from his father and the Viscountcy from his mother. After the death of the second Viscount in 1928, the business was reconstituted as a company, in which his son. On the death of the third Viscount in 1948, the duties were so severe that a public holding company had to be formed and shares sold to W. H. Smith staff. A younger brother of the third Viscount remained chairman until 1972, but the Smith familys control slipped away, in 1966, W. H. Smith originated a 9-digit code for uniquely referencing books, called Standard Book Numbering or SBN. It was adopted as international standard ISO2108 in 1970, and was used until 1974, from the 1970s, W. H. Smith began to expand into other retail sectors. W. H. Smith Travel operated from 1973 to 1991, the Do It All chain of DIY stores originated with an acquisition in 1979, becoming a joint venture with Boots in 1990. Boots acquired Smiths share in June 1996, the bookshop chain Waterstones, founded by former W. H. Smith executive Tim Waterstone in 1982, was bought in 1989 and sold in 1998. In 1986, W. H. Smith bought a 75% controlling share of the Our Price music chain, in the 1990s it also bought other music retailers including the Virgin Groups smaller shops. The 75% share of Virgin Our Price was sold to Virgin Retail Group Ltd in July 1998 for £145m, WHSmith also owned the American record chain The Wall, which was sold to Camelot Music in 1998. In March 1998, the company acquired John Menzies retail outlets for £68m and this purchase also cleared the way for W. H. Smiths retail expansion into Scotland. Prior to the takeover, Menzies larger Scottish stores dominated the market, for several years, the companys retail side had difficulties competing with specialist book and music chains on one side and large supermarkets on the other. This led to financial performance, and a takeover bid in 2004 by Permira
29.
Gor
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Gor /ˈɡɔːr/ is the Counter-Earth setting for John Normans extended series of sword and planet novels. The series is inspired particularly by the Barsoom series and Almuric, but is known for its content combining philosophy, erotica. The customs, terminology and imagery depicted in these books inspired a Gorean subculture, with lifestyle adherents online, the books in the series are known as The Scrolls among some members of the Gorean subculture. In an interview with the speculative fiction anthology Polygraff, John Norman spoke at length about the creation of the Gor universe, the Counter-Earth, or Antichthon, is from Greek cosmology. Speculation on such a world, you see, is ancient, I think, pretty clearly, the three major influences on my work are Homer, Freud, and Nietzsche. Interestingly, however obvious this influence might be, few, if any, critics, commentators, in the same interview, he said one of the pleasures of writing science fiction is the development of, and characterization of, alien life forms. The flora, fauna, and customs of Gor are intricately detailed, the planet Gor has lower gravity than the Earth, and would have an even lower gravity if not for the technology of the Priest-Kings. There are also islands in the ocean, and some relatively sparsely settled plains to the east of the Voltai. The word Gor itself means home stone in the Gorean language, Ar, the largest city in known Gor, has resemblances to the ancient city of Rome, and its land empire is opposed by the sea-power of the island of Cos. The series is an overlapping of planetary romance and sword and planet, most of the books are narrated by transplanted British professor Tarl Cabot, master swordsman, as he engages in adventures involving Priest-Kings, Kurii, and humans. Books 7,11,19,22,26,27,31, Books 14,15, and 16 are narrated by male abductee Jason Marshall. Book 28 is narrated by an unknown Kur, but features Tarl Cabot, book 30 and parts of 32 are narrated by three Gorean men, a mariner, a scribe and a merchant/slaver. The series features several sentient alien races, the most important to the books are the insectoid Priest-Kings and the huge sharp-clawed predatory Kurii, both space-farers from foreign star systems. The Priest-Kings rule Gor as disinterested custodians, leaving humans to their own affairs as long as they abide by certain restrictions on technology, the Kurii are an aggressive, invasive race with advanced technology who wish to colonize Gor and Earth. The power of the Priest-Kings is diminished after the Nest War described in the book. Early entries in the series were plot-driven space opera adventures, many sub-plots run the course of several books and tie back to the main plot in later books. Some of these plots begin in the first book, but most are underway in the first ten books, many historical cultures of Earth are reflected in the novels of Gor. Although the Greco-Roman is the most often noted of these, this is not the only society presented in some fashion on Gor, there are many similarities to real-life historical civilizations in various regions of Gor
30.
Pulp magazine
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Pulp magazines were inexpensive fiction magazines that were published from 1896 to the 1950s. The term pulp derives from the wood pulp paper on which the magazines were printed, in contrast. The typical pulp magazine had 128 pages, it was 7 inches wide by 10 inches high, the pulps gave rise to the term pulp fiction in reference to run-of-the-mill, low-quality literature. Pulps were the successors to the penny dreadfuls, dime novels, although many respected writers wrote for pulps, the magazines were best known for their lurid, exploitative, and sensational subject matter. The first pulp was Frank Munseys revamped Argosy Magazine of 1896, with about 135,000 words per issue, on paper with untrimmed edges. In six years Argosy went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million, Street & Smith, a dime novel and boys weekly publisher, was next on the market. Seeing Argosys success, they launched The Popular Magazine in 1903, due to differences in page layout however, the magazine had substantially less text than Argosy. Haggards Lost World genre influenced several key pulp writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs, Robert E. Howard, Talbot Mundy and Abraham Merritt. Street and Smiths next innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, with each focusing on a particular genre, such as detective stories, romance. At their peak of popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, the most successful pulps could sell up to one million copies per issue, in 1934, Frank Gruber says there were some 150 pulp titles. The most successful pulp magazines were Argosy, Adventure, Blue Book and Short Stories, although pulp magazines were primarily an American phenomenon, there were also a number of British pulp magazines published between the Edwardian era and World War II. Notable UK pulps included Pall Mall Magazine, The Novel Magazine, Cassells Magazine, The Story-Teller, The Sovereign Magazine, Hutchinsons Adventure-Story and Hutchinsons Mystery-Story. The German fantasy magazine Der Orchideengarten had a format to American pulp magazines, in that it was printed on rough pulp paper. During the Second World War paper shortages had a impact on pulp production, starting a steady rise in costs. Beginning with Ellery Queens Mystery Magazine in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size, in 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks. The pulp format declined from rising expenses, but even more due to the competition from comic books, television. In a more affluent post-war America, the price gap compared to slick magazines was far less significant, in the 1950s, mens adventure magazines began to replace the pulp. The format is still in use for some lengthy serials, like the German science fiction weekly Perry Rhodan, many titles of course survived only briefly
31.
Sherlock Holmes
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Sherlock Holmes is a fictional private detective created by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian periods, though not the first fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes is arguably the most well-known, with Guinness World Records listing him as the most portrayed movie character in history. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype for many that were created later, Conan Doyle once wrote, Each is a root from which a whole literature has developed. Where was the story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it. Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing conclusions from minute observations. However, he wrote to Doyle, You are yourself Sherlock Holmes. Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is cited as an inspiration for Holmes. Littlejohn, who was also Police Surgeon and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, One is thought to be Francis Tanky Smith, a policeman and master of disguise who went on to become Leicesters first private detective. Another might be Maximilien Heller, by French author Henry Cauvain and it is not known if Conan Doyle read Maximilien Heller, but in this 1871 novel, Henry Cauvain imagined a depressed, anti-social, polymath, cat-loving, and opium-smoking Paris-based detective. Details about Sherlock Holmess life, except for the adventures in the books, are scarce in Conan Doyles original stories, nevertheless, mentions of his early life and extended family paint a loose biographical picture of the detective. An estimate of Holmess age in His Last Bow places his year of birth at 1854 and his parents are not mentioned in the stories, although Holmes mentions that his ancestors were country squires. In The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter, he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph, Carle. Mycroft has a civil service position as a kind of human database for all aspects of government policy. He lacks Sherlocks interest in investigation, however, preferring to spend his time at the Diogenes Club. Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate, his earliest cases, the two take lodgings at 221B Baker Street, London, an apartment at the upper end of the street, up seventeen steps. Holmes worked as a detective for twenty-three years, with physician John Watson assisting him for seventeen and they were roommates before Watsons 1887 marriage and again after his wifes death. Their residence is maintained by their landlady, Mrs. Hudson, most of the stories are frame narratives, written from Watsons point of view as summaries of the detectives most interesting cases
32.
Hard science fiction
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Hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific accuracy. The term was first used in print in 1957 by P. Schuyler Miller in a review of John W. Campbell, the complementary term soft science fiction, formed by analogy to hard science fiction, first appeared in the late 1970s. The term is formed by analogy to the distinction between the hard and soft sciences. The heart of the hard SF designation is the relationship of the content and attitude to the rest of the narrative. Later discoveries do not necessarily invalidate the label of hard SF, as evidenced by P. Schuyler Miller, there is a degree of flexibility in how far from real science a story can stray before it leaves the realm of hard SF. Readers of hard SF often try to find inaccuracies in stories, the same book famously featured a devastating inaccuracy, the eponymous Ringworld is not a stable orbit and would crash into the sun without active stabilization. Niven fixed these errors in his sequel The Ringworld Engineers, films set in outer space which aspire to the hard SF label try to minimize the artistic liberties taken for the sake of practicality of effect. Factors include, How the film accounts for weightlessness in space, how the film depicts sound despite the vacuum of space. Whether telecommunications are instant or are limited by the speed of light, cosmic Engineers, A Study of Hard Science Fiction. Hard Science Fiction Exclusive Interviews Kheper Realism scale Science Fiction Stories with Good Astronomy & Physics, the Ten Best Hard Science Fiction Books of all Time, selected by the editors of MITs Technology Review,2011 Low-Level Science fiction, Sci-fi with hard science and a literary slant
33.
Pseudonym
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A pseudonym or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name. Historically, they have taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms. Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones, actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds. A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, the term is derived from the Greek ψευδώνυμον, literally false name, from ψεῦδος, lie, falsehood and ὄνομα, name. A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the name of another person and this may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a front name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship, sometimes people change their name in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name, in many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a persons new legal name. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam, likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland and he adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations to hide their identity, a pen name, or nom de plume, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, the Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books, anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell, emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot, Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used pen names. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter ODonnell and Christopher Wood. A pen name may be used if a real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, in some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name
34.
Jesus
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In Christology, the Person of Christ refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they co-exist within one person. There is no discussion in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the days of Christianity theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures. In the period following the Apostolic Age, specific beliefs such as Arianism and Docetism were criticized. On the other end of the spectrum, Docetism argued that Jesus physical body was an illusion, docetic teachings were attacked by St. Ignatius of Antioch and were eventually abandoned by proto-orthodox Christians. However, after the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos, historically in the Alexandrian school of christology, Jesus Christ is the eternal Logos paradoxically humanized in history, a divine Person who became enfleshed, uniting himself to the human nature. The views of these schools can be summarized as follows, Alexandria, Antioch, Logos assumes a specific human being The First Council of Ephesus in 431 debated a number of views regarding the Person of Christ. At the same gathering the council debated the doctrines of monophysitism or miaphysitism. The council rejected Nestorianism and adopted the term hypostatic union, referring to divine, the language used in the 431 declaration was further refined at the 451 Council of Chalcedon. However, the Chalcedon creed was not accepted by all Christians, because Saint Augustine died in 430 he did not participate in the Council of Ephesus in 431 or Chalcedon in 451, but his ideas had some impact on both councils. On the other hand, the major theological figure of the Middle Ages. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. John Calvin maintained that there was no element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the Work of Christ in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ, the study of the Person of Christ continued into the 20th century, with modern theologians such as Karl Rahner and Hans von Balthasar. Balthasar argued that the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the absorption of human attributes, thus in his view the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine
35.
Nebula Award
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The Nebula Awards annually recognize the best works of science fiction or fantasy published in the United States. The awards are organized and awarded by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America and they were first given in 1966 at a ceremony created for the awards, and are given in four categories for different lengths of literary works. A fifth category for film and television episode scripts was given 1974–78, the rules governing the Nebula Awards have changed several times during the awards history, most recently in 2010. SFWA numbers the awards by the prior to the year the award is given in. For lists of winners and nominees for each Nebula category, see the list of categories below, the Nebula Awards are given annually by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America for the best science fiction or fantasy fiction published during the previous year. To be eligible for consideration works must be published in English in the United States, works published in English elsewhere in the world are also eligible provided they are released on either a website or in an electronic edition. The awards are not limited to American citizens or members of SFWA, works translated into English are also eligible. There are no rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy. The winner receives a trophy but no prize, the trophy is a transparent block with an embedded glitter spiral nebula. The trophy itself was designed for the first awards by J. A. Lawrence, based on a sketch by Kate Wilhelm, Nebula Award nominees and winners are chosen by members of the SFWA. Additional nominees are possible in the case of ties, members then vote on the ballot throughout March, and the final results are presented at the Nebula Awards ceremony in May. Authors are not permitted to nominate their own works, though they can decline nominations, ties in the final vote are broken, if possible, by the number of nominations the works received. The first Nebulas were given in 1966, for works published in 1965, the idea for such an award, funded by the sales of anthologies collecting the winning works, was proposed by SFWA secretary-treasurer Lloyd Biggle, Jr. in 1965. The idea was based on the Edgar Awards, presented by the Mystery Writers of America, the initial ceremony consisted of four literary awards, for Novels, Novellas, Novelettes, and Short Stories, which have been presented every year since. Prior to 2009, the Nebula Awards employed a rolling eligibility system, each work was eligible to qualify for the ballot for one year following its date of publication. As a consequence of rolling eligibility, there was the possibility for works to be nominated in the year after their publication. Works were added to a preliminary list for the if they had ten or more nominations. Authors were also allowed to use the mass-market paperback publication of their books as the beginning of their nomination period, beginning with the 2010 awards, the rolling eligibility system and paperback publication exemption were replaced with the current rules
